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Rape in Islamic Law

2022-02-04T13:36:32Z

Ngrewal: /* Safiyah bint Huayy */ spelling

{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}Rape, known in [[Islamic law]] as ''zina bil-ikrah'' or ''zina bil-jabr'' (literally "[[Zina|fornication]] by force"), is generally defined by Muslim jurists as forced intercourse by a man with a [[Islam and Women|woman]] who is not his wife or [[Slavery|slave]] and without her consent. The consent of a slave for sex, for withdrawal before ejaculation ([[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Al-'Azl|azl]]) or to marry her off to someone else was not considered necessary, historically.<ref name="Ali">{{Cite web|first=Kecia |last=Ali | publication-date=January 20, 2017 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/concubinage-and-consent/F8E807073C33F403A91C1ACA0CFA47FD | title=Concubinage and Consent|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> As with enslaved females, according to Islamic law, married women are required to oblige their husbands sexual advances - raping one's slave or wife is permissible.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Muh Endriyo |last=Susila | year= 2013 |url=https://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/jmh/article/download/271/234| title=Islamic Perspective on Marital Rape |issue=2|volume=20|publisher=Jurnal Media Hukum, p.328}}</ref> The concept of "rape" is thus deemed to be equally non-existent in the contexts of both marriage and slavery.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Asifa |last=Quraishi-Landesi |publication-date=15 April 2016 |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QfkFDAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y | title=Feminism, Law, and Religion|page=178|publisher=Routledge|ISBN=978-1-317-13579-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Hina |last=Azam |publication-date=26 June 2015 |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fhy_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure|page=69|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN=978-1-107-09424-6}}</ref><ref name="Ali" />

A small number of hadiths are cited to support the Islamic punishments for rape. These narrations relate to the rape of free women and of female slaves who are not owned by the perpetrator. However, the Qur'an, on numerous occasions, permits Muslim men to have sexual relations with their own female slaves (famously referred to as "what your right hand possesses"), often in conjunction with the commandment for men to keep otherwise chaste. In addition, there are narrations in which female captives were raped prior to being ransomed back to their tribe.

The male rapist may be punished with a [[w:hadd|hadd]] penalty - [[stoning]] (if he is [[Marriage|married]]) or lashings (if he is unmarried) - just as he would receive for ordinary [[Zina]] (fornication, or unlawful intercourse). There is no punishment for the rape victim if she is able to prove that she was raped. Four witnesses are required to prove that she was raped.<ref>{{Cite book|first=R. |last= Peters | year= 2012 | title=Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition= 2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|chapter=Zinā or Zināʾ}}</ref><ref>{{Quran|24|4}}</ref> Jurists disagree on whether the rapist must also pay a dowry as compensation to the victim. A controversial position of some modern jurists is that the hadd penalty for outlaws should apply to rapists (hadd ''Hirabah''), described in {{Quran|5|33}}. Others say that rape can be treated by the judge as an offence that receives Tazir (discretionary) punishment (as in Pakistan, for example). These approaches avoid the impractical four witnesses requirement for applying a zina hadd penalty in absence of a confession from a rapist. In some other modern courts a woman risks being accused of zina if she cannot prove to this standard that she has been raped and is [[Stoning in Islamic Law|stoned to death]]<ref>Dr Azman Mohd Noor, [http://irep.iium.edu.my/16877/1/PUNISHMENT_FOR_RAPE_IN_ISLAMIC_LAW.pdf Punishment for rape in Islamic Law], Malayan Law Journal Articles [2009] 5 MLJ cxiv</ref> and the rapists go unpunished.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1016271/a-license-to-rape|title=A license to rape|author=Murtaza Haider|publication-date=June 5, 2003|newspaper=Dawn}}</ref>

Kecia Ali, Associate professor of religion, Boston University (a Muslim convert) says regarding sex with slaves: "For premodern Muslim jurists, as well as for those marginal figures who believe that the permission [for slavery] still holds, the category “rape” doesn’t apply: ownership makes sex lawful; consent is irrelevant."<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kecia-ali/islam-sex-slavery_b_8004824.html|title=The Truth About Islam and Sex Slavery History Is More Complicated Than You Think|author=Kecia Ali|publication-date=August 19th, 2016|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6yjfMCtwF|newspaper=Huffington Post}}</ref> Dr. Jonathan Brown, Associate Professor and Chair of Islamic Civilization at Georgetown University (also a Muslim convert) has made similar comments.<ref>"In the case of a slave-concubine, consent was irrelevant because of the master's ownership of the woman in question" Brown, J.A.C. "Slavery & Islam", Chapter 7, London: Oneworld Publications, 2019</ref><ref>"'slave rape' is a tough term to decipher from a Shariah perspective. A male owner of a female slave has the right to sexual access to her. Though he could not physically harm her without potentially being held legally accountable if she complained, her 'consent' would be meaningless since she is his slave." [https://np.reddit.com/r/islam/comments/3h1abm/this_is_dr_jonathan_brown_professor_at_georgetown/cu3dkhd/ Comment by Dr. Jonathan AC Brown on his Reddit AMA session], 2016 [http://www.webcitation.org/6yjfiW2ch Archive]</ref>

==Rape in the Qur'an==

There is no equivalent term for ‘[[rape]]’ in the [[Qur'an]]. And while chastity is encouraged as a virtue, it is frequently commanded alongside the recurring exception "except from their wives or those their right hands possess" (see [[Rape in Islamic Law#Verses 23:1-6|Qur'an 23:1-6]]), encouraging men to pursue their sexual ends with those legal to them (their wives and slaves). There is no verse in the Qur'an which explicitly discourages ''forced'' sex.

[[Surah]] 4 is one of the surahs which discusses which women are lawful and forbidden to Muslim men. While the relevant verses in this surah, like much of the substantive content of the Qur'an, can border on the unintelligible in the absence of considerable context, the authoritative [[Tafsir]]s (Qur'an exegeses) and [[Sahih]] (authentic) [[Hadith]]s ([[Muhammad|prophetic]] narrations) associated with these verses have together worked to standardize the Islamic interpretive and legal tradition to some extent. Although the contents of the Qur'an are deemed theologically prior to the hadiths and especially the manmade tafsirs, independent and especially novel interpretations of the Qur'an that flaunt hadith and tafsir tradition are not accepted, particularly when such an interpretation results in a divergent meaning.

===Qur'an 4:24 - rape of slaves and captives who were previously married===

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|4|23|24}}|Prohibited to you (For marriage) are:- Your mothers, daughters, sisters; father's sisters, Mother's sisters; brother's daughters, sister's daughters; foster-mothers (Who gave you suck), foster-sisters; your wives' mothers; your step-daughters under your guardianship, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in,- no prohibition if ye have not gone in;- (Those who have been) wives of your sons proceeding from your loins; and two sisters in wedlock at one and the same time, except for what is past; for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful;-'''Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess''': Thus hath Allah ordained (Prohibitions) against you: Except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property,- desiring chastity, not lust, seeing that ye derive benefit from them, give them their dowers (at least) as prescribed; but if, after a dower is prescribed, agree Mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, and Allah is All-knowing, All-wise.}}

This verse indicates that Muslims are permitted to marry those whom their right hands possess (female [[Slavery|slaves]]) who already have husbands, so long as the dower is paid. Other verses show that slave owners did not even have to marry their slaves in order to have intercourse with them (See the section below [[Rape_in_Islamic_Law#Freedom_and_marriage_as_a_universal_requirement| Freedom and marriage as a universal requirement]]).

Sahih hadiths in Muslim and Abu Dawud detail the nature of the permission granted by this verse: some of Muhammad's fighters were reluctant to have sexual contact with female captives who were already married to the [[Kafir (Infidel)|non-Muslim]] men of the defeated party.

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2155|darussalam}}|Abu Sa’id Al Khudri said “The Apostle of Allah(ﷺ) sent a military expedition to Awtas on the occasion of the battle of Hunain. They met their enemy and fought with them. They defeated them and took them captives. '''Some of the Companions of Apostle of Allah (ﷺ) were reluctant to have relations with the female captives because of their pagan husbands.''' So, Allah the exalted sent down the Qur’anic verse “And all married women (are forbidden) unto you save those (captives) whom your right hand posses.” This is to say that they are lawful for them when they complete their waiting period.}}The hadith in Sahih Muslim is found in a chapter dedicated to the topic; the chapter is entitled "Chapter: It is permissible to have intercourse with a female captive after it is established that she is not pregnant, and if she has a husband, then her marriage is annulled when she is captured".<ref>{{Citation|chapter=(9) Chapter: It is permissible to have intercourse with a female captive after it is established that she is not pregnant, and if she has a husband, then her marriage is annulled when she is captured|title=Sahih Muslim (Book of Suckling)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/17}}

See the three hadiths it contains: {{Muslim|8|3432|}}, {{Muslim|8|3433|}}, and {{Muslim|8|3434|}}</ref>{{Quote|{{Muslim|8|3432}}|Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah her pleased with him) reported that at the Battle of Hanain Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger (may peace te upon him) seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:

'''"And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (iv. 24)"''' (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda [waiting] period came to an end).}}Ibn Kathir, the most prominent of all Qur'an interpreters, had this to say in regards to verse 4:24:

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/4/24 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 4:24]|2=The Ayah means 'also [forbidden are] women already married, except those whom your right hands possess'. You are prohibited from marrying women who are already married, except those whom your right hands possess, except those whom you acquire through war, for you are allowed such women after making sure they are not pregnant [that is, upon the completion of the "iddah" waiting period]. Imam Ahmad recorded that Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri said, "We captured some women from the area of Awtas who were already married, and we disliked having sexual relations with them because they already had husbands. So, we asked the Prophet about this matter, and this Ayah (verse) was revealed, 'Also (forbidden are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess'. Accordingly, we had sexual relations with these women. [literally: 'as a result of these verses, their (Infidels') wives have become lawful for us']" This is the wording collected by At-Tirmidhi An-Nasa'i, Ibn Jarir and Muslim in his Sahih.}}

Similarly in Tafsir al-Jalalayn (Qur'an interpretation by two Jalals namely: Jalaluddin Mahalli and Jalaluddin Suyuti, both authorities):

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/4/24 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 4:24]|2=And, forbidden to you are, wedded women, those with spouses, that you should marry them before they have left their spouses, be they Muslim free women or not; save what your right hands own, of captured [slave] girls, whom you may have sexual intercourse with, even if they should have spouses among the enemy camp, but only after they have been absolved of the possibility of pregnancy [after the completion of one menstrual cycle]; this is what God has prescribed for you.}}

Some early Muslim scholars held that slave marriages, whether between slaves or between a slavewoman and her master, are disolved when ownership is transferred because two men cannot have licit access to the same woman. Later, a concensus emerged that the marriage and licit sexual access remains between the slave woman and her husband on transfer of ownership unless he relinquishes it, whatever his status (for example, by offering him money to divorce her).<ref>Kecia Ali, "Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam", Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 2010, pp. 154-160</ref>

===Qur'an 23:1-6 & 70:29-30===

Several other verses in the Qur'an mention sexual relations with slaves as a category distinct from wives, making it clear that sexual relations with female slaves are permitted without marrying the slave first. For example, Surah 23 makes mention of successful Muslims and their characteristics:

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|1-6}}|Certainly will the believers have succeeded: They who are during their prayer humbly submissive And they who turn away from ill speech And they who are observant of zakah '''And they who guard their private parts Except from their wives or those their right hands possess''', for indeed, they will not be blamed}}

The instruction to "guard [one's] private parts" is the Qur'an's standard manner of commanding chastity. What one's "right hand possesses" is likewise the Qur'an's standard manner of referring to one's slaves. Successful believers are those who engage in sexual activities only with their wives and slaves.

The same idea recurs in surah 70:

{{Quote|{{Quran|70|29-30}}|'''And those who guard their private parts, Except from their wives or those their right hands possess''', for indeed, they are not to be blamed}}

==Rape in the hadiths==
Scenes of Muhammad's companions, and indeed Muhammad himself, engaging in sexual activity with slaves and captives are common throughout hadith literature. While the female perspective is largely absent, leaving the reader to speculate as to whether the female slave or captive would have been receptive to the advances of Muhammad and his companions, it is fair to assume that in at least some (if not most or indeed all) of these cases, the sexual activity occurred without the female's consent and thus qualified as rape. This is particularly clear in the examples that follow where Muhammad's companions initiate sexual contact with the captive women shortly after having slayed their sons, husbands, fathers, and brothers. At the very least, it can be said that in no such case does Muhammad intervene in and that in all such cases he actively permits what, by all appearances, is an instance of his companion's raping a captive or slave. These are originally free [[Kafir (Infidel)|non-Muslims]] who are captured in battle.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/508/1/uk_bl_ethos_443314.pdf|title=The legal and social status of women in the Hadith literature (PDF)|author=Salma Saad|page=242|year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MC0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|title=Islamic Jurisprudence on the Regulation of Armed Conflict: Text and Context|author=Nesrine Badawi (1 October 2019). p.17. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-41062-6}}</ref> The entire population of a conquered territory can be enslaved, thus providing women who are otherwise rare on the battlefield. This paves the path for concubinage.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p. 27. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> The Muslim military commander is allowed to choose between unconditionally releasing, ransoming or enslaving war captives.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0SyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5|title=The Art of Jihad: Realism in Islamic Political Thought|author=Malik Mufti (1 October 2019)|publisher=SUNY Press. p.5. ISBN 978-1-4384-7638-4}}</ref> If a person converted to Islam after being enslaved, their emancipation would be considered a pious act but not obligatory.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p. 22. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> Islamic law does not allow enslavement of free-born Muslims.<ref>{{Citation|url=|title=Violence in Islamic Thought from the Qur'an to the Mongols|author=Robert Gleave (14 April 2015)|publisher=p.142. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-9424-2}}</ref>

Islamic jurists permitted slave raiding and kidnapping of non-Muslims from [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar al Harb]].<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=27–28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> South Asian scholars ruled that jihad was not needed to seize non-Muslims nor was it necessary to invite them to Islam before seizing them. Raiders were free to take and enslave any non-Muslim.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> However, Islamic jurists held that non-Muslims who lived in areas which had formal pacts with Muslims were to be protected from enslavement.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=27-28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref>

Non-Muslim residents of an Islamic state who fail to pay [[Jizyah|jizya]] or break their contract with the state can also be enslaved.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyZ-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|title=Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise 1800-1909|author=Y. Erdem (20 November 1996)|publisher=p=26. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-37297-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3VoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Muslim and Christian Contact in the Middle Ages: A Reader|author=Jarbel Rodriguez (2015)|publisher=p=2. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0066-9}}</ref>

===Muhammad has intercourse with his slave girl Maria bint Sham'un===
Muhammad had a child with a slave girl of his known as [[w:Maria_al-Qibtiyya|Maria the Copt]], who was a gift to him from the Governor of Alexandria. In a hadith from Sahih Muslim, a phrase translated as "slave girl" is, in the orignal Arabic, umm walad (أُمِّ وَلَدِ) (literally: "mother of the child") and is the title given to a slave concubine who bore her master a child.

{{Quote|{{Muslim|37|6676}}|Anas reported that '''a person was charged with fornication with the slavegirl of Allah's Messenger''' (ﷺ). Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said to 'Ali:

Go and strike his neck. 'Ali came to him and he found him in a well making his body cool. 'Ali said to him: Come out, and as he took hold of his hand and brought him out, he found that his sexual organ had been cut. Hadrat 'Ali refrained from striking his neck. He came to Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) and said: Allah's Messenger, he has not even the sexual organ with him.}}

The following hadith is graded Sahih by Dar-us-Salam:

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|36|3411}}|It was narrated from Anas, that '''the Messenger of Allah had a female slave with whom he had intercourse''', but 'Aishah and Hafsah would not leave him alone until he said that she was forbidden for him. Then Allah, the Mighty and Sublime, revealed:

"O Prophet! Why do you forbid (for yourself) that which Allah has allowed to you.' until the end of the Verse.}}

Tafsir al-Jalalayn says of the verse referred to in this hadith:

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/66/1 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 66:1]|2=O Prophet! Why do you prohibit what '''God has made lawful for you''' in terms of '''your Coptic handmaiden Māriya''' — when he lay with her in the house of Hafsa who had been away but who upon returning and finding out became upset by the fact that this had taken place in her own house and on her own bed — by saying ‘She is unlawful for me!’ seeking by making her unlawful for you to please your wives? And God is Forgiving Merciful having forgiven you this prohibition.}}

An alternate, or additional circumstance for this verse has also been narrated in multiple sahih hadiths (in yet another version {{Muslim|9|3497}}, Muhammad ate honey at Hafsa's house instead of Zainab's).

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|36|3410}}|'Aishah said that '''the Messenger of Allah used to stay with Zainab bint Jahsh and drink honey at her house'''. Hafsah and I agreed that if the Prophet entered upon either of us, she would say: "'''I perceive the smell of Maghafir (a nasty-smelling gum) on you'''; have you eaten Maghafir?" He came in to one of them, and she said that to him. He said: "'''No, rather I drank honey at the house of Zainab bint Jahsh''', but I will never do it again." Then the following was revealed: 'O Prophet! Why do you forbid (for yourself) that which Allah has allowed to you.' 'If you two turn in repentance to Allah, (it will be better for you)' about 'Aishah and Hafsah, 'And (remember) when the Prophet disclosed a matter in confidence to one of his wives' refers to him saying: "No, rather I drank honey."}}

"Honey" was also a sexual euphemism and an explicit example of its usage in this sense is found in a hadith in Abu Dawud:{{Quote|{{Abudawud|12|2302|}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) was asked about a man who divorced his wife three times, and she married another who entered upon her, but divorced her before having intercourse with her, whether she was lawful for the former husband. She said: The Prophet (ﷺ) replied: She is not lawful for the first (husband) until '''she tastes the honey of the other husband and he tastes her honey'''. }}

Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson have noted that "Modern scholars have been inclined to regard the more scandalous story involving the slave girl as the earlier one given that it appears in the earliest sources, and despite the fact that the honey story has a superior pedigree in the eyes of the ḥadīth scholars. These modern scholars reason that, if the story of Ḥafṣah’s jealousy after seeing the Prophet with his slave-girl predates the honey story, then exegetes likely contrived the honey narrative at a later date in order to provide an alternative to the unflattering portrayal of the Prophet and his wives in the former story. Furthermore, while the honey story may provide a somewhat plausible explanation for Q 66:1–2, its explanatory
force greatly diminishes when applied to the remainder of the pericope. The gravity of Q 66:5–6, which threatens divorce as a penalty for plotting against the Prophet, makes a poor match for the trifles of the honey story."<ref>Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson (2016) "Did Ḥafṣah edit the Qurʾān? A response with notes on the codices of the Prophet's wives" Journal of the Interational Quranic Studies Association 1(2016) pp.93-125 (p.102)</ref>

===Ali rapes an underage ward of the state===

Another relevant hadith is one which concerns an incident which led to the famous event of Ghadir Khumm, which is much disputed between Sunnis and Shias. Both Sunni and Shia sources agree that Muhammad received complaints about 'Ali taking a slave-girl from the ''Khums'' (the fifth of all booty allotted for the state<ref>{{Quran|8|41}}</ref>) to which those complaining felt that no private party was entitled.

