Historical Errors in the Quran - Revision history

Lightyears: /* The singular Pharaoh */ Revised based on recent posts on AcademicQuran reddit. Reduced amount of content contrasting with "The King" is this is often contested as a strong analogy as it isn't a foreign loan word.

2026-03-20T23:22:41Z

The singular Pharaoh: Revised based on recent posts on AcademicQuran reddit. Reduced amount of content contrasting with "The King" is this is often contested as a strong analogy as it isn't a foreign loan word.

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Lightyears: /* 'Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine */

2026-02-16T13:10:03Z

'Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine

Lightyears: /* David invented coats of mail */

2026-01-07T23:40:38Z

David invented coats of mail

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:40, 7 January 2026
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	===David invented coats of mail===		===David invented coats of mail===
	Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While, older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.		Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

	In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.		In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

CPO675: /* Supernatural destruction of cities (the punishment stories) */ Adding the repeated verse of this punishment story.

2025-12-21T20:40:14Z

Supernatural destruction of cities (the punishment stories): Adding the repeated verse of this punishment story.

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:40, 21 December 2025
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	* The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range\|41\|13\|16}},{{Quran-range\|46\|24\|35}},{{Quran\|51\|41}}, {{Quran-range\|69\|6\|7}}.		* The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range\|41\|13\|16}},{{Quran-range\|46\|24\|35}},{{Quran\|51\|41}}, {{Quran-range\|69\|6\|7}}.
	* Pharoah's people are drowned in {{Quran\|10\|90}}, {{Quran\|2\|50}}, {{Quran-range\|26\|66\|68}}, {{Quran\|7\|136}}, {{Quran-range\|89\|10\|13}}.		* Pharoah's people are drowned in {{Quran\|10\|90}}, {{Quran\|2\|50}}, {{Quran-range\|26\|66\|68}}, {{Quran\|7\|136}}, {{Quran-range\|89\|10\|13}}.
	* Moses's people who worship the Samaria's calf are struck with a thunderbolt {{Quran\|2\|55}} and later (after being brought back to life in {{Quran\|2\|56}} and continuing to transgress) a punishment from the sky ''rijz min al-samāʾi'' {{Quran\|2\|59}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 127).'' Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref>		* Moses's people who worship the Samaria's calf are struck with a thunderbolt {{Quran\|2\|55}} and later (after being brought back to life in {{Quran\|2\|56}} and continuing to transgress) a punishment from the sky ''rijz min al-samāʾi'' {{Quran\|2\|59}}<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 127).'' Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref> (cf: {{Quran\|4\|153}}).
	* The people of Midian (''Madyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran\|7\|91}}, {{Quran\|29\|36}}.		* The people of Midian (''Madyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran\|7\|91}}, {{Quran\|29\|36}}.
	* The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran\|54\|32}}, {{Quran\|29\|34}}, {{Quran\|11\|82}}.		* The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran\|54\|32}}, {{Quran\|29\|34}}, {{Quran\|11\|82}}.
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	* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>		* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>
	* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>		* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>
	* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>		* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> in {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>
	* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).		* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).
	The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.		The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.

Lightyears: /* Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh */ Important to be explicit that the Quran puts not only Thamud (and their destruction) before Moses, but thereby also the carved buldings too.

2025-12-13T23:11:02Z

Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh: Important to be explicit that the Quran puts not only Thamud (and their destruction) before Moses, but thereby also the carved buldings too.

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:11, 13 December 2025
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	The Qur'anic narrative concerning Thamūd contains several major historical inaccuracies:		The Qur'anic narrative concerning Thamūd contains several major historical inaccuracies:

