Early Conversions to Islam - Revision history

Asmith: changing language score

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changing language score

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	Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of idolaters and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>		Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of idolaters and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

2025-12-03T21:06:14Z

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	Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of ~~Idolaters~~ and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>		Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of idolaters and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>

	All schools of Islamic law agree, however, that [[Islam and Apostasy\|apostates]], even if they convert to another monotheistic religion, must convert back to Islam, or be killed.		All schools of Islamic law agree, however, that [[Islam and Apostasy\|apostates]], even if they convert to another monotheistic religion, must convert back to Islam, or be killed.
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	===Under Abu Bakr===		===Under Abu Bakr===
	Immediately following [[Muhammad's Death\|Muhammad's death]], the first [[caliph]], Abu Bakr (one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), ~~begun~~ the Apostasy Wars (wars of ''Ridda'') against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph ~~- an act that was deemed the equivalent of apostasy and thus merited death or, in this case, war~~. This ~~stands out as~~ the earliest instance of forced conversion ~~in Islamic history~~ at a ~~massive level~~<ref>Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</ref>, ~~though was~~ justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which ~~finds ample~~ precedence in Islamic scriptures and ~~multiples~~ [[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad\|~~instantiations~~ in Muhammad's life]].		Immediately following [[Muhammad's Death\|Muhammad's death]], the first [[caliph]], Abu Bakr (one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), began the Apostasy Wars (wars of ''Ridda'') against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph. This represents the earliest instance in Islamic history of forced conversion at a mass scale<ref>Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</ref>, justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which has precedence in Islamic scriptures and [[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad\|in Muhammad's life]].

	==8th-19th centuries==		==8th-19th centuries==
	In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>		In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader, ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>

	===India===		===India===
	In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took ~~many~~ prisoners and carried out conversions to Islam.<ref>{{cite book\|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire\|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar\|authorlink=\|year=1951\|page=12}}</ref> In his later campaigns, in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj~~, again~~, many conversions took place~~. Those~~ soldiers who surrendered to him ~~were converted to Islam~~. In Baran (Bulandshahr) ~~alone~~ 10,000 ~~persons~~ were converted to Islam including the king. Al Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."<ref>{{cite book\|title=India 2001: Reference Encyclopedia, Volume 1\|page=29\|author=Catherine B. Asher\|publisher=South Asia Publicaitons}}</ref> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah ~~speak of~~ construction of mosques and schools ~~and~~ appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud~~. Wherever Mahmud went, he insisted on the people to convert to Islam~~. <ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref> The raids by Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref><ref>Habibullah, ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India'', (Allahabad, 1961), pp.69 and 334</ref><ref>Hasan Nizami, ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', II, p.216</ref><ref>Titus, Murray. ''Islam in India and Pakistan'', ([[Calcutta]], 1959), p.31</ref> Qutb ud-Din Aibak ~~is said to have~~ demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent\|page=72\|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Sikandar Butshikan ~~(reigned 1394-1417)~~ demolished Hindu temples and ~~forcefully~~ converted Hindus in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Kashmir: Valley and Its Culture\|author=Shiri Ram Bakshi\|publisher=Sarup & Sons\|year=1997\|page=70}}</ref>		In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took numerous prisoners, and carried out conversions to Islam.<ref>{{cite book\|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire\|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar\|authorlink=\|year=1951\|page=12}}</ref> In his later campaigns in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, many conversions again took place, including among soldiers who surrendered to him. In Baran (Bulandshahr), an estimated 10,000 people were converted to Islam, including the king.