The Arabic of the Sunni hadith below mentions 'Ali taking a Ghusl bath (which is mandatory after sexual contact or ejaculation), implying sexual activity. Later, at a place called Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad tried to pacify those who were upset with 'Ali by declaring Ali to be his ''Mawla''. ''Mawla'' is an honorific meaning something between "follower", "ally", and "leader", which the Shia interpret to mean "successor of Muhammad". Thus, in some sense, Ali's having raped an underage captive becomes the immediate cause of what the Shi'a insist was the the announcement of Ali's succession. The emergent Sunni polemic here casts some doubt on the historical reliability of the hadith, yet, as a hadith included in Sahih Bukhari, it more than meets the Sunni requirements for authenticity.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|59|637}}|Narrated Buraida:

The Prophet (ﷺ) sent `Ali to Khalid to bring the Khumus (of the booty) and I hated `Ali, and '''`Ali had taken a bath (after a sexual act with a slave-girl from the Khumus)'''. I said to Khalid, "Don't you see this (i.e. `Ali)?" When we reached the Prophet (ﷺ) I mentioned that to him. He said, "O Buraida! Do you hate `Ali?" I said, "Yes." He said, "Do you hate him, for he deserves more than that from the Khumus."}}Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 1449), one of the most famous Hadith scholars of all time, points out in his seminal ''Fath al-Bari'' (the still-standard commentary on Sahih Bukhari) what several scholars before him noted: that in accounts of this event, Ali does not observe the required ''iddah'' (waiting) period to determine whether or not the girl was pregnant. Al-Asqalani quotes al-Khattabi who summarizes the possibilities: "she was either a virgin [strongly implying a young age in a culture where women married young], had not yet reached maturity, or Ali's ''[[ijtihad]]'' [independent reasoning] led him to not adhere to the waiting period in her case."<ref>{{Quote||لِاحْتِمَالِ أَنْ تَكُونَ عَذْرَاءَ أَوْ دُونَ الْبُلُوغِ أَوْ أَدَّاهُ اجْتِهَادُهُ أَنْ لَا اسْتِبْرَاءَ فِيهَا}}

{{Citation|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AC_9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A/YzZJCwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%D9%84%D9%90%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%85%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%90%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%92%20%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%83%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8E%20%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%B0%D9%92%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%8E%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%92%20%D8%AF%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8E%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%92%D8%A8%D9%8F%D9%84%D9%8F%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%90%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%92%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8F%20%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%87%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8F%D9%87%D9%8F%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%92%20%D9%84%D9%8E%D8%A7%20%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%A8%D9%92%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%8E%20%D9%81%D9%90%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%8E|title=Fath al-Bari|publisher=Dar Taybah|page=487|volume=9|author=Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani}}</ref>

===Muhammad's companions rape captives intended for ransom===

On one occasion, presented with newly captured women, Muhammad's companions were only concerned about whether coitus interruptus ('azl) was permissible.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|59|459}}|Narrated Ibn Muhairiz: I entered the Mosque and saw Abu Said Al-Khudri and sat beside him and asked him about Al-Azl (i.e. coitus interruptus). Abu Said said, "We went out with Allah's Apostle for the Ghazwa of Banu Al-Mustaliq and we received captives from among the Arab captives and we desired women and celibacy became hard on us and we loved to do coitus interruptus. So when we intended to do coitus interruptus, we said, 'How can we do coitus interruptus before asking Allah's Apostle who is present among us?" We asked (him) about it and he said, 'It is better for you not to do so, for if any soul (till the Day of Resurrection) is predestined to exist, it will exist."}}

In another version of the same hadith in Sahih Muslim (also found in Malik's Muwatta and Abu Dawud), it is said that the Muslims' goal was to ransom the women back to members of the defeated party for monetary gain. It is explained that as a result of not wanting to get the women pregnant prior to ransoming them, Muhammad's companions inquired as to whether coitus interruptus was permissible.

{{Quote|{{Muslim|8|3371}}; see also {{Muwatta|29||95}} and {{Abudawud||2167|Hasan}}|Abu Sirma said to Abu Sa'id al Khadri (Allah he pleased with him):

O Abu Sa'id, did you hear Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) mentioning al-'azl? He said: Yes, and added: We went out with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) on the expedition to the Bi'l-Mustaliq and took captive some excellent Arab women; and we desired them, for we were suffering from the absence of our wives, (but at the same time) '''we also desired ransom for them.''' So we decided to have sexual intercourse with them but by observing 'azl (Withdrawing the male sexual organ before emission of semen to avoid-conception). But we said: We are doing an act whereas Allah's Messenger is amongst us; why not ask him? So we asked Allah's Messenger (ﷺ), and he said: It does not matter if you do not do it, for every soul that is to be born up to the Day of Resurrection will be born.}}

Yet another version of the same story in [[Sahih Bukhari]] is even clearer about Muhammad's companions' sole concern being the potential detriment to the price of the captives if they were impregnated.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|3|34|432}}|Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

that while he was sitting with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) he said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! We get female captives as our share of booty, '''and we are interested in their prices''', what is your opinion about coitus interruptus?" The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Do you really do that? It is better for you not to do it. No soul that which Allah has destined to exist, but will surely come into existence.}}

===Umar tells a man to beat his wife for preventing intercourse with his slave girl===

Abdullah ibn Umar (the son of the 2nd Caliph, [[Umar_ibn_al-Khattab|Umar ibn al-Khattab]]) said that his father ordered a man to have intercourse with a slave girl after his wife had tried to make this haram for him by means of [[Adult_Suckling|adult suckling]].

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|30||13}}|Yahya related to me from Malik that Abdullah ibn Dinar said, "A man came to Abdullah ibn Umar when I waswith him at the place where judgments were given and asked him about the suckling of an older person. Abdullah ibn Umar replied, 'A man came to Umar ibn al-Khattab and said, 'I have a slave-girl and I used to have intercourse with her. My wife went to her and suckled her. When I went to the girl, my wife told me to watch out, because she had suckled her!' Umar told him to beat his wife and to go to his slave-girl because kinship by suckling was only by the suckling of the young.' "}}

===Ghusl (full body wash) not required between intercourse with slave girls===

Imam Malik was asked about intercourse with multiple slave girls.

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|2||90}}|Yahya related to me from Malik from Nafi that the slave girls of Abdullah ibn Umar used to wash his feet and bring him a mat of palm leaves while they were menstruating. Malik was asked whether a man who had women and slavegirlscould have intercourse with all of them before he did ghusl. He said, "There is no harm in a man having intercourse with two of his slave girls before he does ghusl. It is disapproved of, however, to go to a freewoman on another's day. There is no harm in making love first to one slave girl and then to another when one is junub." Malik was asked about a man who was junub and water was put down for him to do ghusl with.Then he forgot and put his finger into it to find out whether it was hot or cold. Malik said, "If no filth has soiled his fingers, I do not consider that that makes the water impure."}}

===Explicit distinction between zina and legal intercourse===

Since zina (fornication or adultery) only applies to intercourse with other than one's wives or female slaves, it is only in these contexts that rape is considered possible. The following narration graded hasan (good) by al-Albani in Abu Dawud explicitly makes this distinction by recognizing offspring with one's wives or slaves as legitimate, and included in inheritance, and by labeling the offspring with other women as illegitimate, and removed from inheritance.

{{Quote|{{Abudawud|12|2258}}| 'Amr b. Shu'aib on his father's authority said that his grandfather reported:
The Prophet (ﷺ) decided regarding one who was treated as a member of a family after the death of his father, to whom he was attributed when the heirs said he was one of them, '''that if he was the child of a slave-woman whom the father owned when he had intercourse with her''', he was included among those who sought his inclusion, but received none of the inheritance which was previously divided; he, however, received his portion of the inheritance which had not already been divided; but if the father to whom he was attributed had disowned him, he was not joined to the heirs.

'''If he was a child of a slave-woman whom the father did not possess or of a free woman with whom he had illicit intercourse''', he was not joined to the heirs and did not inherit even if the one to whom he was attributed is the one who claimed paternity, '''since he was a child of fornication whether his mother was free or a slave.''' }}

==Muhammad's other female captives==
On at least two occasions, according to accounts in sahih hadiths, Muhammad captured and cohabited with war captives [[Safiyah]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammads Wives and Concubines#Juwairiya|Juwairiyah]], presumably against their will (having just led the slaughter of their families and tribes).

Surah 33 twice gives Muhammad explicit and direct permission to have sexual contact with his existing [[Muhammad's Marriages|wives]] (having married more than a dozen times, he is prohibited here from marrying further) and with any slaves he may possess now or may acquire in the future.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|50|52}}|O Prophet! Lo! We have made lawful unto thee thy wives unto whom thou hast paid their dowries, '''and those whom thy right hand possesseth of those whom Allah hath given thee''' as spoils of war, and the daughters of thine uncle on the father's side and the daughters of thine aunts on the father's side, and the daughters of thine uncle on the mother's side and the daughters of thine aunts on the mother's side who emigrated with thee, and a believing woman if she give herself unto the Prophet and the Prophet desire to ask her in marriage - a privilege for thee only, not for the (rest of) believers - We are Aware of that which We enjoined upon them concerning their wives and those whom their right hands possess - that thou mayst be free from blame, for Allah is ever Forgiving, Merciful. Thou canst defer whom thou wilt of them and receive unto thee whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou desirest of those whom thou hast set aside (temporarily), it is no sin for thee (to receive her again); that is better; that they may be comforted and not grieve, and may all be pleased with what thou givest them. Allah knoweth what is in your hearts (O men), and Allah is ever Forgiving, Clement. It is not allowed thee to take (other) women henceforth, nor that thou shouldst change them for other wives even though their beauty pleased thee, '''save those whom thy right hand possesseth'''. And Allah is ever Watcher over all things.}}

===Safiyah bint Huayy===
{{Main|Safiyah}}
Safiyah the daughter of Huayy was the wife of a Jewish Rabbi named [[Kinana]]. when Muhammad conquered the Jewish village of Khaibar, he had the Rabbi tortured and then killed. According to an account in Sahih Bukhari, Muhammad then took captive the Rabbi's wife.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|8|367}}|Narrated 'Abdul 'Aziz: Anas said, 'When Allah's Apostle invaded Khaibar, we offered the Fajr prayer there early in the morning) when it was still dark. The Prophet rode and Abu Talha rode too and I was riding behind Abu Talha. The Prophet passed through the lane of Khaibar quickly and my knee was touching the thigh of the Prophet . He uncovered his thigh and I saw the whiteness of the thigh of the Prophet. When he entered the town, he said, 'Allahu Akbar! Khaibar is ruined. Whenever we approach near a (hostile) nation (to fight) then evil will be the morning of those who have been warned.' He repeated this thrice. The people came out for their jobs and some of them said, 'Muhammad (has come).' (Some of our companions added, "With his army.") We conquered Khaibar, took the captives, and the booty was collected. Dihya came and said, 'O Allah's Prophet! Give me a slave girl from the captives.' The Prophet said, 'Go and take any slave girl.' He took Safiya bint Huyai. A man came to the Prophet and said, 'O Allah's Apostles! You gave Safiya bint Huyai to Dihya and she is the chief mistress of the tribes of Quraiza and An-Nadir and she befits none but you.' So the Prophet said, 'Bring him along with her.' So Dihya came with her and when the Prophet saw her, he said to Dihya, 'Take any slave girl other than her from the captives.' Anas added: The Prophet then manumitted her and married her." Thabit asked Anas, "O Abu Hamza! What did the Prophet pay her (as Mahr)?" He said, "Her self was her Mahr for he manumitted her and then married her." Anas added, "While on the way, Um Sulaim dressed her for marriage (ceremony) and at night she sent her as a bride to the Prophet . So the Prophet was a bridegroom and he said, 'Whoever has anything (food) should bring it.' He spread out a leather sheet (for the food) and some brought dates and others cooking butter. (I think he (Anas) mentioned As-SawTq). So they prepared a dish of Hais (a kind of meal). And that was Walima (the marriage banquet) of Allah's Apostle ."}}

===Juwairiyah bint al-Harith===

A hadith from Sunan Abu Dawud explains how, following a surprise attack on the Banu Mustaliq, Muhammad took captive the "very beautiful" Juwairiyah, making Aisha jealous.

{{Quote|1=[http://www.searchtruth.com/book_display.php?book=29&translator=3&start=0&number=3920#3920 Abu Dawud 29:3920]|2=Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: Juwayriyyah, daughter of al-Harith ibn al-Mustaliq, fell to the lot of Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shammas, or to her cousin. She entered into an agreement to purchase her freedom. She was a very beautiful woman, most attractive to the eye. Aisha said: She then came to the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) asking him for the purchase of her freedom. When she was standing at the door, I looked at her with disapproval. I realised that the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) would look at her in the same way that I had looked. She said: Apostle of Allah, I am Juwayriyyah, daughter of al-Harith, and something has happened to me, which is not hidden from you. I have fallen to the lot of Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shammas, and I have entered into an agreement to purchase of my freedom. I have come to you to seek assistance for the purchase of my freedom. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) said: Are you inclined to that which is better? She asked: What is that, Apostle of Allah? He replied: I shall pay the price of your freedom on your behalf, and I shall marry you. She said: I shall do this. She (Aisha) said: The people then heard that the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) had married Juwayriyyah. They released the captives in their possession and set them free, and said: They are the relatives of the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) by marriage. We did not see any woman greater than Juwayriyyah who brought blessings to her people. One hundred families of Banu al-Mustaliq were set free on account of her.}}

A hadith in Sahih Bukhari confirms the same narrative.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|3|46|717}}|Narrated Ibn Aun: I wrote a letter to Nafi and Nafi wrote in reply to my letter that the Prophet had suddenly attacked Bani Mustaliq without warning while they were heedless and their cattle were being watered at the places of water. Their fighting men were killed and their women and children were taken as captives; the Prophet got Juwairiya on that day. Nafi said that Ibn 'Umar had told him the above narration and that Ibn 'Umar was in that army.}}

==Punishments for rape==
===Rape of a free woman===

Muhammad ordered the stoning of a confessed rapist who attacked a free woman to whom he was not married.

{{Quote|{{al Tirmidhi|15|3|15|1454}}; see also {{Muwatta|36||14}}|Narrated 'Alqamah bin Wa'il Al-Kindi: From his father: "A women went out during the time of the Prophet (ﷺ) to go to Salat, but she was caught by a man and he had relations with her, so she screamed and he left. Then a man came across her and '''she said: 'That man has done this and that to me'''', then she came across a group of Emigrants (Muhajirin) and she said: 'That man did this and that to me.' They went to get the man she thought had relations with her, and they brought him to her. She said: 'Yes, that's him.' So they brought him to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), and when he ordered that he be stoned, the man who had relations with her, said: ''''O Messenger of Allah, I am the one who had relations with her.'''' So he said to her: 'Go, for Allah has forgiven you.' Then he said some nice words to the man (who was brought). And '''he said to the man who had relations with her: 'Stone him (to death).'''' Then he said: 'He has repented a repentance that, if the inhabitants of Al-Madinah had repented with, it would have been accepted from them.'"}}

===Rape of another's slave===
If the individual raped is a slave owned by other than the rapist, reparations are due to the owner of the slave in the form of a replacement slave or the amount by which the raped slave's value has been depreciated as a result of the rape. Hina Azam writes that "sexual ursupation of a slave woman was a form of property damage that required financial compensation to her owner for a depreciation of the property's value....usually equal to the amount by which she was depreciated by the act (this being of particular relevance if she was previously a virgin)".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0075 |title=Rape |last=Azam |first=Hina |date= |website=Oxford Islamic Studies |publisher=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref>

Malik in his ''Muwatta'' confirms this punishment.

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|36||14}}|Malik related to me from Ibn Shihab that Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan gave a judgment that the rapist had to pay the raped woman her bride- price. Yahya said that he heard Malik say, "What is done in our community about the man who rapes a woman, virgin or non-virgin, if she is free, is that he must pay the bride-price of the like of her. If she is a slave, he must pay what he has diminished of her worth. The hadd-punishment in such cases is applied to the rapist, and there is no punishment applied to the raped woman. If the rapist is a slave, that is against his master unless he wishes to surrender him.}}

The authenticity of hadiths concerning the following incident in which Muhammad commands punishment by stoning for a man who has intercourse with his wife's slave are graded da'if (weak) by al-Albani, while Dar-us-Salam grade them hasan (good).

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai|26|4|26|3365}}; see also {{Abu Dawud|38|4445}}|It was narrated that Salamah bin Al-Muhabbaq said: "The Prophet passed judgment concerning a man who had intercourse with his wife's slave woman: 'If he forced her, then she is free, and he has to give her mistress a similar slave as a replacement; if she obeyed him in that, then she belongs to him, and he has to give her mistress a similar slave as a replacement.'"}}

In another, similar incident, the rapist of his wife's slave is to be punished by stoning.

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai|26|4|26|3362}}; see also {{Abu Dawud|38|4444}}|It was narrated from An-Nu'man bin Bashir that the Prophet said, concerning a man who had intercourse with his wife's slave woman: "If she let him do that, I will flog him with one hundred stripes , and if she did not let him, I will stone him (to death)."}}

==Limitations on rape==

===Avoiding severe physical injury===
Beyond the temporary requirement of waiting past the ''Iddah'' period or conversion of a slave, the only restriction on raping one's slaves or wives is that the victims not incur severe physical injury in the process. However, this derives from a generic prohibition against incurring severe physical injury upon anyone at any time, and men are authorized to [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|beat]] their wives and slaves as a form of physical discipline if they deny him sexual access or fail to obey him in some other mandatory capacity.

In practical terms, the relevance of the "do-no-harm" principle in this case is that a man should not penetrate his wives or slaves against their will if they are physically too small to withstand penetration (i.e. in the case of [[Child Marriage in Islamic Law|very young girls]]) or if they are seriously ill or injured to the point where penetration would inhibit their healing or magnify their injury. There is no consideration here for harm in the form of "mental anguish", and men are permitted to sexually utilize very young, ill, and/or injured wives and slaves against their will through means other than penetration (the example of "[[thighing]]" being one discussed explicitly by Islamic jurists) if such less egregious means will help avoid severe physical injury.