	# The structures at al-Hijr were tombs, not homes or palaces, as described in the Qur'an.		# The carved structures at al-Hijr were tombs, not homes or palaces, as described in the Qur'an.
	# These tombs were built by the Nabateans, not the Thamūd.		# These tombs were built by the Nabateans, not the Thamūd.
			# They were built from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, not before Moses.
	# The timeline of Thamūd's existence does not align with the Qur'anic claim that they predated Moses.		# The timeline of Thamūd's existence does not align with the Qur'anic claim that they predated Moses.
	# There is no evidence of a sudden mass extinction event for the people as described in the Qur'an.		# There is no evidence of a sudden mass extinction event for the people as described in the Qur'an.
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	Al-Hijr is accepted as this location by Islamic scholars.<ref>E.g. see tafsirs/commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.80 on verse 15:80]</ref> It is also mentioned once by name in Quran 15:80-83 ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.{{Quote\|1={{Quran-range\|15\|80\|83}}\|2=And certainly did the companions of al-Hijr [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al-hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):{{Quote\|{{Bukhari\|\|\|3379\|darussalam}}\|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:		Al-Hijr is accepted as this location by Islamic scholars.<ref>E.g. see tafsirs/commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.80 on verse 15:80]</ref> It is also mentioned once by name in Quran 15:80-83 ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.{{Quote\|1={{Quran-range\|15\|80\|83}}\|2=And certainly did the companions of al-Hijr [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al-hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):{{Quote\|{{Bukhari\|\|\|3379\|darussalam}}\|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

	The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}However, modern archaeology has confirmed that these were not homes or palaces but elaborately carved tombs. These tombs, over 100 in number, vary in size, with some being very large and others quite small. Even a 14th-century Arab traveller believed they contained the bones of the people of Thamud.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>		The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}

	The Quran explicitly states that Thamud carved palaces from plains and homes from mountains:{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|7\|73\|74}}\|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|26\|149}}\|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}However, the structures identified at al-Hijr were in fact formal tombs, not homes, contradicting the Qur'anic descriptions.<ref name=":1">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ)] - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)</ref>		However, modern archaeology has confirmed that these were not homes or palaces but elaborately carved tombs.<ref name=":1">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ)] - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)</ref> These tombs, over 100 in number, vary in size, with some being very large and others quite small. Even a 14th-century Arab traveller believed they contained the bones of the people of Thamud.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>

			The Quran explicitly states that Thamud carved palaces from plains and homes from mountains:{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|7\|73\|74}}\|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|26\|149}}\|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}

	==== Built by the Nabateans, not the people of Thamūd ====		==== Built by the Nabateans, not the people of Thamūd ====
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	Nabatean inscriptions at the site forbid opening the tombs, reusing them, or moving the bodies. The actual town of "al-Hijr / Hegra", where the people lived, was built of mud-brick and stone some distance from the surrounding rock-cut tombs.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref> This confirms that the elaborate structures in the mountains were not homes but were burial sites made by a later civilization.		Nabatean inscriptions at the site forbid opening the tombs, reusing them, or moving the bodies. The actual town of "al-Hijr / Hegra", where the people lived, was built of mud-brick and stone some distance from the surrounding rock-cut tombs.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref> This confirms that the elaborate structures in the mountains were not homes but were burial sites made by a later civilization.

	Despite this, the Qur'an presents the Thamud as the builders of these mountain structures, again linking their story to visible ~~ruins and emphasizing their destruction~~ as a ~~theological~~ lesson ~~who are told~~ to reflect on ~~them as signs of God~~;<ref name=":02" /> ~~Allāh left them specifically for that purpose,<ref name=":02" /> so we can assume they were still there and known to the audience, at least at the time of preaching.~~ These were well known to Muhammad's listeners:{{Quote\|{{Quran\|29\|38}}\|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|89\|9}}\|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}The Nabateans are a distinct people from the Thamud, as evidenced in Arabic literature including the hadith which also distinguishes the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=nabatean Nabateans (al-Anbat)](e.g. {{Muslim\|\|2613d\|reference}}) from the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=thamud Thamud].		Despite this, the Qur'an presents the Thamud as the builders of these mountain structures, again linking their story to visible abandoned artifacts which were still there as a lesson to reflect on;<ref name=":02" /> These were well known to Muhammad's listeners:{{Quote\|{{Quran\|29\|38}}\|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|89\|9}}\|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}The Nabateans are a distinct people from the Thamud, as evidenced in Arabic literature including the hadith which also distinguishes the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=nabatean Nabateans (al-Anbat)](e.g. {{Muslim\|\|2613d\|reference}}) from the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=thamud Thamud].