			Al-Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."<ref>{{cite book\|title=India 2001: Reference Encyclopedia, Volume 1\|page=29\|author=Catherine B. Asher\|publisher=South Asia Publicaitons}}</ref> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah discuss the construction of new mosques and schools, as well as the appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. <ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref>

			The raids of Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref><ref>Habibullah, ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India'', (Allahabad, 1961), pp.69 and 334</ref><ref>Hasan Nizami, ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', II, p.216</ref><ref>Titus, Murray. ''Islam in India and Pakistan'', ([[Calcutta]], 1959), p.31</ref> Qutb ud-Din Aibak reportedly demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent\|page=72\|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Sikandar Butshikan demolished Hindu temples and forcibly converted Hindus in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Kashmir: Valley and Its Culture\|author=Shiri Ram Bakshi\|publisher=Sarup & Sons\|year=1997\|page=70}}</ref>

	===Persia===		===Persia===
	Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, ~~decreed~~ Twelver Shia Islam ~~to be~~ the official religion ~~of state~~ and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<ref>{{Cite book\|authors=Savory, R.M., Gandjeï, T.\| year=2012 \| title=Ismāʿīl I\|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam\| edition=2nd\|publisher=Brill \|editors=P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs\|volume=4\|page=186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\| author=H.R. Roemer\| entry=The Safavid Period \|title=The Cambridge History of Iran\|volume=Volume 6\|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|ref=harv \|year=1986 \|editors=William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Lawrence Lockhart\|page=218}}</ref> Non-Muslims faced frequent ~~persecutions~~ and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.<ref>Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN\|0-691-00807-8}}. p.52</ref> After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam, Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to ~~become Muslims~~, and Sultan Husayn ~~decreed~~ forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<ref>{{Cite book\| last = Lapidus \| first = Ira M. \| authorlink=Ira M. Lapidus \| title = A History of Islamic Societies \| publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) \| year = 2014\| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 \| pages=385–386}}</ref> In 1839, during the Qajar era the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.<ref name="JadidAlIslam">{{cite web\|first=Jaleh \|last=Pirnazar \|url=http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community \|title=The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad \|work=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|location=Bethesda, MD, USA \|publisher=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref> Bagrat V ~~was~~ an ~~Eastern~~ Orthodox Christian~~. Timur invaded Georgia and defeated and captured him. Bagrat~~ agreed to convert to Islam.<ref>'': At the Crossroads of Empires : 14th - 15th Century Eastern Anatolia''. {{cite book \| author=Andrew Peacock \| title=Between Georgia and the Islamic World : The Atabegs of Samc'xe and the Turks \| location=Istanbul \| page=55}}</ref> ~~Only after this, he was released.~~ Timur ~~plundered~~ state of Jammu in 1399~~. He~~ forced ~~the~~ Hindu ruler ~~of Jammu~~ to ~~become a Muslim~~.<ref>Bawa Satinder Singh. The Jammu Fox. A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792-1857. Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Life and Times of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885). Jay Kay Book House, Jammu-Tawi, 1985.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Maharaja Ranjitdev and the rise and fall of Jammu Kingdom, from 1700 A.D. to 1820 A.D. The Dogra-Pahari Itihas Kendra, Pathankot, 1971.</ref><ref>Sorabji Jehangir and F.S. Jehangir Taleyarkhan. Princes and Chiefs of India: A Collection of Biographies, with Portraits of the Indian Princes and Chiefs and Brief Historical Surveys of their Territories. Waterlow and Sons Limited, London, 1903.</ref><ref>Prof. M.L.Kapur (ed.). Maharaja Hari Singh (1895-1961). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1995.</ref><ref>Revised List of Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages of the Jammu and Kashmir State and the Gilgit Agency. The Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1939.</ref><ref>Karan Singh. Autobiography 1931-1967. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.</ref><ref>Mohinder Singh. Raja Ram Singh, the forgotten prince and his times (1861-1899). Gajral Printers, Sanyaj Gandhi Nagar, Jammu, 1990.</ref><ref>G.M.D. Sufi. Kashīr, Being a History of KashmirFrom the Earliest Times to Our Own. 2 Vols. Light & Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1974.</ref>		Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, designated Twelver Shia Islam as the official state religion and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<ref>{{Cite book\|authors=Savory, R.M., Gandjeï, T.\| year=2012 \| title=Ismāʿīl I\|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam\| edition=2nd\|publisher=Brill \|editors=P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs\|volume=4\|page=186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\| author=H.R. Roemer\| entry=The Safavid Period \|title=The Cambridge History of Iran\|volume=Volume 6\|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|ref=harv \|year=1986 \|editors=William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Lawrence Lockhart\|page=218}}</ref> Non-Muslims faced frequent persecution and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.<ref>Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN\|0-691-00807-8}}. p.52</ref>