===Waiting until the completion of the ''Iddah'' or childbirth===

A hadith graded sahih by Dar-us-Salam in Abu Dawud describes the ''Iddah'' waiting period as the "one menstrual period" after acquisition of the slave wherein the new owner must abstain from sexual contact in order to ascertain whether or not the slave is pregnant, so as not to confuse paternity.

{{Quote|{{Abudawud||2152|hasan}}|Abu Sa’id Al Khudri traced to Prophet (ﷺ) the following statement regarding the captives taken at Atwas. There must be no intercourse with pregnant woman till she gives birth to her child or with the one who is not pregnant till she has had one menstrual period.}}

Another hadith graded sahih by Dar-us-Salam in Tirmidhi explains that if the slave is pregnant

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||3|19|1564}}|Narrated Umm Habibah bint 'Irbad bin Sariyah:

From her father who told her that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) prohibited intercourse with female prisoners, until they deliver what is in their wombs."}}

===Waiting until adult polytheist slaves convert, by force if necessary===

Although Muhammad's men seem to have had intercourse with captive polytheist women whom they had captured during the expedition to Awtas/Autas, most jurists later ruled that this was later forbidden by {{Quran|2|221}} (the verse only forbids marriage to polytheist women, but scholars inferred that this also applied to intercourse with slaves). Intercourse with Muslim, Christian, or Jewish slaves was not affected by this restriction.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/272452/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227215257/https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/272452/|title=Ruling on sexual intercourse with one's polytheistic slave-woman|date=November 14, 2014|publisher=Islamweb.net}}</ref>

Early scholars of fiqh devised a workaround for this restriction, including the allowance of raping younger captives who were polytheist:

{{Quote|{{citation| last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan| title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN=9780511497568|pages=107-108|date=August 2009|series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tolerance-and-coercion-in-islam/603974A9EFEDC7FBD00B38D0845AECAA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614220208/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tolerance-and-coercion-in-islam/603974A9EFEDC7FBD00B38D0845AECAA}}|According to a report included in the ''Jāmi‘'' of al-Khallāl (d. 311 A.H. / 923 A.D.), '''Ibn Hanbal maintained that

:'''if Zoroastrian and idolatrous women are taken prisoner, they are coerced into Islam; if they embrace it, sexual relations with them are permissible''' and they can (also) be used as maidservants. If they do not embrace Islam, they are used as maidservants but not for sexual relations (''wa idhā subhīna (sic) al-majūsiyyāt wa ‘abadat al awthān ujbirna 'alā al-Islām fa-in asl ama wutiʼna ma 'stukhdimna wa in lam yuslimna 'stukhdimna wa lam yūtaʼna'').

The contradiction inherent in this passage is evident: despite the unspecified coercive measures, some of the women in question refused conversion and, consequently, the masters could not take full advantage of their services. If the only way to embrace Islam is pronouncing the declaration of faith, the conversion of a defiant woman may not be possible: it is not always feasible to force someone to utter the shahāda. '''According to a tradition transmitted on the authority of Hasan al-Basri, the Muslims used various devices to attain their objective: they turned the Zorastrian slave-girl toward the Ka‘ba, ordered her to pronounce the shahāda and to perform ablution. Her master then engaged in sexual relations''' after she had one menstruating period while in his house. Others hold that the master must teach the slave-girl to pray, to purify herself and to shave her private parts before any intercourse. The participation of the girl in this procedure is minimal, and this wording may be interpreted us a considerable lowering of the conversion requirements so that the girl becomes eligible for sexual intercourse as expeditiously as possible. Among the early traditionists, only '''a few were willing to go beyond this and allow sexual relations with a Zoroastrian slave-girl without insisting on at least a semblance of conversion'''.

Shafi‘i's treatment of the issue is slightly different. Speaking of grown-up Zoroastrian or polytheist women taken into captivity, he maintains that no sexual relations with them are allowed before they embrace Islam without bringing up the question of converting them forcibly. If the female captives are minor but were taken captive with at least one of their parents, the ruling is the same. '''If, however, the girl was captured without her parents, or one of her parents embraced Islam, she is considered a Muslim and is coerced into embracing it''' (''nahkumu lahā bihukm al-Islām wa nujbiruhā ‘alayhi''). '''Once this happens, sexual relations with her are lawful.'''}}

==Modern perspectives==
While most Islamic scholars today are comfortable with at least the temporary abolition of slavery in light of the fact that Islamic scriptures universally praise the freeing of slaves as a meritorious act, few are comfortable with the idea of permanently and irreversibly amending divine law. As a result, the legal rulings relating to slaves and the technical permissibility of owning slaves under the proper circumstances (e.g. under the rule of a "legitimate [[Khilafah (Caliphate)|khilafah]]", or caliphate) persist, as exemplified in the following fatwa from the most popular Islamic [[Fatwas|fatwa]] in the world.{{Quote|1=

{{citation|url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/13737/what-is-the-ruling-on-intimacy-with-slave-women | archiveurl=https://archive.fo/16upP| chapter= Fatwa No. 13737: What is the ruling on intimacy with slave women?|publisher= Islam Q&A|date= March 18, 2004|editor=Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid}}|2=With regard to your question about it being permissible for a master to be intimate with his slave woman, the answer is that that is because Allaah has permitted it. }}Likewise, as with all rulings of the shariah, the basic rulings governing family relations are unchanging. It would be difficult even today to find a trusted Islamic authority that does not still, at some level, permit marital rape and give general license for [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|wife beating]] as a potential means by which to compel one's able but unwilling spouse into sexual activity, among other things.
{{Quote|{{citation|url= https://islamqa.info/en/answers/99756/his-wife-is-not-very-interested-in-intercourse-so-he-resorts-to-masturbation|chapter= Fatwa No. 99756: His wife is not very interested in intercourse so he resorts to masturbation| publisher= Islam Q&A|date= July 22, 2007|editor=Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204173121/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/99756/his-wife-is-not-very-interested-in-intercourse-so-he-resorts-to-masturbation}}|The wife is obliged to obey her husband if he calls her to his bed, and if she refuses then she is sinning, because of the report narrated by al-Bukhaari (3237) and Muslim (1436) from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him), that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “If a man calls his wife to his bed and she does not come to him, and he goes to sleep angry with her, the angels will curse her until morning.”}}

==Modern revisionary perspectives and criticisms thereof==

===Violations of the spoils-distribution system as rape===

====Quote from al-Shafi'i====
A quote from ''al-Umm'' of Imam al Shafi'i, the founder of the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence, is sometimes misrepresented<ref name=":0">{{Citation|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021758/https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/does_islam_permit_muslim_men_to_rape_their_slave_girls_|url=https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/does_islam_permit_muslim_men_to_rape_their_slave_girls_|author=Bassam Zawadi|publisher=Call to Monotheism|chapter=Does Islam Permit Muslim Men to Rape Their Slave Girls?}}</ref> as forbidding slave owners from raping their female slaves.

{{Quote|1={{citation|author=al-Shafi'i|title=al-Umm|volume=3|page=253}}|2="If a man acquires by force a slave-girl, then has sexual intercourse with her after he acquires her by force, and if he is not excused by ignorance, then the slave-girl will be taken from him, he is required to pay the fine, and he will receive the punishment for illegal sexual intercourse."}}

It is clear, however, that "acquires by force" here refers to the manner in which the man gained possession of the slave girl, not a description of the later sexual act. Indeed, this quote comes from the section entitled ghasb (property usurpation). According to Islamic law, a fifth of all war and raid spoils (referred to as the ''Khum -'' literally "fifth"), including captives who may be sold for funds, is to be allotted for public spending. Taking and raping a captive from this public allotment, as [[Rape in Islamic Law#Ali rapes an underage ward of the state|Ali is reported to have in one instance]], amounts to theft and zina (illegal intercourse). This, as well as taking and raping someone else's slave, is of course prohibited and punishable. Indeed, in the remainder of his many-volume legal work ''al-Umm'', al-Shafi'i painstakingly outlines the laws regarding the sexual obligations of one's wives and slaves, in no place suggesting that rape of the female is punishable in these contexts.

====Quote from Malik====
A quote from the ''Muwatta'' of Imam Malik, founder of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, is also sometimes misrepresented in this vein.<ref name=":0" /> As with the quote taken from ''al-Umm'', this quote from the ''Muwatta'' is likewise only referring to stolen slaves and has no bearing on one's own slaves and wives. Fines for raping slave girls were always paid to the master.<ref>Hina Azam, "Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure" New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015, p. 104</ref> And, just like Imam Shafi'i, Malik details the legal practices of slavery in several other places throughout the same text.

{{Quote|1={{Muwatta|36||14}}|2=Malik related to me from Ibn Shihab that Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan gave a judgment that the rapist had to pay the raped woman her bride- price. Yahya said that he heard Malik say, "What is done in our community about the man who rapes a woman, virgin or non-virgin, if she is free, is that he must pay the bride-price of the like of her. If she is a slave, he must pay what he has diminished of her worth. The hadd-punishment in such cases is applied to the rapist, and there is no punishment applied to the raped woman. If the rapist is a slave, that is against his master unless he wishes to surrender him."}}

====Hadith regarding the caliph Umar====

A hadith in the Sunan of al-Bayhaqi describes the Caliph Umar punishing Dhiraar for raping a captive woman and is sometimes presented as evidence that one is not permitted to have sexual intercourse with slaves.<ref name=":0" />

{{Quote|1={{citation|title=Sunan al-Bayhaqi|volume=2|author=al-Bayhaqi|page=263|chapter=Hadith 18685}}|2=

Abu al-Hussain bin al-Fadhl al-Qatan narrated from Abdullah bin Jaffar bin Darestweh from Yaqub bin Sufyan from al-Hassab bin Rabee from Abdullah bin al-Mubarak from Kahmas from Harun bin Al-Asam who said: Umar bin al-Khatab may Allah be pleased with him sent Khalid bin al-Walid in an army, hence Khalid sent Dhiraar bin al-Azwar in a squadron and they invaded a district belonging to the tribe of Bani Asad. They then captured a pretty bride, Dhiraar liked her hence he asked his companions to grant her to him and they did so. He then had sexual intercourse with her, when he completed his mission he felt guilty, and went to Khalid and told him about what he did. Khalid said: 'I permit you and made it lawful to you.' He said: 'No not until you write a message to Umar'. (Then they sent a message to Umar) and Umar answered that he (Dhiraar) should be stoned. By the time Umar's message was delivered, Dhiraar was dead. (Khalid) said: 'Allah didn't want to disgrace Dhiraar'}}

As with the quote taken from Imam Shafi'i, this almost certainly refers to a violation of the system for distributing war spoils. Dhiraar's intercourse with the captive girl was illegal and merited stoning not because of her captive status or lack of consent, but because he had intercourse with the girl without that girl having been allotted to him at the behest of the caliph (Umar in this case), who has the responsibility of distributing spoils. Neither captivity nor consent are mentioned as a factor in the punishment. Indeed, in a [[Rape_in_Islamic_Law#Umar_tells_a_man_to_beat_his_wife_for_preventing_intercourse_with_his_slave_girl|another hadith discussed above]], Umar tells a man to have intercourse with his slave girl after his wife tried to prevent it.

===Freedom and marriage as a universal requirement===

Verses 4:23-24 ({{Quran-range|4|23|24}}) are sometimes presented as evidence for the idea that a man must first manumit and marry a slave in order to have sex with her. The verse lists the types of women a Muslim man is permitted to marry, one given option being his slave women, of whom he may free and marry. While 4:23-24 do not mention slaves outside of a marital context, several other verses (e.g. {{Quran-range|23|1|6}} and {{Quran-range|70|29|30}}) make clear reference to sexual activity with slaves with whom the owner is not married by explicitly distinguishing between his sexual access to his wives and his sexual access to his slaves. The further example of Muhammad's companions raping captives from Banu al-Mustaliq prior to ransoming them (a scenario which effectively necessitates their non-marriage) confirms this idea.<ref>{{Bukhari|5|59|459}}, {{Muslim|8|3371}},{{Muwatta|29||95}}, {{Abudawud||2167}}, and {{Bukhari|3|34|432}}</ref>

In addition, there is the universally attested legal category of the ''Umm Walad'' (literally "mother of child") that is used by Islamic jurists to refer to those slaves who have given birth to one of their master's children. An ''Umm Walad'' is legally distinct from a free mother ''because'' she is still a slave. Indeed, the concept of ''Umm Walad'' is apparently attested even in the prophet's time according to a hadith in Sahih Muslim - further clarifying the matter is the fact that in this very hadith, Muhammad approves of the companion's sexual relations with his unmarried slave girl.

{{Quote|{{Muslim|8|3377}}| Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah be pleased with him) reported that mention was made of 'azl in the presence of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) whereupon he said:
Why do you practise it? They said: There is a man whose wife has to suckle the child, and if that person has a sexual intercourse with her (she may conceive) which he does not like, '''and there is another person who has a slave-girl and he has a sexual intercourse with her, but he does not like her to have conception so that she may not become Umm Walad''', whereupon he (the Holy Prophet) said: There is no harm if you do not do that, for that (the birth of the child) is something pre- ordained. Ibn 'Aun said: I made a mention of this hadith to Hasan, and he said: By Allah, (it seems) as if there is upbraiding in it (for 'azl).}}

===Encouragement to chastity as a prohibition on rape===

Verse 24:33 ({{Quran|24|33}}), which instructs unmarried men to keep chaste and instructs slaveowners to "force not [their] maids to prostitution", is sometimes presented as evidence for the idea that sexual activity is only permitted in a marital context and that slaveowners may not compel their slave girls to sexual activity of any sort.

{{Quote|1={{Quran|24|33}}|2='''Let those who find not the wherewithal for marriage keep themselves chaste''', until Allah gives them means out of His grace. And if any of your slaves ask for a deed in writing (to enable them to earn their freedom for a certain sum), give them such a deed if ye know any good in them: yea, give them something yourselves out of the means which Allah has given to you. But '''force not your maids to prostitution when they desire chastity''', in order that ye may make a gain in the goods of this life. But if anyone compels them, yet, after such compulsion, is Allah, Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful (to them),}}

Chastity is instructed throughout the Qur'an and is repeatedly defined as the habit of one who "guards their private parts" from all except "their wives [of whom they may have [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|up to four]]] and what their right hand possesses [i.e. female slaves, of whom they may have an unlimited number]" (e.g. {{Quran|23|6}}, {{Quran|33|50}}, {{Quran|33|52}}, and {{Quran|70|30}}). It is clear that, in the view of the Qur'an's author, an unmarried male may be considered chaste even if he engages in sexual activity with a technically unlimited number of women, so long as they are his slaves.

The portion of the verse which instructs slaveowners to "force not [their] maids to prostitution" has traditionally been understood in its simplest sense, which prohibits slaveowners from playing the role of a pimp and trafficking their slave women - such a business built on illegal intercourse is of course prohibited and, understood this way, the verse says nothing of novel import. Another accepted sense of this verse is that if a female slave desires her (or, say, her child's) freedom, her master ought to give her some legal means by which to pursue it, the alternative being her feeling compelled to prostitute herself to earn the funds necessary to purchase that freedom (traditional tafsirs also mention the also undesirable possibility of a master forcing a slave to prostitution as a condition for her freedom). Since such a temptation on the part of the slave girl is all the more plausible given the likelihood that she was captured in a war or raid where her people were both slaughtered and enslaved (leaving her with no means), and so the verse concludes by saying that if a slave girl is driven to such behavior, then Allah will be forgiving. And in the simpler sense, if her master forces her to prostitution, then Allah will forgive her for what was not in her control.<ref>See [https://tafsir.app/qurtubi/24/33 Tafsir Qurtubi 24:33] in particular; see also [https://tafsir.app/tabari/24/33 Tafsir al-Tabari 24:33], [https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/24/33 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 24:33], and [https://tafsir.app/24/33 Tafsirs 24:33] in general</ref>

==See Also==
{{Hub4|Rape|Rape}}

==External Links==

*{{external link|url= http://womanstats.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/the-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia/|title= The High Rape-Scale in Saudi Arabia|publisher= WomanStats Project (blog)|author= |date= January 16, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwomanstats.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F01%2F16%2Fthe-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia%2F&date=2013-07-13|deadurl=no}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Honor violence]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sex]]
[[ru:Изнасилование в Исламе]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Child Marriage]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Hudud (punishments)]]

Black Stone

2022-02-04T13:01:38Z

Ngrewal: Grammar and spellings

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[[File:Blackstone.jpg|thumb|"''Its softness and moisture were such that the sinner would never remove his mouth from it, which phenomenon made the Prophet declare it to be the covenant of Allah on earth.''" - Ibn Jubayr|alt=|296x296px]]The '''Black Stone''' (ٱلْحَجَرُ ٱلْأَسْوَد‎, ''al-Hajr al-Aswad'') is a rock that was embedded into the east-facing corner of the [[Ka'bah]], which is located in [[Mecca]] and is the "house of God" towards which Muslims pray five times a day. According to historians, the Black Stone was one of many baetyls employed to [[Pagan Architecture and Art in Islamic Law|idolatrous]] ends by [[Pagan Origins of Islam|pre-Islamic Arab pagans]], who used the Ka'bah as a pagan shrine in which were housed some 360 idols. The hadith tradition agrees that the stone was already part of the Ka'bah before [[Muhammad ibn Abdullah|Muhammad]] was born during the time of the pagan Arabs. The hadith tradition, however, asserts that the stone descended from heaven along with Adam and Eve and was incorporated into the structure of the Ka'bah when it was supposedly built by the prophet [[Ibrahim (Abraham)|Ibrahim]] and his son [[Isma'il]].<ref>Sheikh Ahmad Kutty - [http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503543250 The Black Stone: History & Significance] - Islam Online, January 8, 2003</ref> Muhammad was said to have reset the stone into the Ka'bah when the Ka'bah had been destroyed and rebuilt by the Meccans prior to Muhammad's proclamation of prophethood.