	The ~~companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is~~ a ~~term used collectively for~~ the ~~list~~ of ~~destroyed cities also in~~ {{Quran-range\|38\|12\|14}}~~, with each people (umma) getting their own separate messenger (e~~.g. ~~{{Quran\|13\|7}})~~.~~<ref>Durie~~, ~~Mark. ''The Qur’an~~ and ~~Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis~~ of ~~a Religion (pp. 127).~~'~~' Lexington Books~~.~~</ref> However given the similar locations of past Arab groups, it is easy to see how they were confused~~.		==== Before the Time of Moses ====
			The Qur'an references the Thamud as a people who lived and had already met their fate before the time of Pharaoh and Moses:{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|40\|28\|37}}\|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}

	~~==== Before the Time of Moses ====~~		The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran-range\|38\|12\|14}}, with each people (umma) first warned by their own separate messenger (e.g. {{Quran\|13\|7}}).<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 127).'' Lexington Books.</ref>
	The ~~Qur'an references the Thamud as~~ a ~~people who lived before~~ the ~~time~~ of ~~Pharaoh, implying they existed long before Moses before being~~ destroyed~~:{{Quote\|~~{{Quran-range\|40\|28\|37}}\|~~And a believing man from~~ the ~~family~~ of ~~Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [~~...~~] And he who believed said~~, ~~"O my people~~, ~~indeed I fear for you [a fate] like~~ the ~~day~~ of the ~~companies - Like~~ the ~~custom of~~ the ~~people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them~~. ~~And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}However~~, historical and archaeological evidence shows that the Thamud were an ancient but extinct Arabian people who existed from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE.<ref name=":2">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud Thamūd] (ancient Arabian tribe) - Peoples of Asia - Britannica
			On this basis the carved structures would have to pre-date Pharaoh and Moses since in the various verses quoted above, the Thamud carved their homes and palaces prior to their sudden end, having ignored the warnings of their prophet Salih. As noted above, these structures were actually tombs carved by the Nabateans between the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.

			Additionally, historical and archaeological evidence shows that the Thamud were an ancient but extinct Arabian people who existed from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE.<ref name=":2">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud Thamūd] (ancient Arabian tribe) - Peoples of Asia - Britannica

	''Thamūd, in ancient Arabia, tribe or group of tribes known to be extant from the 8th century bce to the 5th century ce..''</ref> Meanwhile, Moses is traditionally dated to the 14th–13th century BCE,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet Moses] - Brittanica. Dewey M. Beegle. 2025 (last updated)</ref> though there is ongoing debate among historians about his existence and the exact timeline of early Israelite history. Nevertheless, even ignoring biblical and Islamic (but non-Quranic such as Tafsirs) writings, the most chronologically late estimates must place Moses' time to at least 900 - 850BCE as this is approximately when Israel's formation occurred,<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57:		''Thamūd, in ancient Arabia, tribe or group of tribes known to be extant from the 8th century bce to the 5th century ce..''</ref> Meanwhile, Moses is traditionally dated to the 14th–13th century BCE,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet Moses] - Brittanica. Dewey M. Beegle. 2025 (last updated)</ref> though there is ongoing debate among historians about his existence and the exact timeline of early Israelite history. Nevertheless, even ignoring biblical and Islamic (but non-Quranic such as Tafsirs) writings, the most chronologically late estimates must place Moses' time to at least 900 - 850BCE as this is approximately when Israel's formation occurred,<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57:

Lightyears: /* Historical accuracy of the polemic */

2025-12-09T02:30:35Z

Historical accuracy of the polemic

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:30, 9 December 2025
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	====Historical accuracy of the polemic====		====Historical accuracy of the polemic====
	However, it has also been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be god's son. Even in the Talmud, a voice from heaven calls at least two other Rabbis, Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - ~~Safaria~~.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa as "my son".<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref>		However, it has also been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be god's son. Even in the Talmud, a voice from heaven calls at least two other Rabbis, Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - Sefaria.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa as "my son".<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref>

	It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).		It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).

Lightyears: /* Historical accuracy of the polemic */

2025-12-09T02:29:04Z

Historical accuracy of the polemic

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:29, 9 December 2025
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	====Historical accuracy of the polemic====		====Historical accuracy of the polemic====
	However, it has also been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be god's son. Even in the Talmud, ~~the~~ voice ~~of god in the temple addresses another Rabbi~~, Yishmael ben Elisha ~~as "my son".~~<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a.4] - ~~Safaria~~.org</ref>		However, it has also been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be god's son. Even in the Talmud, a voice from heaven calls at least two other Rabbis, Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - Safaria.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa as "my son".<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref>

	It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).		It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).