			After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam. Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to convert to Islam, and Sultan Husayn mandated the forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<ref>{{Cite book\| last = Lapidus \| first = Ira M. \| authorlink=Ira M. Lapidus \| title = A History of Islamic Societies \| publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) \| year = 2014\| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 \| pages=385–386}}</ref> In 1839, during the Qajar era, the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.<ref name="JadidAlIslam">{{cite web\|first=Jaleh \|last=Pirnazar \|url=http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community \|title=The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad \|work=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|location=Bethesda, MD, USA \|publisher=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref>

			Timur invaded Georgia to defeat and capture Bagrat V, an Orthodox Christian, who subsequently agreed to convert to Islam.<ref>'': At the Crossroads of Empires : 14th - 15th Century Eastern Anatolia''. {{cite book \| author=Andrew Peacock \| title=Between Georgia and the Islamic World : The Atabegs of Samc'xe and the Turks \| location=Istanbul \| page=55}}</ref> Timur also raided the state of Jammu in 1399 and forced its Hindu ruler to convert to Islam.<ref>Bawa Satinder Singh. The Jammu Fox. A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792-1857. Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Life and Times of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885). Jay Kay Book House, Jammu-Tawi, 1985.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Maharaja Ranjitdev and the rise and fall of Jammu Kingdom, from 1700 A.D. to 1820 A.D. The Dogra-Pahari Itihas Kendra, Pathankot, 1971.</ref><ref>Sorabji Jehangir and F.S. Jehangir Taleyarkhan. Princes and Chiefs of India: A Collection of Biographies, with Portraits of the Indian Princes and Chiefs and Brief Historical Surveys of their Territories. Waterlow and Sons Limited, London, 1903.</ref><ref>Prof. M.L.Kapur (ed.). Maharaja Hari Singh (1895-1961). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1995.</ref><ref>Revised List of Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages of the Jammu and Kashmir State and the Gilgit Agency. The Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1939.</ref><ref>Karan Singh. Autobiography 1931-1967. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.</ref><ref>Mohinder Singh. Raja Ram Singh, the forgotten prince and his times (1861-1899). Gajral Printers, Sanyaj Gandhi Nagar, Jammu, 1990.</ref><ref>G.M.D. Sufi. Kashīr, Being a History of KashmirFrom the Earliest Times to Our Own. 2 Vols. Light & Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1974.</ref>

	==References==		==References==

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8th-19th centuries

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	==8th-19th centuries==		==8th-19th centuries==
	In the 9th century, Samaritans of [[Palestine]] faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>		In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>

	===India===		===India===

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	[[Category: Sacred history]]		[[Category: Sacred history]]
	[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]		[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]
	[[Category: ~~Sharia~~ (Islamic Law)]]		[[Category: Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

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	[[Category: Sharia (Islamic ~~law~~)]]		[[Category: Sharia (Islamic Law)]]

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	[[Category: Pre-Islamic Arabia]]		[[Category: Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
	[[Category: Sacred ~~History~~]]		[[Category: Sacred history]]
	[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]		[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]
	[[Category: Sharia (Islamic law)]]		[[Category: Sharia (Islamic law)]]

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	[[Category: Sacred History]]		[[Category: Sacred History]]
	[[Category: Fiqh]]		[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]
	[[Category: ~~Shari'ah~~ (Islamic ~~Law~~)]]		[[Category: Sharia (Islamic law)]]