During the ''[[Hajj]]'' pilgrimage, while circumambulating the Ka'bah (''tawaf''), Muslims are instructed by scripture to kiss, touch, or at least point to the black stone if possible in order to secure blessings. In addition to the wear from this practice by hundreds of millions of pilgrims, the Black Stone has been victim to the structural fate of the Ka'bah, which, throughout history, has been demolished, bombarded and reconstructed several times. At one point, the Black Stone was struck by a stone launched from a catapult and smashed to pieces.<ref>Hırka-i Saadet Dairesi; Hilmi Aydın(2004) - [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/books/product.aspx?isbn=9781932099720 The sacred trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul] - Tughra Books, ISBN 9781932099720</ref> On other occasions, the Black Stone is reported to have been defiled with excrement, robbed by the Qarmatians, and otherwise deliberately abused.<ref>Burton, Richard Francis (1856) - [http://www.archive.org/details/personalnarrati03burtgoog Personal narrative of a pilgrimage to El-Madinah and Meccah] - G. P. Putnam & Co., p. 394</ref><ref>Francis E. Peters (1994) - [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/books/product.aspx?isbn=9780691032672 Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land] - Princeton University Press, pp. 125–126, ISBN 9780691032672</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse - [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/books/product.aspx?isbn=0759101906 New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (p. 245)] - Rowman Altamira, 2001, ISBN 0759101906</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/68328/Black-Stone-of-Mecca Black Stone of Mecca] - Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007</ref>

Beyond the assertions of the Saudi government, the continued existence of the original Black Stone, its origins, and the historicity of whatever is currently remains contained in the silver protrusion on the side of the Ka'bah have not been independently verified.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Meteorite/oiTNCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Wabar+meteorite+craters+black+stone&pg=PT68&printsec=frontcover|title=Meteorite: Nature and Culture|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2015|author=Maria Golia|isbn=978-1780235479}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Natural Museum of History in the United Kingdom has suggested that the stone is likely a pseudometeorite, or a terrestrial rock mistaken for a meteorite, that was first sacralized by the pagan Arabs.<ref>{{Citation|author1=Monica M. Grady|author2=A.L. Graham|title=Catalogue of meteorites: with special reference to those represented in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|page=263|isbn=978-0-521-66303-8}}</ref> There is likewise no historical evidence to suggest that Ibrahim and Isma'il were responsible for the construction of the Ka'bah or, therefore, the original placement of the Black Stone.
==As a baetyl of the pagan Arabs==
Most historians consider the Black Stone to be an Arabian baetyl from pre-Islamic times. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines 'baetyl' as "In Greek religion, a sacred stone or pillar. The word ''baetylus'' is of Semitic origin (-bethel). Numerous holy, or fetish, stones existed in antiquity, generally attached to the cult of some particular god and looked upon as his abiding place or symbol".<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/48659/baetylus Baetylus]

Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009</ref> The Encyclopedia continues:

{{Quote|1=[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31651/Arabian-religion/68311/Sanctuaries-cultic-objects-and-religious-practices-and-institutions Sanctuaries, cultic objects, and religious practices and institutions] Arabian religion, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009|2=The sanctuaries, sometimes carved in the rock on high places, consisted of a ḥaram, a sacred open-air enclosure, accessible only to unarmed and ritually clean people in ritual clothes. There the baetyl, '''a “raised stone,”''' or a statue of the god, was worshiped. The Nabataeans originally represented their gods as baetyls on a podium, but later they gave them a human appearance.}}

According to [[Ibn Ishaq]], one of the earliest biographers of Muhammad, the Black Stone was important to the Arabian polytheists prior to Muhammad's prophethood. In a famous tale from the [[sira]], Muhammad was requested by the Quraysh to help mediate on how the Black Stone was to be restored to the Ka'bah as it was being reconstructed.

{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=3608 The Dispute regarding Who should place the Black Stone in Its Place] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Ibn Ishaq said, "The tribes of Quraysh collected stones to rebuild the House, each tribe collecting on their own. They started rebuilding it, until the rebuilding of the Ka`bah reached the point where the Black Stone was to be placed in its designated site. A dispute erupted between the various tribes of Quraysh, each seeking the honor of placing the Black Stone for their own tribe. The dispute almost led to violence between the leaders of Quraysh in the area of the Sacred House. Banu `Abd Ad-Dar and Banu `Adi bin Ka`b bin Lu'ay, gave their mutual pledge to fight until death. However, five or four days later, Abu Umayyah bin Al-Mughirah bin `Abdullah bin `Amr bin Makhzum, the oldest man from Quraysh then intervened at the right moment. Abu Umayyah suggested that Quraysh should appoint the first man to enter the House from its entrance to be a mediator between them. They agreed.

The Messenger - Muhammad - was the first person to enter the House. When the various leaders of Quraysh realized who the first one was, they all proclaimed, `This is Al-Amin (the Honest one). We all accept him; This is Muhammad.' When the Prophet reached the area where the leaders were gathering and they informed him about their dispute, he asked them to bring a garment and place it on the ground. He placed the Black Stone on it. He then requested that each of the leaders of Quraysh hold the garment from one side and all participate in lifting the Black Stone, moving it to its designated area. Next, the Prophet carried the Black Stone by himself and placed it in its designated position and built around it. The Quraysh used to call the Messenger of Allah `Al-Amin' even before the revelation came to him."}}

===Other baetyls of the pagan Arabs===

The black stone was not the only important stone in Arabia. Historians have pointed out how other Arabian centers were host to their own Ka'bahs, often having their own divine stones of various colors.

{{Quote|1=Gustave Edmund Von Grunebaum's ''Classical Islam: A History, 600 A.D. to 1258 A.D.'' (pg 24)|2=Ghaiman had a red stone and the Ka'ba of al-'Abalat (near Tabala) had a white stone.}}

==The Black Stone of Eloh==
Ancient writers Herodian and Cassius Dio mention a temple in Syrian city of Emesa (today known as Hims or Homs). A local Semitic god named ''Eloh'' (meaning Lord) was worshipped there. He was known to Romans and Greeks as Heliogabalus, a corrupted garbling of ''Eloh Gabal'' (Lord of Mountain, one of Eloh’s titles). Eloh was associated with sun and thus identified with Roman god Sol and Greek Helios.

In the temple one of the holiest relics of antiquity, the Black Stone, was kept. It was believed to come from outside earth (possibly a meteorite) and to be a manifestation of Eloh himself. Faithful from the entire Roman orient made pilgrimage to the stone. They brought valuable gifts and offerings. The followers of Eloh obeyed ritualistic rules. For instance, they were required to be circumcised and were not allowed to eat pork.

This cult was one of many thousands in the ancient Mediterranean and would likely have been forgotten were it not for a certain dramatic and favorable occurrence. In 218 AD, a young priest of that temple and a Roman citizen--Varius Avitus Bassus--was prompted by his power-hungry family to usurp the throne of Rome by claiming to be an illegitimate son of the murdered emperor Caracalla (who ruled 211-217). Successful in his usurpation, Varius Avitus Bassus ruled for four years and was thereafter remembered by his nickname–also the name of his god–Elagabalus.

Elagabalus was generally considered to have been an exceptionally perverted ruler. He was reported to have prostituted himself in the imperial palace and had numerous wives and husbands at the same time. He was widely known as an unapologetic masochist, allowing everyone to beat him. Many of Elagabalus's attributed his debauchery and lack of decorum to what they considered to be the corrupting influence of the cult of the deity Eloh.

The young emperor brought his famous Black Stone to Rome. He wanted to make the worship of Eloh either supreme or the only religion of the Roman Empire. This caused uproar among Romans. Every year in summer a procession foreign and unknown to locals was held. The Black Stone was placed on a chariot with reins attached to it (suggesting that the god himself was coaching). The emperor would walk afoot near the chariot. Senators, notable citizens, parade of soldiers, musicians and exotic animals followed.

After four years of rule which disturbed many Romans, Elogabalus was murdered by soldiers. His body was thrown to river Tiber. <ref>Poczet Cesarzy Rzymskich (In English: Roman Emperors), by Aleksander Krawczuk</ref>
<center>
<gallery>
File:Golden coin of Elagabalus.jpg|Golden coin of Elagabalus
File:Elagabalus-era coin.jpg|Another Elagabalus-era coin depicting the Black Stone.
File:Black Stone on a chariot.jpg| Coin struck by Elogabalus. On the reverse the Black Stone on a chariot.
File:Paphian Stone of Aphrodite.jpg|Another black stone: Aniconic Black stone once venerated at the Temple of Aphrodite, near Paphos, Cyprus
</gallery>
</center>

==Hadith==

{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503543250 The Black Stone: History & Significance] Islam Online, Fatwa Bank, January 8, 2003|2=1. Ibn `Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said: '''“The Black Stone came down from Jannah (Paradise).”''' (At-Tirmidhi, Sunan, hadith no. 877, and classified as authentic hadith by Sheikh Al-Albaani in his book Sahih At-Tirmidthi, hadith no. 695 )

2. Ibn `Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) also narrated that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said: “When '''the Black Stone came down from Paradise''', it was whiter than milk, but '''the sins of the sons of Adam made it black'''.” (At-Tirmidhi, Sunan)

3. Ibn `Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) further related that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said: “By Allah, Allah will bring it forth on the Day of Judgment, and it will have two eyes with which it will see and a tongue with which it will speak, and '''it will testify in favor of those who touched it in sincerity'''.” (At-Tirmidhi, Sunan)

4. Ibn `Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) quoted the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) as saying: '''“Touching them both (the Black Stone and Ar-Rukn Al-Yamani) is an expiation for one’s sins.”''' (At-Tirmidhi, Sunan, hadith no. 959. This hadith is classified as hasan by At-Tirmidhi and as Sahih by Al-Hakim (1/664), and Adh-Dhahabi agreed with him.)

''(The aforementioned hadiths were quoted from a fatwa by the prominent Saudi scholar Sheikh Muhammad Salih Al-Munajjid, www.islam-qa.com)''}}

{{Quote|1=[http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e54.html Problematic hadiths and various questions] Shaykh Gibril Fouad Haddad, Living Islam, April 11, 2000|2='''"The Black Stone is the right hand of Allah Most High."''' Ibn Qutayba in Ta' wil Mukhtalif al-Hadith (1972 ed. p. 215=1995 ed. p. 198, 262) said that it was a saying of Ibn 'Abbas and relates a saying of 'A'isha that '''the Black Stone is the depository of the covenant of human souls with Allah on the Day of Promise''' (alastu bi rabbikum). He interprets the Black Stone as representing the place where one declares one's pledge of fidelity to the Sovereign. Ibn Hajar in Fath al-Bari (1959 ed. 3:463 #1520) cites al-Khattabi's and al-Muhibb al-Tabari's similar interpretations. Al-Qurtubi said in al-Asna fi Sharh Asma' Allah al-Husna (2:90-91): "It means that '''the Black Stone has the standing (manzila) of the Right Hand of Allah.''' metaphorically speaking."}}

{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|2|26|667}}, See also: {{Bukhari|2|26|657}} and {{Muslim|7|2912-2915}}|2=Narrated 'Abis bin Rabia: 'Umar came near the Black Stone and kissed it and said "No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither benefit anyone nor harm anyone. Had I not seen Allah's Apostle kissing you I would not have kissed you."}}

{{Quote|1={{Muslim|7|2916}}|2=Suwaid b. Ghafala reported: I saw Umar (Allah be pleased with him) kissing the Stone and clinging to it and saying: I saw Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) having great love for you. This hadith has been narrated on the authority of Sufyin with the same chain of transmitters (and the words are):" That he ('Umar) said: But I saw Abu'l-Qasim (way peace be upon him) having great love for you." And he did not mention about clinging to it.}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/blstone.htm The Black Stone - the Omphalos of the Goddess]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Paganism]]
[[Category:Ritual]]
[[Category:Relics]]
[[Category:Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Heaven]]
[[Category:Sirah]]

Hijri Calendar

2021-05-09T17:59:40Z

Ngrewal: /* Calendar */

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=4|References=2}}
Prophet [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] hijra ("flight" or "migration") from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]] in 622 AD marks the beginning of the '''Islamic lunar calendar''' (also known as the '''Hijri''' or '''Arabic Calendar'''). Thus, the Islamic calendar dates have the suffix '''AH''' (After Hijra). The [[Islam|Islamic]] lunar year (354 or 355 days) is between 10 and 12 days shorter than the "Western" or "Christian" Gregorian solar year (365 or 366 days)<ref>Syed Khalid Shaukat - [http://www.missionislam.com/knowledge/calendar.htm What is Islamic Calendar] - MissionIslam</ref>, and so cycles through the seasons.<ref>[http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/calendars Introduction to Calendars]. United States Naval Observatory. Retrieved 15 January 2009.</ref><ref>[http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html Calendars] by L. E. Doggett. Section 2.</ref><ref>The international standard for the representation of dates and times, ISO 8601, uses the Gregorian calendar. Section 3.2.1.</ref> The Islamic calendar is used in conjunction with the Gregorian calendar in some parts of the Muslim world, and is almost always referenced in relation to Islamic rituals (like the [[Hajj]]) and festivals (like [[Eid al-Adha]]), as it is with the Islamic calendar that these event correlate.

==Calendar==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Islamic Lunar Months
!No.
!Name
!Arabic
!Meaning
!Note
|-
|1
|''Muḥarram''
|ٱلْمُحَرَّم
|forbidden
|This is the first "sacred" month in the Islamic lunar calendar
|-
|2
|''Ṣafar''
|صَفَر
|void
|
|-
|3
|''Rabī‘ al-awwal''
|رَبِيع ٱلْأَوَّل
|the first spring
|
|-
|4
|''Rabī‘ ath-ākhar''
|رَبِيع ٱلْآخَر
|the last spring
|
|-
|5
|''Jumādá al-ūlá''
|جُمَادَىٰ ٱلْأُولَىٰ
|the first of parched land
|
|-
|6
|''Jumādá al-ākhirah''
|جُمَادَىٰ ٱلْآخِرَة
|the last of parched land
|
|-
|7
|''Rajab''
|رَجَب
|respect, honour
|This is the second "sacred" month in the Islamic lunar calendar
|-
|8
|''Sha‘bān''
|شَعْبَان
|scattered
|
|-
|9
|''Ramaḍān''
|رَمَضَان
|burning heat
|This is the month in which the ritual of [[fasting]], one of the [[five pillars]] of Islam, is carried out
|-
|10
|''Shawwāl''
|شَوَّال
|raised
|
|-
|11
|''Dhū al-Qa‘dah''
|ذُو ٱلْقَعْدَة
|the one of truce/sitting
|This is the third "sacred" month in the Islamic lunar calendar
|-
|12
|''Dhū al-Ḥijjah''
|ذُو ٱلْحِجَّة
|the one of pilgrimage
|This is the month in which the ritual of [[Hajj]], one of the [[five pillars]] of Islam, is carried out

This is the fourth "sacred" month in the Islamic lunar calendar
|} 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Islamic Week Days
!No.
!Name
!Arabic
!Meaning
!Gregorian Equivilant
!Note
|-
|1
|al-ʾAḥad
|ٱلْأَحَد‎
|the one
|Sunday
|
|-
|2
|al-ʾIthnayn
|ٱلْإِثْنَيْن‎
|the second
|Monday
|Muslims are encouraged to fast on Mondays, as it is the day that Muhammad is said to have been born on
|-
|3
|ath-Thulāthāʾ
|ٱلثُّلَاثَاء‎
|the third
|Tuesday
|
|-
|4
|al-ʾArbiʿāʾ
|ٱلْخَمِيس‎
|the fourth
|Wednesday
|
|-
|5
|al-Khamīs
|ٱلْخَمِيس‎
|the fifth
|Thursday
|
|-
|6
|al-Jumʿah
|ٱلْجُمْعَة‎
|the gathering
|Friday
|This is the day on which Muslim men are [[Fard|required (''fard'')]] to participate in a congregational prayer, generally referred to as the ''Jumu'ah'' prayer
|-
|7
|as-Sabt
|ٱلسَّبْت‎
|the rest
|Saturday
|This is the equivalent of the Hebrew [[Sabbath in Islam|Sabbath]], though hosts none of the accompanying rituals or practices
|}

==Origins==
The Islamic lunar calendar is the same calendar that was used by the [[Pagan Origins of Islam|pre-Islamic pagan Arabs]], as it refers to the lunar months by the same names and sanctifies the very four of the twelve months that were considered sacred by Arabs in the pre-Islamic period.

However, there were some changes made: whereas the pre-Islamic Arabs allowed a practice ''Nasi'<nowiki/>'' whereby they would either choose a different set of four months to deem sacred or move about holy festivals to a more appropriate seasons (since the lunar calendar cycles through the seasons), the Islamic calendar system prohibited this practice.<ref>The Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Index, p. 441.</ref><ref>Muḥammad al-Khuḍarī Bayk (1935). ''Muḥāḍarāt tārīkh al-Umam al-Islāmiyya''. '''2''' (4th ed.). Al-maktaba al-tijāriyya. pp. 59–60.</ref> Some scholars suggest that ''Nasi''' was in fact a practice where the pre-Islamic Arabs used to occasionally add an "intercalary" month in order to move religious festivals into more lucrative business seasons, rather than simply shifting the date of these festivals, though this is uncertain.<ref>al-Biruni (tr. C. Edward Sachau (1879). ''"Intercalation of the Ancient Arabs", The Chronology of Ancient Nations''. London: William H. Allen, 1000/1879. pp. 13–14, 73–74.</ref><ref>Bonner 2011, page 21.</ref> Whatever the case, this too was prohibited by the Islamic lunar calendar.

''<nowiki/><nowiki/><nowiki/>''
==Challenges==

===Moon sighting===
One of the greatest sources of consternation among the international Muslim community is the lack of clarity in Islamic scriptures on how the new moon, indicating the start of the new lunar month, is to be sighted. With as many as eleven different ways to evidence the "birth" of the new moon (ranging from visual, local sighting-with-the-naked-eye to astronomical calculations), the various Islamic committees and Muslim-majority nations worldwide are essentially never able to agree on a single method.

While this is otherwise innocuous, since effectively all Muslim institutions schedule events using the standardized Gregorian calendar, the ambiguity of the Islamic calendar results in immense tension when it comes to the dating of religious festivals and calendar-based ritual activity. Indeed, it is not uncommon to see Muslim communities celebrate Eid or begin Ramadan prayers and fasting on as many as three separate days.