Lightyears at 00:21, 6 December 2025

2025-12-06T00:21:26Z

Lightyears: /* Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine */ Important development on the identity of 'Uzayr. Apologists are already on to it so deserves a significant subsection.

2025-12-04T22:22:09Z

Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine: Important development on the identity of 'Uzayr. Apologists are already on to it so deserves a significant subsection.

@@ Line 18: / Line 18: @@
 Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements in the view of critics. {{Muslim||2135|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that simply by coincidence this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.
-===Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
+==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
-Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as practitioners of polytheism by stating that they hold ''Uzayr'' (Ezra) to be the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christian doctrine which holds Jesus to be the son of God. This appears to be a confusion resulting from conflating the alternative senses in which Jewish and Christian theologians have employed and understood the word "son".
+Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, states that the Jews call ''ʿUzayr'' (traditionally interpreted as the Biblical figure Ezra) the son of God. This is compared directly with Christians calling Jesus the son of God.
-{{Quote|{{Quran|9|30}}|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}
+{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|30|31}}|30 The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?</BR>
-Academic scholars have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud, or from the angel Azael in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text), though a compelling identification remains lacking,<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref> Islamic scholars typically speculate that the verse could refer to some group of Jews whose unorthodox beliefs have been lost to history.
+Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud, or from the angel Azael in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>
 === The afterlife in the Torah ===

CPO675: /* Supernatural destruction of cities (the punishment stories) */ Added another punishment narrative, and reference for the Queen of Sheba fitting in with the punishment stories despite it's briefness.

2025-12-01T23:04:40Z

Supernatural destruction of cities (the punishment stories): Added another punishment narrative, and reference for the Queen of Sheba fitting in with the punishment stories despite it's briefness.

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:04, 1 December 2025
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	* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>		* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>
	* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>		* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>
	* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.		* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>
			* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).
	The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.		The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:40, 21 December 2025
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	* The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range\|41\|13\|16}},{{Quran-range\|46\|24\|35}},{{Quran\|51\|41}}, {{Quran-range\|69\|6\|7}}.		* The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range\|41\|13\|16}},{{Quran-range\|46\|24\|35}},{{Quran\|51\|41}}, {{Quran-range\|69\|6\|7}}.
	* Pharoah's people are drowned in {{Quran\|10\|90}}, {{Quran\|2\|50}}, {{Quran-range\|26\|66\|68}}, {{Quran\|7\|136}}, {{Quran-range\|89\|10\|13}}.		* Pharoah's people are drowned in {{Quran\|10\|90}}, {{Quran\|2\|50}}, {{Quran-range\|26\|66\|68}}, {{Quran\|7\|136}}, {{Quran-range\|89\|10\|13}}.
	* Moses's people who worship the Samaria's calf are struck with a thunderbolt {{Quran\|2\|55}} and later (after being brought back to life in {{Quran\|2\|56}} and continuing to transgress) a punishment from the sky ''rijz min al-samāʾi'' {{Quran\|2\|59}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 127).'' Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref>		* Moses's people who worship the Samaria's calf are struck with a thunderbolt {{Quran\|2\|55}} and later (after being brought back to life in {{Quran\|2\|56}} and continuing to transgress) a punishment from the sky ''rijz min al-samāʾi'' {{Quran\|2\|59}}<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 127).'' Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref> (cf: {{Quran\|4\|153}}).
	* The people of Midian (''Madyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran\|7\|91}}, {{Quran\|29\|36}}.		* The people of Midian (''Madyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran\|7\|91}}, {{Quran\|29\|36}}.
	* The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran\|54\|32}}, {{Quran\|29\|34}}, {{Quran\|11\|82}}.		* The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran\|54\|32}}, {{Quran\|29\|34}}, {{Quran\|11\|82}}.
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	* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>		* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>
	* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>		* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>
	* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>		* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> in {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>
	* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).		* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).
	The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.		The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.

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	* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>		* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran\|25\|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran\|50\|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>
	* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>		* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran\|26\|176}}, {{Quran\|15\|78}}, {{Quran\|38\|13}}, {{Quran\|50\|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>
	* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.		* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> {{Quran\|34\|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>
			* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran\|36\|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran\|36\|29}}).
	The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.		The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.