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			[[Category: Fiqh]]
			[[Category: Shari'ah (Islamic Law)]]

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	==References==		==References==
	<references />		<references />

			[[Category: Rashidun Caliphs]]
			[[Category: Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
			[[Category: Sacred Hsitory]]

IbnPinker: IbnPinker moved page History of Forced Conversions to Islam to Early Conversions to Islam

2020-11-10T20:36:58Z

IbnPinker moved page History of Forced Conversions to Islam to Early Conversions to Islam

← Older revision

Revision as of 20:36, 10 November 2020

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	{{QualityScore\|Lead=2\|Structure=3\|Content=2\|Language=3\|References=3}}		{{QualityScore\|Lead=2\|Structure=3\|Content=2\|Language=3\|References=3}}
	Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of ~~Idolaters~~ and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>		Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of idolaters and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude\|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>

	All schools of Islamic law agree, however, that [[Islam and Apostasy\|apostates]], even if they convert to another monotheistic religion, must convert back to Islam, or be killed.		All schools of Islamic law agree, however, that [[Islam and Apostasy\|apostates]], even if they convert to another monotheistic religion, must convert back to Islam, or be killed.
Line 7:		Line 7:

	===Under Abu Bakr===		===Under Abu Bakr===
	Immediately following [[Muhammad's Death\|Muhammad's death]], the first [[caliph]], Abu Bakr (one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), ~~begun~~ the Apostasy Wars (wars of ''Ridda'') against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph ~~- an act that was deemed the equivalent of apostasy and thus merited death or, in this case, war~~. This ~~stands out as~~ the earliest instance of forced conversion ~~in Islamic history~~ at a ~~massive level~~<ref>Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</ref>, ~~though was~~ justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which ~~finds ample~~ precedence in Islamic scriptures and ~~multiples~~ [[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad\|~~instantiations~~ in Muhammad's life]].		Immediately following [[Muhammad's Death\|Muhammad's death]], the first [[caliph]], Abu Bakr (one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), began the Apostasy Wars (wars of ''Ridda'') against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph. This represents the earliest instance in Islamic history of forced conversion at a mass scale<ref>Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</ref>, justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which has precedence in Islamic scriptures and [[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad\|in Muhammad's life]].

	==8th-19th centuries==		==8th-19th centuries==
	In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>		In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader, ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Moshe Gil\|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822\|publisher=CUP Archive\|page=822\|year=1992}}</ref>

	===India===		===India===
	In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took ~~many~~ prisoners and carried out conversions to Islam.<ref>{{cite book\|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire\|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar\|authorlink=\|year=1951\|page=12}}</ref> In his later campaigns, in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj~~, again~~, many conversions took place~~. Those~~ soldiers who surrendered to him ~~were converted to Islam~~. In Baran (Bulandshahr) ~~alone~~ 10,000 ~~persons~~ were converted to Islam including the king. Al Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."<ref>{{cite book\|title=India 2001: Reference Encyclopedia, Volume 1\|page=29\|author=Catherine B. Asher\|publisher=South Asia Publicaitons}}</ref> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah ~~speak of~~ construction of mosques and schools ~~and~~ appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud~~. Wherever Mahmud went, he insisted on the people to convert to Islam~~. <ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref> The raids by Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref><ref>Habibullah, ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India'', (Allahabad, 1961), pp.69 and 334</ref><ref>Hasan Nizami, ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', II, p.216</ref><ref>Titus, Murray. ''Islam in India and Pakistan'', ([[Calcutta]], 1959), p.31</ref> Qutb ud-Din Aibak ~~is said to have~~ demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent\|page=72\|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Sikandar Butshikan ~~(reigned 1394-1417)~~ demolished Hindu temples and ~~forcefully~~ converted Hindus in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Kashmir: Valley and Its Culture\|author=Shiri Ram Bakshi\|publisher=Sarup & Sons\|year=1997\|page=70}}</ref>		In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took numerous prisoners, and carried out conversions to Islam.<ref>{{cite book\|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire\|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar\|authorlink=\|year=1951\|page=12}}</ref> In his later campaigns in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, many conversions again took place, including among soldiers who surrendered to him. In Baran (Bulandshahr), an estimated 10,000 people were converted to Islam, including the king.