One breakdown of the various methods of sighting the moon to determine the start of an Islamic month is as follows:

#Use astronomical calculations exclusively:
##calculate the birth of the moon that lasts for any period whatsoever, no matter how brief
##calculate the birth of the moon that lasts for at least two minutes after sunset
##calculate the birth of the moon that lasts for at least thirty minutes after sunset
#Site the moon visually all over the globe (that is, with the agreement of a majority worldwide) while allowing calculations to dis-confirm these sightings if the calculations suggest the moon has not been born yet
#Site the moon visually all over the globe (that is, with the agreement of a majority worldwide) while disregarding calculations that disagree with these sightings
#Site the moon visually all over the globe while disregarding calculations that disagree with these sightings, while referencing only those global sightings that occur to one's east and in one's immediate vicinity (that is, not considering the sightings - or lack thereof - of communities westward of one's locale)
#Site the moon only locally using optical aids while viewing the sky from anywhere within one's time zone
#Site the moon only locally using optical aids while viewing the sky from anywhere within one's country
#Site the moon only locally without using optical aids while viewing the sky from anywhere within one's time zone
#Site the moon only locally without using optical aids while viewing the sky from anywhere within one's country
#Rely on the moon sighting using any of the above techniques from Mecca and Medina, or (taking a practical turn) just comply with the judgement of the Saudi Arabian government in general (so as to avoid global contestation)

==Relevant quotations==

===Qur'an===
The Qur'an refers to the month of ''[[Ramadan]]'':
{{Quote|{{quran|2|185}}|The month of Ramadan in which was revealed the Qur'an, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the Criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, (let him fast the same) number of other days. Allah desireth for you ease; He desireth not hardship for you; and (He desireth) that ye should complete the period, and that ye should magnify Allah for having guided you, and that peradventure ye may be thankful.}}
The Qur'an states that there are twelve months, four of them are sacred:
{{Quote|{{quran|9|36}}|Lo! the number of the months with Allah is twelve months by Allah's ordinance in the day that He created the heavens and the earth. Four of them are sacred: that is the right religion. So wrong not yourselves in them. And wage war on all of the idolaters as they are waging war on all of you. And know that Allah is with those who keep their duty (unto Him).}}
The Qur'an describes the "sacred" months (''shar al-haram'', sometimes translated as the "holy" or "prohibited" - that is, sanctified - months):
{{Quote|{{quran|2|194}}|A sacred month is for a sacred month; these sacrednesses are in retaliation. Whosoever then offereth violence unto you, Offer violence unto him the like of his violence unto you, and fear Allah, and know that Allah is with the God-fearing.}}{{Quote|{{quran|2|217}}|They question thee (O Muhammad) with regard to warfare in the sacred month. Say: Warfare therein is a great (transgression), but to turn (men) from the way of Allah, and to disbelieve in Him and in the Inviolable Place of Worship, and to expel His people thence, is a greater with Allah; for persecution is worse than killing. And they will not cease from fighting against you till they have made you renegades from your religion, if they can. And whoso becometh a renegade and dieth in his disbelief: such are they whose works have fallen both in the world and the Hereafter. Such are rightful owners of the Fire: they will abide therein.}}{{Quote|{{quran|5|2}}|O ye who believe! Profane not Allah's monuments nor the Sacred Month nor the offerings nor the garlands, nor those repairing to the Sacred House, seeking the grace and pleasure of their Lord. But when ye have left the sacred territory, then go hunting (if ye will). And let not your hatred of a folk who (once) stopped your going to the inviolable place of worship seduce you to transgress; but help ye one another unto righteousness and pious duty. Help not one another unto sin and transgression, but keep your duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is severe in punishment.}}{{Quote|{{quran|5|97}}|Allah hath appointed the Ka'bah, the Sacred House, a standard for mankind, and the Sacred Month and the offerings and the garlands. That is so that ye may know that Allah knoweth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth, and that Allah is Knower of all things.}}The Qur'an references the day of ''al-Jumu'ah'' (Friday) as it mentions the Friday Prayer:
{{Quote|{{quran|62|9}}|O ye who believe! When the call is heard for the prayer of the day of congregation, haste unto remembrance of Allah and leave your trading. That is better for you if ye did but know.}}

===Hadith===
This hadith identifies the four months which are "sacred":
{{Quote|{{bukhari|6|60|184}}|Narrated Abu Bakr:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Time has come back to its original state which it had when Allah created the Heavens and the Earth; the year is twelve months, four of which are sacred. Three of them are in succession; Dhul-Qa'da, Dhul-Hijja and Al-Muharram, and (the fourth being) Rajab Mudar (named after the tribe of Mudar as they used to respect this month) which stands between Jumad (ath-thani) and Sha'ban."}}This hadith identifies Monday as the day of Muhammad's birth and prophet-hood, all in the context of why it is important to fast on Mondays
{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2603}}|Abu Qatada al-Ansari (Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) was asked about his fasting. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) felt annoyed. Thereupon 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) said:

We are pleased with Allah as the Lord, with Islam as our Code of Life, with Muhammad as the Messenger and with our pledge (to you for willing and cheerful submission) as a (sacred) commitment. He was then asked about perpetual fasting, whereupon he said: He neither fasted nor did he break it, or he did not fast and he did not break it. He was then asked about fasting for two days and breaking one day. He (the Holy Prophet) said: And who has strength enough to do it? He was asked about fasting for a day and breaking for two days, whereupon he said: May Allah bestow upon us strength to do it. He was then asked about fasting for a day and breaking on the other, whereupon he said: That is the fasting of my brother David (peace be upon him). He was then asked about fasting on Monday, whereupon he said: It was the day on which I was born. on which I was commissioned with prophethood or revelation was sent to me, (and he further) said: Three days' fasting every month and of the whole of Ramadan every year is a perpetual fast. He was asked about fasting on the day of 'Arafa (9th of Dhu'I-Hijja), whereupon he said: It expiates the sins of the preceding year and the coming year. He was asked about fasting on the day of 'Ashura (10th of Muharram), whereupon be said: It expiates the sins of the preceding year. (Imam Muslim said that in this hadith there is a) narration of Imam Shu'ba that he was asked about fasting on Monday and Thursday, but we (Imam Muslim) did not mention Thursday for we found it as an error (in reporting).}}Related to moon-sighting:
{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2363}}|Ibn Umar (Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying in connection with Ramadan:

Do not fast till you see the new moon, and do not break fast till you see it; but if the weather is cloudy calculate about it.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2364}}|Ibn Umar reported that Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) made a mention of Ramadan and he with the gesture of his hand said:

The month is thus and thus. (He then withdrew his thumb at the third time). He then said: Fast when you see it, and break your fast when you see it, and if the weather is cloudy calculate it (the months of Sha'ban and Shawwal) as thirty days.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2365}}|This hadith is narrated on the authority of 'Ubaidullah with the same chain of transmitters, and he said:

If (the sky) is cloudy for you, then calculate thirty days (for the month of Ramadan).}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2366}}|'Ubaidullah narrated on the authority of the same chain of transmitters that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) made a mention of Ramadan and said:

The month may consist of twenty-nine days, and it may be thus, thus and thus, and (he further) said: Calculate it, but he did not say thirty.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2376}}|Ibn 'Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Apostle as saying:

We are an unlettered people who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus. folding his thumb when he said it the third time.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2391}}|Kuraib reported that Umm Fadl, daughter of Harith, sent him (Fadl, i.e. her son) to Mu'awiya in Syria. I (Fadl) arrived in Syria, and did the needful for her. It was there in Syria that the month of Ramadan commenced. I saw the new moon (of Ramadan) on Friday. I then came back to Medina at the end of the month. Abdullah b. 'Abbas (Allah be pleased with him) asked me (about the new moon of Ramadan) and said:

When did you see it? I said: We saw it on the night of Friday. He said: (Did) you see it yourself? I said: Yes, and the people also saw it and they fasted and Mu'awiya also fasted, whereupon he said: But we saw it on Saturday night. So we will continue to fast till we complete thirty (fasts) or we see it (the new moon of Shawwal). I said: Is the sighting of the moon by Mu'awiya not valid for you? He said: No; this is how the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) has commanded us. Yahya b. Yahya was in doubt (whether the word used in the narration by Kuraib) was Naktafi or Taktafi.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2392}}|Abu'l-Bakhtari reported:

We went out to perform Umra and when we encamped in the valley of Nakhla, we tried to see the new moon. Some of the people said: It was three nights old, and others (said) that it was two nights old. We then met Ibn 'Abbas and told him we had seen the new moon, but that some of the people said it was three nights old and others that it was two nights old. He asked on which night we had seen it; and when we told him we had seen it on such and such night, he said the Prophet of Allah (ﷺ) had said: Verily Allah deferred it till the time it is seen, so it is to be reckoned from the night you saw it.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2526}}|Hakam b. al-'Araj reported:

I went to Ibn 'Abbas (Allah be Pleased with both of them) and he was reclining using his mantle as a pillow near the fountain of Zamzam. I said to him: Tell me about fasting on Ashura. He said: When you see the new moon of Muharram then count the (days) and observe fast on the 9th. I said to him: Is it how the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) observed the fast? He said: Yes.}}{{Quote|{{muslim|6|2635}}|Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported:

We were talking about Lailat-ul-Qadr in the presence of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) and he said: He who amongst you remembers (the night) when the moon arose and it was like a piece of plate (at the fag end of the month in a state of waning).}}{{Quote|{{muslim|40|6868}}|Anas b. Malik reported:

We were along with Umar between Mecca and Medina that we began to look for the new moon. And I was a man with sharp eye- sight, so I could see it, but none except me saw it. I began to say to 'Umar: Don't you see it? But he would not see it. Thereupon Umar said: I would soon be able to see it (when it will shine more brightly). I lay upon bed. He then made a mention of the people of Badr to us and said: Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) showed us one day before (the actual battle) the place of death of the people (participating) in (the Battle) of Badr and he was saying: This would be the place of death of so and so tomorrow, if Allah wills. Umar said: By Him Who sent him with truth, they did not miss the places (of their death) which Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) had pointed for them. Then they were all thrown in a well one after another. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) then went to them and said: O, so and so, the son of so and so; O so and so, the son of so and so, have you found correct what Allah and His Messenger had promised you? I have, however, found absolutely true what Allah had promised with me. Umar said: Allah's Messenger, how are you talking with the bodies without soul in them. Thereupon he said: You cannot hear more distinctly than (their hearing) of what I say, but with this exception that they have not power to make any reply.}}

==See Also==

*[[Word Count Miracles in the Qur'an]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Ritual]]
[[Category:Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
[[Category:Paganism]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam

2021-05-09T16:06:21Z

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This article discusses the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] religion of [[Islam]] and its pre-Islamic pagan heritage.

==Worship at the Ka’aba==

According to the [[hadith]], the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]] in Mecca was a center of idol-worship, with the Ka'aba housing 360 idols:

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|3|43|658}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin Masud:
The Prophet entered Mecca and (at that time) there were three hundred-and-sixty idols around the Ka’aba. He started stabbing the idols with a stick he had in his hand and reciting: "Truth (Islam) has come and Falsehood (disbelief) has vanished."}}

The Prophet [[Muhammad]] discarded the 360 idols but retained for Islam, the Ka’aba with its [[Black Stone]], justifying it with the claim that [[Ibrahim|Abraham]] and [[Isma'il|Ishmael]] originally constructed it. However, there is no historical or archaeological evidence for the existence of the Ka’aba beyond a few hundred years before Muhammad's lifetime. In fact, the Quran contradict this connection between Abraham, Ishmael and the Ka’aba.

The [[Qur'an|Quran]] says Abraham built it:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|125}}| Remember We made the House a place of assembly for men and a place of safety; and take ye the station of Abraham as a place of prayer; and We covenanted with Abraham and Isma'il, that they should sanctify My House for those who compass it round, or use it as a retreat, or bow, or prostrate themselves (therein in prayer).}}

One hadith claims Muhammad says it was built 40 years prior to the Temple at Jerusalem:

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|4|55|636}}|Narrated Abu Dhaar: I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Which mosque was built first?" He replied, "Al-Masjid-ul-Haram." I asked, "Which (was built) next?" He replied, "Al-Masjid-ul-Aqs-a (i.e. Jerusalem)." I asked, "What was the period in between them? He replied, forty years.}}

The Temple at Jerusalem was built by Solomon around 958-951 BC. This implies that if Muhammad were to be believed, the Ka’aba must have been built approximately 998-991 BC. But Abraham is alleged to have lived around 2000 BC so both Abraham and Ishmael would have been dead by then.

The traditions of the hadith and the Quran are mutually contradictory and do not align with other traditions about Abraham and Ishmael.

Rather than being the creation of Abraham, Egyptian Professor and authority on Arabic literature, Dr. Taha Husayn, said the following:

{{Quote||The case for this episode is very obvious because it is of recent date and came into vogue just before the rise of Islam. Islam exploited it for religious reasons.<ref>As quoted in Mizan al-Islam by Anwar al-Jundi, p. 170</ref>}}

Also, according to a sahih hadith of Bukhari, Muhammad even considered dismantling it:

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|1|3|128}}|Narrated Aswad: Ibn Az-Zubair said to me, "Aisha used to tell you secretly a number of things. What did she tell you about the Ka'ba?" I replied, "She told me that once the Prophet said, 'O 'Aisha! Had not your people been still close to the pre-Islamic period of ignorance (infidelity)! I would have dismantled the Ka'ba and would have made two doors in it; one for entrance and the other for exit." Later on Ibn Az-Zubair did the same.}}

Worship at the Ka’aba and the kissing of the Black Stone are according to the Islamic tradition one of many practices adopted from the 7th century paganism of the Meccans and repackaged within monotheistic Islam.

==Veneration of the Black-stone==

The pagan gods of pre-Islamic Arabia were worshiped in the form of rectangular stones or rocks. For example, the pagan deity 'Al-Lat', mentioned in {{Quran|53|19}}, and believed by pre-Islamic pagans to be one of the daughters of Allah, was once venerated as a cubic rock at Ta'if in Saudi Arabia according to Islamic sources on the subject written after the rise of Islam. An edifice was built over the rock to mark it apart as a house of worship.

{{Quote|Kitab Al-Asnam (The Book of Idols), p 14|Al-lat stood in al-Ta'if, and was more recent than Manah. She was a cubic rock beside which a certain Jew used to prepare his barley porridge (sawiq). Her custody was in the hands of the banu-'Attab ibn-Malik of the Thayif, who had built an edifice over her. [...]She is the idol which God mentioned when He said, "Have you seen Al-lat and al-'Uzza (Surah 53:19)?<ref>The Book of Idols, p 14; (translation of Kitab Al-Asnam ) by Hisham Ibn-Al-Kalbi, 819 CE, translated by Nabih Amin Faris, 1952</ref>}}

{{Quote|Encyclopedia Britannica|"A principal sacred object in Arabian religion was the stone, either a rock outcropping or a large boulder, often a rectangular or irregular black basaltic stone… of numerous baetyls, the best known is the Black-stone of the Ka’aba at Mecca which became the central shrine object in Islam".<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica - Arabian Religions, p1059, 1979</ref>}}

The Black Stone seems to have been one among many stones and idols venerated at the Ka’aba by the pre-Islamic pagans of Arabia. The Black Stone was kissed during pre-Islamic pagan worship. Though Muhammad is asserted to have thrown out 360 other objects at the Ka’aba, he retained this Black Stone and continued the practice of kissing it. It is this same stone that the pre-Islamic pagans once kissed, that Muslims kiss today when visiting Mecca.

==Praying 5 Times Towards Mecca==

Pagans prior to Islam would pray five times per day towards Mecca.<ref>The Encyclopedia of Islam (edited by Eliade) P. 303FF</ref> Muhammad retained for Islam, this pre-Islamic practice, sanctioning it with a story of a night trip to heaven on a mythical beast called al-[[Buraq]]. In heaven, the Hadith tells us that Allah demanded 50 prayers per day per Muslim. Upon advice from Moses, Muhammed bargains with Allah and successfully reduces it to five prayers per day.

Zoroastrians are also expected to recite their (kusti) prayers at least five times a day having first cleansed themselves by washing ([[ablution]]). These Islamic practices show Zoroastrian influence.<ref>Bowker, John, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, New York, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 763-764</ref> But, contrary to the Muslims, Zoroastrians pray in the direction of the Sun (at each time of the day) and/or of the Holy Fire (if they are in a Fire Temple). <ref>Joseph H. Peterson - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.avesta.org/ka/gahs.htm|2=2011-05-26}} GAHS (prayers for each period of the day)] - Avesta Zoroastrian Archives, accessed May 27, 2011</ref>

==Fasting on the 10th of Muharram==

Muhammad's pagan tribe, the Quraish, fasted on the 10th of Muharram. Though optional, Muhammad retained this practice from the pagan past too.

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|5|58|172}}|Narrated 'Aisha:
'Ashura' (i.e. the tenth of Muharram) was a day on which the tribe of Quraish used to fast in the pre-lslamic period of ignorance. The Prophet also used to fast on this day. So when he migrated to Medina, he fasted on it and ordered (the Muslims) to fast on it. When the fasting of Ramadan was enjoined, it became optional for the people to fast or not to fast on the day of Ashura.}}

==Tawaf between Safa and Marwa==

Doing Tawaf between Safa and Marwa is an Islamic ritual associated with the pilgrimage to Mecca. Safa and Marwa are two mounts, located at Mecca. This ritual entails Muslims walking frantically between the two mounts, seven times. According to a hadith in Bukhari, this was originally a pagan pre-Islamic practice. Muhammad retained it for Islam, sanctioning it with yet another Qur'anic [[revelation]].<ref>"''Behold! Safa and Marwa are among the Symbols of Allah. So if those who visit the House in the Season or at other times, should compass them round, it is no sin in them. And if any one obeyeth his own impulse to good,- be sure that Allah is He Who recogniseth and knoweth.''" - {{Quran|2|158}}</ref>

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|2|26|710}}|Narrated 'Asim:

I asked Anas bin Malik: "Did you use to dislike to perform Tawaf between Safa and Marwa?" He said, "Yes, as it was of the ceremonies of the days of the Pre-lslamic period of ignorance, till Allah revealed: 'Verily! (The two mountains) As-Safa and Al-Marwa are among the symbols of Allah. It is therefore no sin for him who performs the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba, or performs 'Umra, to perform Tawaf between them.' " (2.158)}}

This Hadith states that Muhammad adopted this pagan ceremony from the pre-Islamic "period of ignorance" and justified it with yet another convenient Qur'anic revelation.

A tradition also exists about Hagar running between these two mounts in search of water until she found the [[Zamzam Well]].

==Requirement of Ihram==

Ihram is a state a Muslim enters into for his pilgrimage to Mecca. It involves a series of procedures like ritual washing, wearing 'Ihram garments', etc. Ihram was according to Sahih Bukhari originally a pagan requirement for worshiping idols during pre-Islamic times. Muhammad retained this practice for Islam. Muslims assume Ihram to perform the Hajj or Umrah.