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	31 They have taken their scholars and monks as lords besides Allah, and [also] the Messiah, the son of Mary. And they were not commanded except to worship one God; there is no deity except Him. Exalted is He above whatever they associate with Him.}}		31 They have taken their scholars and monks as lords besides Allah, and [also] the Messiah, the son of Mary. And they were not commanded except to worship one God; there is no deity except Him. Exalted is He above whatever they associate with Him.}}

	Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud (though not as the "son of god"), or from the angel ~~Azael~~ in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>		Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud (though not as the "son of god"), or from the angel Azazel in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>

	====Identification as R. Eliezer====		====Identification as R. Eliezer====
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	[[w:Eliezer ben Hurcanus\|Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] (ʾEliʿezer, d. 2nd century CE), known as Rabbi Eliezer or Eliezer ha-Gadol ("the Great") is the 6th most commonly mentioned sage in the Mishnah, a 3rd century CE written compilation of Jewish oral traditions which was the first written work of Rabbinic literature. The Mishnah claims its traditions were handed down orally from Moses on Mount Sinai. This concept, later termed "oral Torah" is first seen around the 1st century CE.		[[w:Eliezer ben Hurcanus\|Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] (ʾEliʿezer, d. 2nd century CE), known as Rabbi Eliezer or Eliezer ha-Gadol ("the Great") is the 6th most commonly mentioned sage in the Mishnah, a 3rd century CE written compilation of Jewish oral traditions which was the first written work of Rabbinic literature. The Mishnah claims its traditions were handed down orally from Moses on Mount Sinai. This concept, later termed "oral Torah" is first seen around the 1st century CE.

	Rabbis revered R. Eliezer with great legal authority. A 5th century Palestinian Rabbinic text has ~~god~~ himself quoting the future Rabbi's legal interpretations to Moses on Mount Sinai and promising that this "righteous one" will be born in Moses' lineage.<ref>Pesikta des Rav Kahana 4:7-8.<BR />		Rabbis revered R. Eliezer with great legal authority. A 5th century Palestinian Rabbinic text has God himself quoting the future Rabbi's legal interpretations to Moses on Mount Sinai and promising that this "righteous one" will be born in Moses' lineage.<ref>Pesikta des Rav Kahana 4:7-8.<BR />
	See at 21 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> A later text of uncertain date adds that on this occasion the voice of god stated "R. Eliezer my son said...".		See at 21 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> A later text of uncertain date adds that on this occasion the voice of god stated "R. Eliezer my son said...".
	<ref>Tanhuma Ḥukat (Chukat) 8-9 (Warsaw), part 2, folio 79a quoted at 26 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref>		<ref>Tanhuma Ḥukat (Chukat) 8-9 (Warsaw), part 2, folio 79a quoted at 26 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref>
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	Zellentin points out both possibilities. Early Muslims gave the rival prophet Maslamah the insulting diminutive Musaylimah, while on the other hand Ali's sons were called Hasan and Husayn.</ref>		Zellentin points out both possibilities. Early Muslims gave the rival prophet Maslamah the insulting diminutive Musaylimah, while on the other hand Ali's sons were called Hasan and Husayn.</ref>

	The next verse (Q. 9:31) criticises the authority accorded by Jews to their scholars. Building on an observation by Saqib Hussain, Zellentin argues that this is further evidence that 'Uzayr ~~in the previous verse~~ refers to a rabbinic figure,<ref>At 28 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> ~~and regards the verses as a well informed polemic.~~<ref>~~This~~ argument was further developed in a presentation by Hythem Sidky with Zellentin [https://event.fourwaves.com/iqsa2025/abstracts/94a52e0d-1e00-470c-a5fc-484fb862df96 Once again on ʿUzayr, the Son of God] (2025)<BR/>		The next verse (Q. 9:31) criticises the authority accorded by Jews to their scholars, just as the Christians do with theirs and with Jesus. Building on an observation by Saqib Hussain, Zellentin argues that this parallel structure with the previous verse is further evidence that 'Uzayr refers to a rabbinic figure.<ref>At 28 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref><ref name="SidkyZellentin">The argument was further developed in a presentation by Hythem Sidky with Zellentin [https://event.fourwaves.com/iqsa2025/abstracts/94a52e0d-1e00-470c-a5fc-484fb862df96 Once again on ʿUzayr, the Son of God] (2025)<BR/>
	~~Zellentin compares~~ the ~~language in Q:9:31 with Mishnah Avot 4:12:~~<BR/>		Their draft paper of the same title is also available online (submitted to the Journal of Quranic Studies)<BR/>
	~~''Rabbi Elʿazar said: "Let~~ the ~~honor~~ of ~~your disciple be~~ as ~~beloved to you~~ as ~~the honor of your colleague (haver)~~, and ~~the honor of your colleague like the fear of your master (rab)~~, ~~and the fear of your master like the fear of Heaven~~.~~"''~~</ref>		Zellentin and Sidky describe the Quranic accusation of deification as hyperbolic, though certainly not entirely baseless. They also variously describe its polemic as taking some poetic license, and as giving a simple, historically well-founded message.</ref>