			Al-Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."<ref>{{cite book\|title=India 2001: Reference Encyclopedia, Volume 1\|page=29\|author=Catherine B. Asher\|publisher=South Asia Publicaitons}}</ref> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah discuss the construction of new mosques and schools, as well as the appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. <ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref>

			The raids of Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book\| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They\| first=K.S. \|last=Lal \|chapter=1 \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-8185990101 \|asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref><ref>Habibullah, ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India'', (Allahabad, 1961), pp.69 and 334</ref><ref>Hasan Nizami, ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', II, p.216</ref><ref>Titus, Murray. ''Islam in India and Pakistan'', ([[Calcutta]], 1959), p.31</ref> Qutb ud-Din Aibak reportedly demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent\|page=72\|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Sikandar Butshikan demolished Hindu temples and forcibly converted Hindus in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Kashmir: Valley and Its Culture\|author=Shiri Ram Bakshi\|publisher=Sarup & Sons\|year=1997\|page=70}}</ref>

	===Persia===		===Persia===
	Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, ~~decreed~~ Twelver Shia Islam ~~to be~~ the official religion ~~of state~~ and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<ref>{{Cite book\|authors=Savory, R.M., Gandjeï, T.\| year=2012 \| title=Ismāʿīl I\|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam\| edition=2nd\|publisher=Brill \|editors=P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs\|volume=4\|page=186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\| author=H.R. Roemer\| entry=The Safavid Period \|title=The Cambridge History of Iran\|volume=Volume 6\|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|ref=harv \|year=1986 \|editors=William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Lawrence Lockhart\|page=218}}</ref> Non-Muslims faced frequent ~~persecutions~~ and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.<ref>Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN\|0-691-00807-8}}. p.52</ref> After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam, Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to ~~become Muslims~~, and Sultan Husayn ~~decreed~~ forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<ref>{{Cite book\| last = Lapidus \| first = Ira M. \| authorlink=Ira M. Lapidus \| title = A History of Islamic Societies \| publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) \| year = 2014\| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 \| pages=385–386}}</ref> In 1839, during the Qajar era the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.<ref name="JadidAlIslam">{{cite web\|first=Jaleh \|last=Pirnazar \|url=http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community \|title=The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad \|work=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|location=Bethesda, MD, USA \|publisher=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref> Bagrat V ~~was~~ an ~~Eastern~~ Orthodox Christian~~. Timur invaded Georgia and defeated and captured him. Bagrat~~ agreed to convert to Islam.<ref>'': At the Crossroads of Empires : 14th - 15th Century Eastern Anatolia''. {{cite book \| author=Andrew Peacock \| title=Between Georgia and the Islamic World : The Atabegs of Samc'xe and the Turks \| location=Istanbul \| page=55}}</ref> ~~Only after this, he was released.~~ Timur ~~plundered~~ state of Jammu in 1399~~. He~~ forced ~~the~~ Hindu ruler ~~of Jammu~~ to ~~become a Muslim~~.<ref>Bawa Satinder Singh. The Jammu Fox. A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792-1857. Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Life and Times of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885). Jay Kay Book House, Jammu-Tawi, 1985.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Maharaja Ranjitdev and the rise and fall of Jammu Kingdom, from 1700 A.D. to 1820 A.D. The Dogra-Pahari Itihas Kendra, Pathankot, 1971.</ref><ref>Sorabji Jehangir and F.S. Jehangir Taleyarkhan. Princes and Chiefs of India: A Collection of Biographies, with Portraits of the Indian Princes and Chiefs and Brief Historical Surveys of their Territories. Waterlow and Sons Limited, London, 1903.</ref><ref>Prof. M.L.Kapur (ed.). Maharaja Hari Singh (1895-1961). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1995.</ref><ref>Revised List of Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages of the Jammu and Kashmir State and the Gilgit Agency. The Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1939.</ref><ref>Karan Singh. Autobiography 1931-1967. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.</ref><ref>Mohinder Singh. Raja Ram Singh, the forgotten prince and his times (1861-1899). Gajral Printers, Sanyaj Gandhi Nagar, Jammu, 1990.</ref><ref>G.M.D. Sufi. Kashīr, Being a History of KashmirFrom the Earliest Times to Our Own. 2 Vols. Light & Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1974.</ref>		Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, designated Twelver Shia Islam as the official state religion and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<ref>{{Cite book\|authors=Savory, R.M., Gandjeï, T.\| year=2012 \| title=Ismāʿīl I\|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam\| edition=2nd\|publisher=Brill \|editors=P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs\|volume=4\|page=186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\| author=H.R. Roemer\| entry=The Safavid Period \|title=The Cambridge History of Iran\|volume=Volume 6\|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|ref=harv \|year=1986 \|editors=William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Lawrence Lockhart\|page=218}}</ref> Non-Muslims faced frequent persecution and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.<ref>Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN\|0-691-00807-8}}. p.52</ref>