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|2|26|706}}|Narrated 'Urwa: I asked 'Aisha : ...But in fact, this divine inspiration was revealed concerning the Ansar who used to assume “Ihram” for worshipping an idol called “Manat” which they used to worship at a place called Al-Mushallal before they embraced Islam, and whoever assumed Ihram (for the idol), would consider it not right to perform Tawaf between Safa and Marwa.}}

==Circumambulation 7 Times==
[[File:Kaaba tawaf and hindu marriage.jpg|thumb|260px|right|In the Islamic ritual of [[w:Tawaf|Tawaf]], Muslims go around the Kaaba 7 times.
In the Hindu marriage rite of [[w:Satphere|Satphere]], the married couple goes around a fire also 7 times. In both of these rituals, religious phrases are repeated during the [[w:circumambulation|circumambulation]].]]
[[w:circumambulation|Circumambulation]] is to go in circles around a particular object. In Islam, worshipers and pilgrims do this around the Ka'aba at Mecca. Pre-Islamic pagans are alleged to have done it to please the moon god [[Hubal]], the 360 deities and Allah (who was merely one among the many deities worshiped there). Muhammad himself used to do it, even before the 360 idols inside the Ka'aba were removed.

Judaism and Christianity (the religions of those who are considered [[People of the Book|People of the Book]]) do not practice ritual circumambulation to please God. Two of the other major faiths with similar practice are Hinduism and Buddhism (called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parikrama Parikrama]). Both of these faiths are accused by traditional Islam of “paganism” and practicing idolatry.

==Crescent Moon Symbol==

Hubal was the moon god worshiped at the Ka’aba. The [[crescent Moon|crescent moon]] was Hubal’s symbol. Muhammad's pagan grandfather Abd al-Muttalib almost slaughtered Muhammad's father Abdallah at the Ka’aba, to Hubal. From Ibn Hisham:

{{Quote||An arrow showed that it was 'Abdullah to be sacrificed. 'Abdul-Muttalib then took the boy to Al-Ka'bah with a razor to slaughter the boy. Quraish, his uncles from Makhzum tribe and his brother Abu Talib, however, tried to dissuade him. They suggested that he summon a she-diviner. She ordered that the divination arrows should be drawn with respect to 'Abdullah as well as ten camels. … the number of the camels (finally) amounted to one hundred. … They were all slaughtered to the satisfaction of Hubal.<ref>Ibn Hisham 1/151-155; Rahmat-ul-lil'alameen 2/89,90</ref>}}

The Ka’aba, Islam's holiest shrine, has been a place where such pagan human sacrifices and slaughters have taken place for Hubal. When Muhammad founded Islam, according to Islamic sources he discarded Hubal and all the other pagan god. At the Battle of Badr, his enemy Abu Sufyan praised the high position of moon god Hubal, saying "O Hubal, be high". Muhammad asked his followers to yell back, "Allah is higher".<ref>"...''After that he started reciting cheerfully, "O Hubal, be high! (1) On that the Prophet said (to his companions), "Why don't you answer him back?" They said, "O Allah's Apostle What shall we say?" He said, "Say, Allah is Higher and more Sublime."''..." - ({{Bukhari|4|52|276}})</ref> This is supposed to be the origin of the commonly uttered phrase "Allahu Akbar" in Arabic.

==See Also==

*[[The Origins of the Quran|The Origins of the Qur'an]]

{{Translation-links-english|[[Les origines païennes de l'Islam|French]]}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Silas/pagansources.htm The Pagan Religious Sources of Islam] ''- Answering Islam''
*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Zwemer/Animism/index.htm The Influence of Animism on Islam] ''- Online book by Samuel M. Zwemer, F.R.G.S.''

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Paganism]]
[[ru:Языческие_истоки_Ислама]]

Zamzam Well

2021-05-09T15:31:35Z

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[[File:Zamzam water.jpg|right|thumb|350px]]The '''Well of Zamzam''' (زمزم) is a well located within the Masjid al-Haram in [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia, 20 meters (66 feet) east of the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]],<ref name="Saudi Geological Survey">[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fclassic-web.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20050205152331%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgs.org.sa%2Findex.cfm%3Fsec%3D311%26page%3D&date=2011-05-07 Zamzam Studies and Research Centre] - The Saudi Geological Survey Website</ref> the holiest place in [[Islam]]. The well is 35 meters deep and topped by an elegant dome.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem">S. H. A. Careem - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/01/30/fea36.html|2=2011-05-07}} The miracle of ZamZam] - Sunday Observer, January 30, 2005</ref>

Millions of Muslims visit the well each year while performing the [[Hajj]] or Umrah pilgrimages, in order to drink its water and, in many cases, to take home some of its water for distribution among friends and relatives, believing the well (and the water which it pumps) to be miraculous.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem"></ref>

However, in May 2011, a BBC investigation found that genuine [[Zamzam]] water taken from the well contained arsenic levels three times the legal limit, something which could contribute to increasing people's risk of cancer. In addition to the dangerous arsenic levels, the holy water contained high levels of nitrate and potentially harmful bacteria.<ref>Guy Lynn - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13267205|2=2011-05-07}} Contaminated Zam Zam holy water from Mecca sold in UK] - BBC News, May 5, 2011</ref>
==Introduction==

The ''Well of Zamzam'' is a well located within the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, 20 meters (66 feet) east of the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]],<ref name="Saudi Geological Survey">[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fclassic-web.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20050205152331%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgs.org.sa%2Findex.cfm%3Fsec%3D311%26page%3D&date=2011-05-07 Zamzam Studies and Research Centre] - The Saudi Geological Survey Website</ref> the holiest place in [[Islam]]. The well is 35 meters deep and topped by an elegant dome.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem">S. H. A. Careem - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/01/30/fea36.html|2=2011-05-07}} The miracle of ZamZam] - Sunday Observer, January 30, 2005</ref>

Millions of Muslims visit the well each year while performing the [[Hajj]] or Umrah pilgrimages, in order to drink its water and, in many cases, to take home some of its water for distribution among friends and relatives.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem"></ref>

==Zamzam==

===Pre-Islamic History===

Safa and Marwa are two mounts located in Mecca. Tawaf, the circumambulation between Safa and Marwa, was once a [[Pagan Origins of Islam|pagan]] ritual<ref>"''Narrated 'Asim: ''

''I asked Anas bin Malik: "Did you use to dislike to perform Tawaf between Safa and Marwa?" He said, "Yes, as it was of the ceremonies of the days of the Pre-lslamic period of ignorance, till Allah revealed: 'Verily! (The two mountains) As-Safa and Al-Marwa are among the symbols of Allah. It is therefore no sin for him who performs the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba, or performs 'Umra, to perform Tawaf between them.' " (2.158)''" - {{Bukhari|2|26|710}}</ref> now associated with Islam, the Zamzam well, and the pilgrimage to Mecca.

The Islamic beliefs in regards to its history is expounded upon by the Saudi Geological Survey website:

{{Quote||According to Arab historians, the Zamzam Well, except for a few periods when it became dry or was buried under sand, has been in use for around 4000 years. The well marks the site of a spring that, miraculously , had issued forth from a barren and desolate wadi (non perennial stream) where the Prophet Ibrahim (Peace be upon him-pbuh), under Allah's command, had left his wife Hajar and their infant son Ismail (pbuh). In her desperate search for water, Hajar ran seven times back and forth in the scorching heat between the two hills of Safa and Marwa to provide water for Ismail (pbuh), who was dying of thirst. Allah, in His mercy, sent the Angel Gabriel, who scraped the ground, causing the spring to appear. On finding the spring, and fearing that it might run out of water, Hajar enclosed it in sand and stones. The name Zamzam originates from the phrase Zomë Zomë, meaning ‘stop flowing’, a command repeated by Hajar during her attempt to contain the spring water. The area around the spring, which was later converted to a well, became a resting place for caravans, and eventually grew into the trading city of Makkah, birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).<ref name="Saudi Geological Survey"></ref>}}

===Miraculous Status Within Islam===

Islamic scholars generally consider the well to be miraculous as well as the water which it pumps. Several [[:Category:Hadith|hadith]] narrations have been recorded concerning this.

{{Quote||One of the miracles of ZamZam water is its ability to satisfy both thirst and hunger. One of the Companions of the Prophet said that before Islam, the water was called 'shabbaa'ah' or satisfying. It was filling and helped them nourish their families. More recently, in the last few decades, samples of ZamZam water have been collected by scientists and they have found certain peculiarities that make the water healthier, like a higher level of calcium.

Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) said it has healing effects. This is why pilgrims to Makkah to this day collect it in bottles, to bring back for relatives and friends back home who are ill.

It is also reported also that the Prophet rubbed the gums of his two grandchildren - Hassan and Hussain - with dates and ZamZam. It was also reported that the Prophet used to carry the water of ZamZam in pitchers and water skins back to Madinnah.

He used to sprinkle it over the sick and make them drink it.

In some Hadith, it has been reported that the water of ZamZam has healing effects. In one Hadith it is said: Narrated by Jabir that the Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) said: "Water of ZamZam is good for whatever purpose it has been drunk. In another Hadith the Prophet said "Water of ZamZam is a healer of every disease. Muslims throughout the world do believe that the water is blessed and accordingly it is considered as one of the best gift to be offered.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem"></ref>}}

{{Quote||Four senior experts of Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission have found the water of ZamZam well to be scientifically superior to tap or solar pump water. The experts have analysed and tested samples of water from ZamZam and from tap and solar pumps.

It was found that the ZamZam water has a curative effect.

Alkaline in nature, the ZamZam water can neutralise excess hydrochloric acid formed in the stomach and reduces heartburn.

Iodide, sulphate and nitrate contents are also much higher in the ZamZam water. Supply of iodide through ZamZam may sufficiently fulfil the requirement of iodide for the thyroid organ of a body. The research was carried out jointly by M. A. Khan, A. K. M. Sheriff, K. M. Idris and M. Alamgir.

It was revealed that contents of macro-nutrients like magnesium, sodium and potassium were manifold higher in ZamZam water than in tap and solar pump water.

The scientists said all the data indicated that ZamZam water had much more nutritive values than ordinary underground water.

The hardness of ZamZam water is four times that of tap and solar pump water but it is within the acceptable limit set by the WHO, the researchers found.<ref name="S. H. A. Careem"></ref>}}

==Zamzam Water and Health==

===Arsenic Poisoning===

Arsenic poisoning is caused by increased levels of the element arsenic in the body. Symptoms of arsenic poisoning include headaches, confusion, sleepiness, convulsions, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney, liver and lung problems, and can even result in coma or death.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/articles/p110.htm|2=2011-05-07}} Arsenic Poisoning Symptoms And Treatments] - Chelation Therapy Online, accessed May 7, 2011</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning|2=2011-05-07}} Arsenic poisoning] - Wikipedia, accessed May 7, 2011</ref>

{{Quote||Arsenicosis is the effect of arsenic poisoning, usually over a long period such as from 5 to 20 years. Drinking arsenic-rich water over a long period results in various health effects including skin problems (such as colour changes on the skin, and hard patches on the palms and soles of the feet), skin cancer, cancers of the bladder, kidney and lung, and diseases of the blood vessels of the legs and feet, and possibly also diabetes, high blood pressure and reproductive disorders.<ref name="World Health Organization">[{{Reference archive|1=http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/arsenicosis/en/|2=2011-05-07}} Water-related diseases/ Arsenicosis] - World Health Organization, accessed May 7, 2011</ref>}}

The World Health Organization state that a level of 0.01 mg/L poses a risk of 6 in 10000 chance of lifetime skin cancer risk and contends that this level of risk is acceptable.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/arsenic2/en/index2.html|2=2011-05-07}} Towards an assessment of the socioeconomic impact of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh] - World Health Organization, 2000</ref>

===Fluoride and Other Naturally Occurring Elements===

Fluoride is found naturally in low concentration in drinking water and foods.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/fluoride.pdf|2=2011-05-07}} Fluoride in Drinking-water] - World Health Organization, 2004</ref> In these small naturally occurring amounts fluoride is beneficial, and the fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay.<ref>Griffin SO, Regnier E, Griffin PM, Huntley V (2007) - [{{Reference archive|1=http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/86/5/410|2=2011-05-07}} Effectiveness of fluoride in preventing caries in adults] - J. Dent. Res. 86 (5): 410–5</ref>

Similarly, iron is a naturally occurring element within food,<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whfoods.com%2Fgenpage.php%3Ftname%3Dnutrient%26dbid%3D70&date=2011-05-07 Iron] - The George Mateljan Foundation, accessed May 7, 2011</ref> and not enough iron in our diet can cause iron deficiency anemia, the most common form of anemia worldwide.<ref>Rebecca J. Stoltzfus - [{{Reference archive|1=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/131/2/565S.full.pdf+html|2=2011-05-07}} Iron-Deficiency Anemia: Reexamining the Nature and Magnitude of the Public Health Problem] - Center for Human Nutrition, Department of International Health, School of Hygiene and Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD</ref>

On the other hand, arsenic is a toxic element that has no apparent beneficial health effects for humans regardless of the quantity consumed.<ref name="World Health Organization"></ref>

===Arsenic and Zamzam===

In October 2005, the British Food Standards Agency issued warnings against "fraudulent" Zamzam water being commercially sold which contained dangerous levels of arsenic (over three times the legal limit recommended by the World Health Organization).

{{Quote||The Food Standards Agency is advising consumers to be aware of the fraudulent sale of Zam Zam water that may contain high levels of arsenic. This issue was first brought to the Agency's attention by Muslim leaders.

Zam Zam water, which is sacred to Muslims, comes from a specific source in Saudi Arabia and cannot legally be exported from the country for commercial sale.

A brand of Zam Zam formally sampled by the London Borough of Westminster has been found to contain almost three times the permitted level of arsenic, which could contribute to increasing people's risk of cancer.

The local authority has taken action to prevent further sale of the product from the outlet.

In addition they have contacted the importer of the water to ensure that they stop importing the product. No other outlets are known to have stocked this product.

Other brands of Zam Zam water are thought to be on sale in the UK and could be similarly contaminated.

As genuine Zam Zam water cannot be legally exported from Saudi Arabia for commercial sale, any product found in the shops would have an uncertain provenance and pose a possible safety risk.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://tna.europarchive.org/20110116113217/http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2005/oct/zamzam|2=2011-05-07}} Zam Zam water warning] - Food Standards Agency, October 20, 2005</ref>}}

However, in May 2011, a BBC investigation found that, like the "fraudulent" Zamzam water being sold in 2005, genuine Zamzam water taken from the well also contained arsenic levels three times the legal limit.

In addition to the dangerous arsenic levels, the holy water contained high levels of nitrate and potentially harmful bacteria.

{{Quote||[Samples from taps which were linked to the Zam Zam well and bottles on sale in Mecca] showed high levels of nitrate and potentially harmful bacteria, and traces of arsenic at three times the permitted maximum level, just like the illegal water which was purchased in the UK.

Dr Yunes Ramadan Teinaz, an environmental health officer who has previously warned about Zam Zam water, said it was "a sensitive matter".

"People see this water as a holy water," he added.

"They find it difficult to accept that it is contaminated but the authorities in Saudi Arabia or in the UK must take action," he said.<ref name="BBC News">Guy Lynn - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13267205|2=2011-05-07}} Contaminated Zam Zam holy water from Mecca sold in UK] - BBC News, May 5, 2011</ref>}}

The BBC were also told that there are Muslims in the UK who drink nothing but Zamzam water.<ref name="BBC News"></ref>

These findings suggest that a large number of Muslims consuming this water are at risk for [[w:Arsenic poisoning|arsenicosis]].

[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Health]]

==See Also==

{{Translation-links-english|[[Кладенецът Замзам|Bulgarian]]}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[bg:Кладенецът Замзам]]
[[Category:Hygiene]]
[[Category:Locations]]
[[Category:Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Ritual]]

Iltifat

2021-05-09T13:49:17Z

Ngrewal: /* Change from 3rd person to 2nd person */

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Iltifat (التفات, ''iltifaat''), also known as grammatical shift or grammatical errors, refers to cases where the Quranic text makes strange grammatical shift in point of view or addressee for no apparent reason.

The Islamic interpretation is that the so called "iltifat" is intentional and that it makes the Quran better. Critics, however, suggest that iltifat is the result and evidence of an imprecisely produced or preserved Qur'an.

Professor Suleiman Mourad comments on this phenomenon, "There are a few grammatical mistakes in the Qur'an - sometimes a sentence starts in the singular and ends in the plural (e.g., 9:49-50), or two particles are connected when they should not be (e.g., 3:178), or some vowels go wrong in the declensions (e.g., 22:78). This from the viewpoint of a strict linguist. From the traditional vantage point, since the Qur'an is miraculous, these are not errors."<ref>Mourad, Suleiman (2016) ''The Mosaic of Islam: A Conversation with Perry Anderson'', London: Verso, p.7</ref>

==Examples==

*This is not a complete list of examples. Every category has only one example
*Some examples are debatable, but the purpose is to show all kinds of iltifat that were suggested

===In pronouns===
The Quran in some verses switches [[Arabic pronouns and the Quran|pronouns]] in a strange way. The most remarkable are switches between the 1st and the 3rd person.

====Change from 1st to 2nd person====
This example is debatable. In the verse 36:22 a man asks his people:
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|22}}|
And why should I not worship He who '''created me and to whom you''' will be returned?
}}
It would make more sense in the context to say "who created me and to whom I will be returned".

But it was also interpreted as "why should I not worship He who created me" being the reason for the belief and "and to whom you will be returned" as a warning to the people. Although from the verse it doesn't seem like a warning, it rather seems as if "you will be returned" is being given as a reason for why the ''speaker'' should "worship He who created" him, which proves to be an awkward, ''impersonal'' justification for his ''personal'' devotion to God.

====Change from 1st to 3rd person====
In this verse it cannot be clearly seen in the translation (Sahih International):
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|158}}|
Say, [O Muhammad], "O mankind, indeed '''I am the Messenger of Allah''' to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; '''He gives life and causes death." So believe in Allah and His Messenger''' , the unlettered prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided.}}
Arabic doesn't have capital letters and the Arabic Quran doesn't have punctuation. So the "raw" text would be:
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|158}}|
say o mankind indeed '''I am the messenger of allah''' to you all to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth there is no deity except him '''he gives life and causes death so believe in allah and his messenger''' the unlettered prophet who believes in allah and his words and follow him that you may be guided}}
So it begins by "I am the messenger" (1st person) but ends up referring to himself in the 3rd person ("his messenger the unlettered prophet who believes in allah..").

As we've seen, translators "solved" (interpreted) it by adding quotation marks. "He gives life and causes death" is the speech of Muhammad (which god commanded him to say) and "So believe in Allah and His Messenger" is made out to be the speech of Allah. They're both mentioned in the 3rd person, so who's speaking here? Also there's no reason to break the two parts, it would make sense to say it together: "He gives life and causes death, so believe in Allah and His messenger".
====Change from 3rd person to 1st person====
This example is clear. "We" refers to Allah in 1st person, although Allah was in 3rd person in the beginning:
{{Quote|{{Quran|35|9}}|
And '''it is Allah''' who sends the winds, and they stir the clouds, '''and We drive them''' to a dead land and give life thereby to the earth after its lifelessness. Thus is the resurrection.
}}
====Change from 3rd person to 2nd person====
Again it's not easy to see it in the translation, but the people are referred to as "they", but then the next verse says to them "you". The "[And it will be said]" and quotation marks were added by translators:
{{Quote|{{Quran|76|21-22}}|
76:21 Upon the inhabitants will be green garments of fine silk and brocade. And '''they''' will be adorned with bracelets of silver, and their Lord will give them a purifying drink.