	====Historical accuracy of the polemic====		====Historical accuracy of the polemic====
	~~However~~, it has also been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be ~~god~~'s son. ~~Even in~~ the Talmud, a voice from heaven calls ~~at least two~~ other Rabbis, Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - Sefaria.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa ~~as "my son"~~.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref>		Assuming this identification is correct, it has also however been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be God's son. In the Babylonian Talmud (compiled 6th century CE) and wider tradition, a voice from heaven calls several other Rabbis "my son", including Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew\|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - Sefaria.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref> The heavenly voice in each case uses the same phrasing formula as for Rabbi Eliezer in the Jerusalem Talmud.<ref name="SidkyZellentin" />

	It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).		It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).

	On the other hand, others have noted the vehemence with which Q. 9:30 polemically puts Jews in similar company to Christians in calling a man the son of god. It says they both imitate the saying of those who disbelieved in the past, invokes Allah's destruction on them and is astonished at their delusion. This may indicate that the author thought Jews called R. Eliezer ~~god's~~ son in a more literal sense. It would be an easy mistake to make or could be deliberate exaggeration. Significantly, the end of Q. 9:31 accuses both the Jews and Christians of failing to worship only one god and of shirk (associating partners with Allah). This may suggest a theological parallel between Christian worship of Jesus and an imagined quasi-divine Jewish reverence for R. Eliezer.		On the other hand, others have noted the vehemence with which Q. 9:30 polemically puts Jews in similar company to Christians in calling a man the son of god. It says they both imitate the saying of those who disbelieved in the past, invokes Allah's destruction on them and is astonished at their delusion. This may indicate that the author thought Jews called R. Eliezer the son of God in a more literal sense. It would be an easy mistake to make or could be deliberate exaggeration. Significantly, the end of Q. 9:31 accuses both the Jews and Christians of failing to worship only one god and of shirk (associating partners with Allah). This may suggest a theological parallel between Christian worship of Jesus and an imagined quasi-divine Jewish reverence for R. Eliezer.

	Ironically, the Quran itself unwittingly credits rabbinic interpretations as divine revelation. The most famous example [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Whoever_kills_a_soul_it_is_as_if_he_has_slain_mankind\|occurs in Q. 5:32]]. Some critics also argue there is a double standard in the polemic since {{Quran\|33\|36}} gives legal authority to Allah and Muhammad, and due to the traditional Sunni reliance on his sunnah as recorded in hadiths.		Ironically, the Quran itself unwittingly credits rabbinic interpretations as divine revelation. The most famous example [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Whoever_kills_a_soul_it_is_as_if_he_has_slain_mankind\|occurs in Q. 5:32]]. Some critics also argue there is a double standard in the polemic since {{Quran\|33\|36}} gives legal authority to Allah and Muhammad, and due to the traditional Sunni reliance on his sunnah as recorded in hadiths.

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	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|5\|72\|75}}\|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|5\|72\|75}}\|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}

	A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible ~~alternative~~ interpretation ~~proposed~~ so far ~~relates~~ these verses to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (~~for~~ details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]).		A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible interpretation so far by academic scholars sees these verses as a response to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (or a misunderstanding thereof, in the view of critics). For details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

	===Mary as Miriam===		===Mary as Miriam===
	{{main\|Mary the sister of Aaron in the Quran}}Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced ''maryam'').{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|19\|27\|28}}\|Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|66\|12}}\|And Mary, '''daughter of 'Imran''', whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|3\|33\|36}}\| Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham '''and the Family of 'Imran''' above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the '''wife of 'Imran''' said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.}}		{{main\|Mary the sister of Aaron in the Quran}}Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced ''maryam'').{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|19\|27\|28}}\|Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran\|66\|12}}\|And Mary, '''daughter of 'Imran''', whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.}}{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|3\|33\|36}}\| Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham '''and the Family of 'Imran''' above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the '''wife of 'Imran''' said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.}}
	Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements in the view of critics. {{Muslim\|\|2135\|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that simply by coincidence this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.		Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements in the view of critics. {{Muslim\|\|2135\|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed customarily as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that simply by coincidence this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