			After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam. Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to convert to Islam, and Sultan Husayn mandated the forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<ref>{{Cite book\| last = Lapidus \| first = Ira M. \| authorlink=Ira M. Lapidus \| title = A History of Islamic Societies \| publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) \| year = 2014\| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 \| pages=385–386}}</ref> In 1839, during the Qajar era, the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.<ref name="JadidAlIslam">{{cite web\|first=Jaleh \|last=Pirnazar \|url=http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community \|title=The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad \|work=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|location=Bethesda, MD, USA \|publisher=Foundation for Iranian Studies \|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref>

			Timur invaded Georgia to defeat and capture Bagrat V, an Orthodox Christian, who subsequently agreed to convert to Islam.<ref>'': At the Crossroads of Empires : 14th - 15th Century Eastern Anatolia''. {{cite book \| author=Andrew Peacock \| title=Between Georgia and the Islamic World : The Atabegs of Samc'xe and the Turks \| location=Istanbul \| page=55}}</ref> Timur also raided the state of Jammu in 1399 and forced its Hindu ruler to convert to Islam.<ref>Bawa Satinder Singh. The Jammu Fox. A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792-1857. Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Life and Times of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885). Jay Kay Book House, Jammu-Tawi, 1985.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Maharaja Ranjitdev and the rise and fall of Jammu Kingdom, from 1700 A.D. to 1820 A.D. The Dogra-Pahari Itihas Kendra, Pathankot, 1971.</ref><ref>Sorabji Jehangir and F.S. Jehangir Taleyarkhan. Princes and Chiefs of India: A Collection of Biographies, with Portraits of the Indian Princes and Chiefs and Brief Historical Surveys of their Territories. Waterlow and Sons Limited, London, 1903.</ref><ref>Prof. M.L.Kapur (ed.). Maharaja Hari Singh (1895-1961). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1995.</ref><ref>Revised List of Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages of the Jammu and Kashmir State and the Gilgit Agency. The Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1939.</ref><ref>Karan Singh. Autobiography 1931-1967. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.</ref><ref>Mohinder Singh. Raja Ram Singh, the forgotten prince and his times (1861-1899). Gajral Printers, Sanyaj Gandhi Nagar, Jammu, 1990.</ref><ref>G.M.D. Sufi. Kashīr, Being a History of KashmirFrom the Earliest Times to Our Own. 2 Vols. Light & Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1974.</ref>

	==References==		==References==