76:22 [And it will be said], "Indeed, this is for '''you''' a reward, and your effort has been appreciated."
}}
Without the interpolation introduced in the translation, it reads "and they will be adorned.. indeed this is for you a reward".
====Change from 2nd person to 1st person====
This example is debatable. "The Lord" is in the 3rd person the whole time. The difference is only in the possessive pronouns:
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|90}}|
And ask forgiveness of '''your''' Lord and then repent to Him. Indeed, '''my''' Lord is Merciful and Affectionate."
}}
It would make more sense to say "Indeed, ''your'' Lord is Merciful and Affectionate".

====Change from 2nd person to 3rd person====
Again, translators added quotation marks to resolve it:
{{Quote|{{Quran|43|70-71}}|
43:70 Enter Paradise, '''you''' and your kinds, delighted."

43:71 Circulated among '''them''' will be plates and vessels of gold. And therein is whatever the souls desire and [what] delights the eyes, and '''you''' will abide therein eternally.
}}

===In verbs===
====Change from past tense to command====
Again, it can't be seen in the translation (Sahih International):
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|29}}|
Say, [O Muhammad], "My Lord '''has ordered justice and that you maintain''' (أمر ربي بالقسط وأقيموا وجوهكم) yourselves [in worship of Him] at every place [or time] of prostration, and invoke Him, sincere to Him in religion." Just as He originated you, you will return [to life] -
}}
It doesn't say in present tense "you maintain", but it's imperative "maintain!" (أقيموا) <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(7:29:5)</ref>. ٍSo it's "My lord ordered justice and maintain yourselves", which is strange.
====Change from present tense to command====
"I call Allah to witness" is followed by a command "witness!" (the "[yourselves]" was added by translators):
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|54}}|
..He said, "Indeed, '''I call Allah to witness, and witness [yourselves]''' (أشهد الله واشهدوا) that I am free from whatever you associate with Allah
}}
It would be more natural to say "I call Allah to witness and I call you to witness" (أشهد الله واشهدكم).

====Change from past tense to present====
Sahih International translation patched it:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|87}}|
And We did certainly give Moses the Torah and followed up after him with messengers. And We gave Jesus, the son of Mary, clear proofs and supported him with the Pure Spirit. But is it [not] that every time a messenger came to you, [O Children of Israel], with what your souls did not desire, you were arrogant? And '''a party [of messengers] you denied and another party you killed.''' (فريقا كذبتم وفريقا تقتلون)
}}
In reality "you denied" is in the past, but "you killed" is actually in the present: "you kill" (تقتلون).

Yusuf Ali made a more precise translation:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|87}}|
We gave Moses the Book and followed him up with a succession of messengers; We gave Jesus the son of Mary Clear (Signs) and strengthened him with the holy spirit. Is it that whenever there comes to you a messenger with what ye yourselves desire not, ye are puffed up with pride?- '''Some ye called impostors, and others ye slay!'''
}}

The Sahih International translation "a party [of messengers] you denied and another party you killed" (with both verbs in the past) would make more sense, but it's not in the Quran.

====Change from present tense to past====
This one can't be seen in the translation at all:
{{Quote|{{Quran|27|87}}|
And [warn of] the Day the Horn '''will be blown''' (ينفخ), and whoever is in the heavens and whoever is on the earth '''will be terrified''' (ففزع) except whom Allah wills. And all will come to Him humbled.
}}
It seems that the verbs are both in future tense, however, the first one is in the present <ref>present - imperfect http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(27:87:2)</ref> and the second in the past <ref>past - perfect http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(27:87:5)</ref>. So "the day the horn is blown, they were terrified".

===In number===
Arabic words have singular, dual and plural forms.

====Change from singular to dual====
{{Quote|{{Quran|10|78}}|
They said, "Have you come to us (أجئتنا) to turn us away from that upon which we found our fathers and so that you two may have (لكما) grandeur in the land? And we are not believers in you."
}}
"You come to us" is singular <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(10:78:2)</ref>, but "you have" is dual <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(10:78:9)</ref>.

====Change from singular to plural====
When the light of the fire lighted around ''him'', Allah took ''their'' light:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|17}}|
Their likeness is as the likeness of '''one who kindled a fire; then, when it lighted all around him, Allah took away their light''' and left them in darkness. (So) they could not see.
}}

====Change from dual to singular====
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|117}}|
So We said, "O Adam, indeed this is an enemy to you and to your wife. Then let him not '''remove you''' (يخرجنكما) from Paradise so '''you would suffer''' (فتشقى).
}}
"remove you" was dual <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(20:117:9)</ref>, but "you would suffer" was singular <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/wordmorphology.jsp?location=(20:117:12)</ref>.

This also seems to suggest, strangely, that if Adam and Eve were removed from paradise, then only Adam would suffer.

====Change from dual to plural====
{{Quote|{{Quran|10|87}}|
And We inspired to Moses and his brother, "Settle (تبوءا) your people in Egypt in houses and make (واجعلوا) your houses [facing the] qiblah and establish (أقيموا) prayer and give good tidings (وبشر) to the believers."
}}
It starts in the dual, "settle" is dual. Then "make your houses" is plural. And "give good tidings" is singular.

The change to plural could be interpreted that it's a command for the two and their people, but still it's a little strange. Since it begins with "We inspired to Moses and his brother", god doesn't talk to their people, so we would expect that the commands would be for them two.

====Change from plural to singular====
Both "we" and "me" refers to god:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|38}}|
'''We said''', "Go down from it, all of you. And when guidance comes to you '''from Me''', whoever follows My guidance - there will be no fear concerning them, nor will they grieve.
}}

====Change from plural to dual====
55:33 is in the plural, 55:34 in the dual:
{{Quote|{{Quran|55|33-4}}|
55:33 O company of jinn and mankind, if you are able (استطعتم) to pass beyond the regions of the heavens and the earth, then pass. You will not pass except by authority [from Allah ].

55:34 So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny (تكذبان)?
}}

==See also==

*[[Spelling Inconsistencies in the Quran]]
*[[Tadmeen]]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Arabic]]

Tadmeen

2021-05-09T13:35:40Z

Ngrewal: /* Examples */

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Tadmeen (تضمين, literally "insertion") is a grammatical allowance introduced by Islamic scholars which attempts to explain why the [[Qur'an]] sometimes uses incorrect prepositions. The explanation by way of tadmeen is that if a word is used with an incorrect preposition, then it is because a different word which can be used with that preposition, was invisibly inserted into the original word.

==English analogy==
In English one can say "believe in god" and "pray to god". If the Qur'an was in English and contained "believe '''to''' god", it would be an error, because it should be "believe '''in''' god". On this analogy, the way tadmeen would be applied would be to say that the word "pray" was invisibly inserted into the word "believe" and since "pray" can be used as "pray '''to'''", then "believe to" is also correct.

==Examples==
Translations of the Qur'an often gloss prepositional errors found in the Arabic original by hiding them in the English renditions. Arab-speaking people, if they notice these errors, generally blame their own judgement rather than the Qur'an. As a result, it is generally only translators and grammarians who are left to deal with these issues.

==="They humble themselves to their lord (فأخبتوا إلى ربهم)===
The verb أخبت (to humble/submit oneself) is used with the preposition ل. For example:
{{Quote|{{Quran|22|54}}|
And so those who were given knowledge may know that it is the truth from your Lord and [therefore] believe in it, and their hearts '''humbly submit''' (فتخبت) '''to it''' (له, ''la-hu''). And indeed is Allah the Guide of those who have believed to a straight path.
}}

However in 11:23 it's used incorrectly with the preposition إلى:
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|23}}|
Indeed, they who have believed and done righteous deeds and '''humbled themselves to their Lord''' (فأخبتوا إلى ربهم) - those are the companions of Paradise; they will abide eternally therein.
}}

And the explanation given is:
{{Quote|[https://www.islamweb.net/ar/article/141497/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AC-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B6%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1 islamweb.net]|
وفي الآية ضُمِّن الفعل (أخبتوا) معنى (أنابوا)، فعدِّي بحرف الجر (إلى)

And in the verse the verb "humble themselves" included "return" so it was used with preposition إلى
}}
So a word which can use that preposition was somehow inserted into it.

==="Allah's servants drink with a spring" (عينا يشرب بها عباد الله)===
{{Quote|{{Quran|76|6}} (Muhsin Khan)|
A spring '''wherefrom''' (بها, ''bihaa'') the slaves of Allah will drink, causing it to gush forth abundantly.
}}
The word ''bihaa'' means "with it". It's strange in Arabic to say "drink with a spring". The correct preposition is "from" (من), "drink from it". Ibn Kathir explained it as a case of tadmeen:
{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir 76:6|
ولهذا ضمن يشرب معنى يروى حتى عداه بالباء

The word Yashrabu (to drink) includes (ضمن) the meaning of Yarwa (to quench one's thirst)
}}
The translator of Ibn Kathir didn't translate the final part حتى عداه بالباء, "so that it could be used with ''with''".

So the Quran said يشرب ("drink"), but uses the incorrect preposition and that is explained as being caused by the word يروى being invisibly inserted into the word يشرب and since يروى can be used with "with", then "drink with" is also correct.

==="Sexual intercourse to your wives" (الرفث إلى نسائكم)===
This is 2:187 translated by Muhsin Khan:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|187}}|
It is made lawful for you to have sexual relations (الرفث) '''with''' (إلى) your wives on the night of As-Saum (the fasts)..
}}

The word إلى means "to". The word "with" would be مع or ب. It is not correct in Arabic to say الرفث إلى ("sexual intercourse to [someone]") as is found in the Qur'an. ِThe explanation give is that this is a case of ''tadmeen'' (insertion) <ref>https://amshehri.com/articles/146/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B6%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85</ref> and that the word الإفضاء (to go) was inserted into the word الرفث ("sexual intercourse") and since it's correct to say الإفضاء إلى ("go '''to'''"), then الرفث إلى ("sexual intercourse '''to'''") is also correct.

The translation Sahih International translates it as "go to" and puts "for sexual relations" in brackets, although in Arabic the verb "go" is not present at all and the word "sexual intercourse" is:
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|187}}|
It has been made permissible for you the night preceding fasting to '''go to''' your wives [for sexual relations]..
}}

==Tadmeen of prepositions themselves==
Some scholars also say that, in addition to verbs, ''tadmeen'' can also be done with prepositions themselves.

For example:
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|13}}|
[It is] the Day they will be tormented '''over''' (على) the Fire
}}
The preposition "over" is said to do tadmeen of the preposition "in" (في), so it's "in the fire".

Here:
{{Quote|{{Quran|62|9}}|
O you who have believed, when [the adhan] is called for the prayer '''on''' (من) the day of Jumu'ah [Friday], then proceed to the remembrance of Allah and leave trade. That is better for you, if you only knew.
}}
The word من means "from". The explanation is that the correct preposition في was invisibly inserted into it.

==See also==

*[[Iltifat]]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Arabic]]

Huruf Muqatta'at (Disjointed Letters in the Qur'an)

2021-05-09T11:36:59Z

Ngrewal: /* Context */ grammar

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=3|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
'''Muqatta`āt''' (مقطعات), are unique letter combinations that begin certain chapters of the [[Qur'an]].
Muqatta`āt literally means abbreviated or shortened. They are also known as '''Fawātih''' ({{lang|ar|فواتح}}) or openers as they form the opening verse of the respective chapters.

==Introduction==

In [[Arabic]] language, these letters are written together like a word, but each letter is pronounced separately. None of these combinations, however, come together to form a meaningful Arabic word. Still, these letters appear joined together in print. Muqatta'at have been and continue to be a topic of intense research and academic discussions in [[Islam]]ic literature and Qur'anic studies.

A few examples of Muqatta'at

#''' 'Alif Lām Mīm''' - Surah Al Baqara, Surah Al Imran, and others
#''' 'Alif Lām Rā' '''- Sura Yunus, Surah Hud
#''' 'Alif Lām Mim Rā' '''-Sura Ar Raa'd
#''' Ḥā' Mīm''' - Surah Ha Mim Sajda
#''' Kāf Ḥā' Yā' `Ayn Ṣād''' - Surah Maryam

Of the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet, exactly one half, that is 14 letters, appear as muqattā`at, either singly or in combinations of two, three, four or five letters. The fourteen letters are:
أ ح ر س ص ط ع ق ك ل م ن ه ي (''alif, ha, ra, sin, sad, ta, ain, qaf, kaf, lam, mim, nun, ha, ya''. Notably, each of these letters has a unique [[w:rasm | rasm]]. (The apparent hamza in ك is a graphical device to reflect its original form, as does its variant ﻛ and its initial and medial cases, ﻛ and ﻜ, respectively.)

==Context==

[[Image:Qur'anic initial letters en.PNG|right|frame|A [[w:tree diagram | tree diagram]] of the Qur'anic initial letters, labeled with the respective numbers of occurrences. To be read right to left.]]
Certain co-occurrence restrictions are observable in these letters; for instance, ''alif'' is invariably followed by ''lam''. The substantial majority of the combinations begin with either ''alif lām'' or ''hā mim''. See the diagram for fuller information.

In all but 3 of the 29 cases, these letters are almost immediately followed by mention of the Qur'anic [[revelation]] itself (the exceptions are [[surah]]s 29, 30, and 68); and some argue that even these three cases should be included, since mention of the revelation is made later on in the surah. More specifically, one may note that in 8 cases the following verse begins "These are the signs...", and in another 5 it begins "The Revelation..."; another 3 begin "By the Qur'an...", and another 2 "By the Book..." Additionally, all but 3 of these surahs are Makkan surahs (the exceptions are surahs 2, 3, 13.)

The surahs that contain these letters are: surah 2, surah 3, surah 7, surah 10, surah 11, surah 12, surah 13, surah 14, surah 15, surah 19, surah 20, surah 26, surah 27, surah 28, surah 29, surah 30, surah 31, surah 32, surah 36, surah 38, surah 40, surah 41, surah 42, surah 43, surah 44, surah 45, surah 46, surah 50, surah 68.

==Classical Islamic Opinions==

Many tomes have been written over the centuries on the possible meanings and probable significance of these 'mystical letters', as they are sometimes called. Opinions have been numerous but a consensus remains elusive. There is no report in the [[hadith|Ahadith]] or [[Sirat Rasul Allah|Sirat]] of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] having used such expressions in his ordinary speech, or his having thrown light as to its usage in the Qur'an. And, more importantly, none of his [[Sahabah|Companions]] seemed to have asked him, regarding it. This apparent lack of examples of this sort of inquisitiveness is cited as proof that the usage of such abbreviations were well known to the Arabs of the time and were in vogue long before the advent of Islam.

Some of the better known opinions are:

<li> These letters stand for words or phrases related to [[Allah]] and his attributes. According to this view 
Alif Lām Mim stands for 'Anā Allāhu `ālim or I am Allah the All Knowing 
Alif Lām Rā stands for 'Anā Allāhu Rā'i or I am Allah the Seer 
The Companions Ibn Abbas and Ibn Mas'ud are said to have favored this view as cited by Abu Hayyan al Andalusi in his Bahr Al Muhit. 
Though plausible, this opinion does not find favor among other classical commentators, the reason given being that the possible combinations of letters are virtually infinite and the Attributes they represent seem to be chosen arbitrarily

<li>Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a classical commentator of the Qur'an, has noted some twenty opinions regarding these letters, and mentions multiple opinions that these letters present the names of the Surahs as appointed by Allah. In addition, he mentions that Arabs would name things after such letters (for example, 'money' as 'ع', clouds as 'غ', and fish as 'ن'). {{bdo|ltr|<ref>{{cite journal|coauthors=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Shehzad Saleem|year=2003|month=July|title=Al-Baqarah (1-7)|journal=Renaissance|author=Michael R. Rose; Casandra L. Rauser; Laurence D. Mueller}}</ref>}}

===Possible, non-dogmatic perspective===

The classical Muslim scholars considered the text of the Qur'an to be unchanged. Thus, they do not consider that the muqattā'at may [[Textual History of the Qur'an|possibly have been added after the prophets lifetime]], accounting for the general absence of narrations where companions inquire regarding the meaning of these letters (where mention of the letter does appear, it is usually a companion discussing a surah that begins with these letters, rather than asking about the letters themselves. Critical scholars have suggested, however, that the reference to these surahs by their muqatta'at letters is likely not reflective of conversations that actually took place during the prophet's life time, but was something introduced to these narrations many decades and multiple centuries after the prophet's death. Even the versions of the narrations recorded in the hadith books seem to dis-include these letters at times.)

This possibility is, however, not without its difficulties, and is elaborated later in this article.

==Modern Islamic Research==

In 1974, an Egyptian biochemist named [[Rashad Khalifa]] announced he had discovered [[The Miracle of 19|a mathematical code in the Qur'an based on these initials and the number 19]]<ref>Rashad Khalifa, ''[http://submission.org/miracle/visual.html Quran: Visual Presentation of the Miracle]'', Islamic Productions International, 1982. ISBN 0-934894-30-2</ref>, which is mentioned in Surah 74:30<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|74|30}} Qur'an, Chapter 74, Verse 30]</ref> of the Qur'an. (However, Günter Lüling claims that the number is really 7, as in the 7 gates of the Christian [[Hell]]. See [http://www.christoph-heger.de/Surah_74_30.htm "Above it are neither nineteen nor seventeen."]) According to his research, these initials which prefix 29 chapters of the Qur'an occur throughout their respective chapters in multiples of this very number, nineteen. He has noted other mathematical phenomena throughout the Quran, all related to what he describes as the "mathematical miracle of the Qur'an." Although subsequently dismissed as a heretic by Muslim scholars, his work did receive some acclaim by notable sources:

Scientific American of September 1980, p. 22. Martin Gardner wrote of Khalifa's initial publication in the West: "It's an ingenious study of the Quran,...Nineteen is an unusual prime. For example, it's the sum of the first powers of 9 and 10 and the difference between the second powers of 9 and 10."

Three years later the Canadian Council on the Study of Religion reported in its Quarterly Review of April 1983 that the code Khalifa discovered is "an authenticating proof of the divine origin of the Quran." Since 1983, little notice has been taken of this work.

Amin Ahsan Islahi stated that Arabs used to use such letters in their poetry and since Qur'an addressed them in their own linguistic style, it was only appropriate for Qur'an to use the same style. He agrees with Rāzi and mentions that since these letters are names for Surahs, being proper nouns they are not bound to have a meaning. At the same time, he cites research from Hamiduddin Farahi, a Qur'anic scholar from the Indian subcontinent, on how these letters must be appropriately chosen according to the content and theme of the surahs.

Farahi links these letters back to Hebrew alphabet and suggests that those letters not only represented phonetic sounds but also contained a symbolic meaning to them, and Qur'an perhaps uses the same meanings when choosing the letters for surahs. For instance, in support of his opinion, he presents the letter Nun (ن), which symbolizes fish and Surah Nun mentions Jonah as 'companion of the fish'. Similarly, the letter Ṭa (ط) represents a serpent and all the Surahs that begin with this letter mention the story of Moses and serpents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Islahi, Amin Ahsan|title=Taddabur-i-Quran|publisher=Faraan Foundation| year=2004| pages=82-85}}</ref>

Yūsuf `Alī in Appendix 1 of his translation of the Qur'an<ref>Yūsuf `Alī, `Abdullah, ''The Holy Qur'ān: Text, Translation and Commentary'', New Revised Edition, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, MD, USA, 1989. ISBN 0-915957-033-5</ref> adduced some statistics regarding the Muqatta`āt (p. 124).

Yūsuf `Alī's evidence can be summarized in the table below.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Letters
!Surahs
|-
|'Alif Lām Mīm
|2, 3, 29-32
|-
|'Alif Lām Mīm Ṣād
|7
|-
|'Alif Lām Rā'
|10-15
|-
|'Alif Lām Mīm Rā'
|13
|-
|Kāf Hā' Yā' `Ayn Ṣād
|19
|-
|Ṭā' Hā'
|20
|-
|Ṭā' Sīn Mīm
|26, 28
|-
|Ṭā' Sīn
|27
|-
|Yā' Sīn
|36
|-
|Ṣād
|38
|-
|Ḥā' Mīm
|40-46
|-
|`Ayn Sīn Qāf
|42
|-
|Qāf
|50
|-
|Nūn
|68
|}

==Possible Critical Perspective==

The critical perspective is typically developed as follows:

1. The rasm of each of the muqatta`āt is unique. In the case of ي, it is only found initially, so its rasm is unique, too. Except for ي and ن, each letter has no dots. In the case of ن, the dot is usually omitted in handwriting in the final and isolated cases.

2. The muqatta`āt are not mentioned in an early Muslim writings, notably, the ahadith and sirat.

3. The muqatta`āt are not distributed at random. 'Alif Lām Mīm occurs in two consecutive sets of surahs: 2-3 and 29-32. 'Alif Lām Rā' occurs in the consecutive surahs 10-15. Ḥā' Mīm occurs in the consecutive surahs 40-46. Ṭā' Sīn Mīm occurs in the nonconsecutive surahs 26 and 28. However, if Ṭā' Sīn is really Ṭā' Sīn Mīm, then the latter also occurs in consecutive surahs.

From 1 and 2, it appears that the muqatta`āt were written in the original, [[Arabic letters and diacritics|defective (dot-free) Arabic]] script without any diacritics to distinguish consonants or vowels. Moreover, they were possibly written after the Ahadith and Sirat were compiled, or, perhaps, were unknown to the writers of those works.

From 3, we can conclude that the muqatta`āt date to after the recension of the Qur'an that produced its modern, longest-to-shortest organization.

The question now becomes what do the muqatta`āt represent? two hypotheses exist:

1. A relic of a now lost filing system

2. Scribal initials

If either were true, we would expect no muqatta`āt between the ranges of other muqatta`āt and no overlaps. This is apparently dis-confirmed by:

1. The presence of 'Alif Lām Mīm Ṣād (sura 7) and 'Alif Lām Rā' (suras 10-15) between the ranges of 'Alif Lām Mīm (suras 2-3 and 29-32). Even if 'Alif Lām Mīm Ṣād is really 'Alif Lām Mīm, the presence of 'Alif Lām Rā' dis-confirms the hypothesis.

and

2. The presence of two sets of muqatta`āt in Surah 42. (Though, perhaps this indicates the work of two scribes.)

Still, some hold that the muqatta`āt to be scribal initials rather than components of the surahs. The consecutive appearances of some sets indicates that some scribes were given consecutive surahs to copy.
==See Also==
*[[The Origins of the Quran|The Origins of the Qur'an]]
*[[Al-Fatiha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Arabic]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Qur'anic textual history]]
[[Category:Revelation]]

Mary, Sister of Aaron

2021-02-10T14:58:11Z

Ngrewal: corrected a 'possibly' typing error

[[bg:Грешки в Корана: Моисей и Аарон – вуйчовци на Иисус]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=3|References=4}}'''Mary (Miriam) the sister of Aaron''' (and of Moses), is mentioned in the [[Quran]], in passing, in reference to [[Mary]] (Mariam) the mother of [[Jesus]].<ref>{{Quran-range|19|27|34}}</ref> Many [[Critics of Islam|critics]] of the Quran as far back as [[Muhammad ibn Abdullah|Muhammad]]'s time regard this as a simple but revealing error.<ref name=":02">Mughira b. Shu'ba reported: When I came to Najran, they (the Christians of Najran) asked me: You read "O sister of Harun" (i. e. Hadrat Maryam) in the Qur'an, whereas Moses was born much before Jesus. When I came back to Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) I asked him about that, whereupon he said: The (people of the old age) used to give names (to their persons) after the names of Apostles and pious persons who had gone before them. {{Muslim|28|13}}</ref> In [[Arabic]] both Marys are called by the same name مريم (''Maryam''). Skeptical Jewish and Christian scholars at the time believed Muhammad had mistook Jesus' mother for Moses' sister.<ref name=":02" /> While they share a common name, they lived more than a thousand years apart. When confronted, in the [[hadith]] Muhammad explains that their perception is a misunderstanding, however, many remained unconvinced.<ref name=":02" /> Ultimately, it seems, Muhammad came to assert that Aaron and Moses had a sister whose name was Kulthum rather than Miriam, though this too seemed to many a poor cover-up.<ref>{{Quran-range|19|27|28}}.</ref><ref>{{Muslim|25|5326}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.al-islam.org/hayat-al-qulub-vol2-allamah-muhammad-baqir-al-majlisi/ Majlisi, ''Hayat al-Qulub'' 2:26].</ref>
==Mention of Mary in the Quran==
===Qur'an===
Mary, the mother of Jesus is called sister of Aaron in sura 19:{{Quote|{{Quran-range|19|27|34}}|Then '''she brought him to her own folk,''' carrying him. '''They said: O Mary!''' Thou hast come with an amazing thing.

(19:28) '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.

'''Then she pointed to him.''' They said: How can we talk to one who is in the cradle, a young boy?

'''He spake: Lo! I am the slave of Allah.''' He hath given me the Scripture and hath appointed me a Prophet,

And hath made me blessed wheresoever I may be, and hath enjoined upon me prayer and almsgiving so long as I remain alive,

And (hath made me) dutiful toward her who bore me, and hath not made me arrogant, unblest.

Peace on me the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I shall be raised alive!

'''Such was Jesus, son of Mary:''' (this is) a statement of the truth concerning which they doubt.

}}The Qur'an also says the wife of Imran gave birth to the virgin Mary who gave birth to Jesus.{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|35|45}}|(Remember) when '''the wife of 'Imran said''': My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee '''that which is in my belly''' as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower!

And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! '''I have named her Mary,''' and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.

And her Lord accepted her with full acceptance and vouchsafed to her a goodly growth; and made Zachariah her guardian. Whenever Zachariah went into the sanctuary where she was, he found that she had food. He said: O Mary! Whence cometh unto thee this (food)? She answered: It is from Allah. Allah giveth without stint to whom He will.

Then Zachariah prayed unto his Lord and said: My Lord! Bestow upon me of Thy bounty goodly offspring. Lo! Thou art the Hearer of Prayer.

And the angels called to him as he stood praying in the sanctuary: Allah giveth thee glad tidings of (a son whose name is) John, (who cometh) to confirm a word from Allah lordly, chaste, a prophet of the righteous.

He said: My Lord! How can I have a son when age hath overtaken me already and my wife is barren? (The angel) answered: So (it will be). Allah doeth what He will.

He said: My Lord! Appoint a token for me. (The angel) said: The token unto thee (shall be) that thou shalt not speak unto mankind three days except by signs. Remember thy Lord much, and praise (Him) in the early hours of night and morning.

And when the angels said: O Mary! Lo! Allah hath chosen thee and made thee pure, and hath preferred thee above (all) the women of creation.

O Mary! Be obedient to thy Lord, prostrate thyself and bow with those who bow (in worship).

This is of the tidings of things hidden. We reveal it unto thee (Muhammad). Thou wast not present with them when they threw their pens (to know) which of them should be the guardian of Mary, nor wast thou present with them when they quarrelled (thereupon).

(And remember) when the angels said: '''O Mary! Lo! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a word from him, whose name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary,''' illustrious in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those brought near (unto Allah).

He will speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood, and he is of the righteous.

'''She said: My Lord! How can I have a child when no mortal hath touched me?''' He said: So (it will be). Allah createth what He will. If He decreeth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is.

}}The Quran mentions prominent families:{{Quote|{{Quran|3|33}}|Indeed, Allah chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of 'Imran over the worlds -}}
==Relevants Quotations==
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|35|45}}|(Remember) when '''the wife of 'Imran said''': My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee '''that which is in my belly''' as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower!

And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! '''I have named her Mary,''' and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.

And her Lord accepted her with full acceptance and vouchsafed to her a goodly growth; and made Zachariah her guardian. Whenever Zachariah went into the sanctuary where she was, he found that she had food. He said: O Mary! Whence cometh unto thee this (food)? She answered: It is from Allah. Allah giveth without stint to whom He will.

Then Zachariah prayed unto his Lord and said: My Lord! Bestow upon me of Thy bounty goodly offspring. Lo! Thou art the Hearer of Prayer.

And the angels called to him as he stood praying in the sanctuary: Allah giveth thee glad tidings of (a son whose name is) John, (who cometh) to confirm a word from Allah lordly, chaste, a prophet of the righteous.

He said: My Lord! How can I have a son when age hath overtaken me already and my wife is barren? (The angel) answered: So (it will be). Allah doeth what He will.

He said: My Lord! Appoint a token for me. (The angel) said: The token unto thee (shall be) that thou shalt not speak unto mankind three days except by signs. Remember thy Lord much, and praise (Him) in the early hours of night and morning.

And when the angels said: O Mary! Lo! Allah hath chosen thee and made thee pure, and hath preferred thee above (all) the women of creation.

O Mary! Be obedient to thy Lord, prostrate thyself and bow with those who bow (in worship).

This is of the tidings of things hidden. We reveal it unto thee (Muhammad). Thou wast not present with them when they threw their pens (to know) which of them should be the guardian of Mary, nor wast thou present with them when they quarrelled (thereupon).

(And remember) when the angels said: '''O Mary! Lo! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a word from him, whose name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary,''' illustrious in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those brought near (unto Allah).

He will speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood, and he is of the righteous.

'''She said: My Lord! How can I have a child when no mortal hath touched me?''' He said: So (it will be). Allah createth what He will. If He decreeth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is.

}}{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And '''Mary, daughter of 'Imran, whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit.''' And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.

}}{{Quote|{{Quran|19|28}}|O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|28|13}}| Mughira b. Shu'ba reported:

When I came to Najran, they (the Christians of Najran) asked me: You read "O sister of Harun" (i. e. Hadrat Maryam) in the Qur'an, whereas Moses was born much before Jesus. When I came back to Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) I asked him about that, whereupon he said: The (people of the old age) used to give names (to their persons) after the names of Apostles and pious persons who had gone before them.}}{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir (non-abridged) on 19:28 <ref>http://quran.al-islam.com/Page.aspx?pageid=221&BookID=11&Page=1</ref> | وَقَالَ اِبْن جَرِير حَدَّثَنِي يَعْقُوب حَدَّثَنَا اِبْن عُلَيَّة عَنْ سَعِيد بْن أَبِي صَدَقَة عَنْ مُحَمَّد بْن سِيرِينَ قَالَ أُنْبِئْت أَنَّ كَعْبًا قَالَ إِنَّ قَوْله : " يَا أُخْت هَارُون " لَيْسَ بِهَارُون أَخِي مُوسَى قَالَ فَقَالَتْ لَهُ عَائِشَة كَذَبْت قَالَ يَا أُمّ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ إِنْ كَانَ النَّبِيّ صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَهُ فَهُوَ أَعْلَم وَأَخْبَر وَإِلَّا فَإِنِّي أَجِد بَيْنهمَا سِتّمِائَةِ سَنَة قَالَ فَسَكَتَتْ وَفِي هَذَا التَّارِيخ نَظَر

 

It was narrated from Ibn Jarir, narrated from Yaqub, narrated from Ibn U’laya, narrated from Sa’id Ibn Abi Sadaqa, narrated from Muhammad Ibn Sireen who stated that he was told that Ka’b said the verse that reads, "O sister of Harun (Aaron)!" (of Sura 19:28) does not refer to Aaron the brother of Moses. Aisha replied to Ka’b, "You have lied." Ka’b responded, "O Mother of the believers! If the prophet, may Allah’s prayers be upon him, has said it, and he is more knowledgeable, then this is what he related. Besides, I find the difference in time between them (Jesus and Moses) to be 600 years." He said that she remained silent.}}
==Biblical and Talmudic accounts of Mary==
Miriam, Aaron and Moses were the children of Amram (Imran in Arabic):{{Quote|1 Chronicles 6:3 |The children of Amram:

Aaron, Moses and Miriam.}}Mary, the mother of Jesus, was the daughter of Joachim and she was from the family of David (not Aaron):{{Quote|The gospel of the birth of Mary, 1:1-2 |The blessed and ever glorious Virgin Mary, sprung from the royal race and family of David, was born in the city of Nazareth, and educated at Jerusalem, in the temple of the Lord.

Her father's name was Joachim, and her mother's Anna. The family of her father was of Galilee and the city of Nazareth. The family of her mother was of Bethlehem.}}
==Apologetic Arguments==
Ibn Kathir gave the following explanation in his tafsir:{{Quote|1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2684&Itemid=75 Maryam with Al-Masih before the People, Their Rejection of Her and His Reply to Them] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=(O sister of Harun!) referring to the brother of Musa, because she was of his descendants. This is similar to the saying, `O brother of Tamim,' to one who is from the Tamimi tribe, and `O brother of Mudar,' to one who is from the Mudari tribe. It has also been said that she was related to a righteous man among them whose name was Harun and she was comparable to him in her abstinence and worship.}}That he mentioned two alternative explanations suggests he was unsure regarding the certainty of either of them
==="Sister of Aaron means a descendant of Aaron"===
The Qur'an says "sister (أُخْتَ) of Aaron" and people understood the verse to literally mean "sister of Aaron". Only when Muhammad came to know that it was wrong, the meaning changed into "a descendant of Aaron". In the Christian sources she is said to be from the family of David, so many wondered why the Qur'an would describe her as being from the family of Aaron? Some point out that in Luke 1:5, Elizabeth is said to be a descendant of Aaron; and in Luke 1:36, Elizabeth is said to be a cousin or relative of Mary <ref>https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+1</ref>. But, as it stands, being related to a descendant doesn't guarantee one's own descendancy from the same ancestor (Aaron in this case).

Furthermore, if she was a known descendant of Aaron, then one wonders why the learned Arab Christians (and Aisha and Mughira b. Shu'ba) of Muhammad's time were unaware of this.

The additional description of her as the "daughter of Amram (Imran)" in Surahs 3 and 66 appears to make the matter even foggier and more clearly problematic.
==="Mary coincidentally had a father called Imran and a brother called Aaron"===
Christian sources say her father was named Joachim and they don't mention she had a brother called Aaron. And if she had a brother called Aaron, then the question still is, why is she called "sister of Aaron"? If her brother is so important that he had to be mentioned with her name, why don't we hear more about him? It is more probable that the author of the Qur'an thought that she really is the sister of Aaron and Moses and so in the Qur'an people called her "sister of Aaron" to emphasize her social status.{{Quote|{{Quran|19|28}}|O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}In other words, the people asked "How can you have a baby without a husband, when you are from such a moral family".
==Moses' Father==
In Hebrew he is called Amram (עַמְרָם) with the letter ''mem'' (ם) at the end. In the Arabic Bible he is also called Amram (عمرام), with the letter ''meem'' (م) at the end:{{Quote|1 Chronicles 6:3 in Arabic Bible|

أبْناءُ عَمْرامَ هُمْ هارُونُ وَمُوسَى وَمَرْيَمُ

The children of Amram: Aaron, Moses and Miriam.

}}In Islam he is called Imran (عمران). Although English translation chose to translate it as Amram:{{Quote|History of at-Tabari, volume 3|

The Genealogy of Moses b. Amram

}}the Arabic original has the letter ''nun'' (ن) at the end:{{Quote|History of at-Tabari (ِArabic) <ref>https://al-maktaba.org/book/9783/383</ref>|ذكر نسب موسى بن عمران

Genealogy of Musa bin Imran (عمران)}}Miriam was the daughter of Amram and a sister of Aaron. The Qur'an describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as being a daughter of Amram and a sister of Aaron - in the same family relationship as Miriam. Many people, including Aisha, understood Mary and Miriam to be the same person, based on their understanding of the Qur'anic text.

When Christians criticized the verse which calls Mary "sister of Aaron" in the Quran, Muhammad's response was that "people were named after pious persons who lived before them". Islamic scholars concluded that Mary was either called "sister of Aaron" because she was his descendant or she had a brother coincidentally called Aaron. Both these solutions seem to be inventions, because Mary was not known to be a descendant of Aaron and she was not known to have a brother called "Aaron". On the other hand Miriam was well-known to be a sister of Aaron.

Since Mary and Miriam are both pronounced Maryam in Arabic, it seems probable, that Muhammad, based on the Christian stories he heard,<ref>For example from Waraqa ibn Nawfal.</ref> mixed these two women into one person, when he was making up the Qur'an.
==See Also==

*[[Imran in Islam]]
{{Hub4|Contradictions and Errors|Contradictions and Errors}}

*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]

*[[Contradictions in the Quran‎]]

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Contra/qbhc06.html "Mary, Sister of Aaron & Daughter of Amram" (Answering Islam)]
{{Translation-links-english|[[Marie, sestra Áronova, v Koránu|Czech]]}}

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Qur'an]]