	==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===		==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
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	31 They have taken their scholars and monks as lords besides Allah, and [also] the Messiah, the son of Mary. And they were not commanded except to worship one God; there is no deity except Him. Exalted is He above whatever they associate with Him.}}		31 They have taken their scholars and monks as lords besides Allah, and [also] the Messiah, the son of Mary. And they were not commanded except to worship one God; there is no deity except Him. Exalted is He above whatever they associate with Him.}}

	Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud, or from the angel Azael in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>		Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud (though not as the "son of god"), or from the angel Azael in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8<BR />Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>

	====Identification as R. Eliezer====		====Identification as R. Eliezer====
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	This paper was presented at the conference 'The “Seven Long Ones” (al-Sabʿ al-Ṭiwāl): Approaches to Surahs 2–7 and 9', held at Pembroke College, Oxford (24-25 March 2025)</ref>		This paper was presented at the conference 'The “Seven Long Ones” (al-Sabʿ al-Ṭiwāl): Approaches to Surahs 2–7 and 9', held at Pembroke College, Oxford (24-25 March 2025)</ref>

	[[w:Eliezer ben Hurcanus\|Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] (ʾEliʿezer, d. 2nd century CE), known as Rabbi Eliezer or Eliezer ha-Gadol ("the Great") is the 6th most commonly mentioned sage in the Mishnah, a 3rd century CE written compilation of Jewish oral traditions which is the first written work of Rabbinic literature. The Mishnah claims its traditions were handed down orally from Moses on Mount Sinai. This concept, later termed "oral Torah" is first seen around the 1st century CE.		[[w:Eliezer ben Hurcanus\|Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] (ʾEliʿezer, d. 2nd century CE), known as Rabbi Eliezer or Eliezer ha-Gadol ("the Great") is the 6th most commonly mentioned sage in the Mishnah, a 3rd century CE written compilation of Jewish oral traditions which was the first written work of Rabbinic literature. The Mishnah claims its traditions were handed down orally from Moses on Mount Sinai. This concept, later termed "oral Torah" is first seen around the 1st century CE.

	Rabbis revered R. Eliezer with great legal authority. A 5th century Palestinian Rabbinic text has god himself quoting the future Rabbi's legal interpretations to Moses on Mount Sinai and promising that this "righteous one" will be born in Moses' lineage.<ref>Pesikta des Rav Kahana 4:7-8.<BR />		Rabbis revered R. Eliezer with great legal authority. A 5th century Palestinian Rabbinic text has god himself quoting the future Rabbi's legal interpretations to Moses on Mount Sinai and promising that this "righteous one" will be born in Moses' lineage.<ref>Pesikta des Rav Kahana 4:7-8.<BR />
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	The name ʾEliʿezer means “help of god" in Hebrew, from ʾEl (god) and ʿ-z-r (“help”). According to Zellentin, 'Uzayr in Q. 9:30 could be an Arabic version of ʿezer, in the diminutive form (fu’ayl) which adds "ay" to mean, "little helper". This could be a Quranic insult, though possibly was just an affectionate name for the scholar among Arabic speaking Jews.<ref>See from 29 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation].<BR/>		The name ʾEliʿezer means “help of god" in Hebrew, from ʾEl (god) and ʿ-z-r (“help”). According to Zellentin, 'Uzayr in Q. 9:30 could be an Arabic version of ʿezer, in the diminutive form (fu’ayl) which adds "ay" to mean, "little helper". This could be a Quranic insult, though possibly was just an affectionate name for the scholar among Arabic speaking Jews.<ref>See from 29 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation].<BR/>
	~~Sidky and~~ Zellentin ~~point~~ out both possibilities. Early Muslims gave the rival prophet Maslamah the insulting diminutive Musaylimah, while on the other hand Ali's sons were called Hasan and Husayn.</ref>		Zellentin points out both possibilities. Early Muslims gave the rival prophet Maslamah the insulting diminutive Musaylimah, while on the other hand Ali's sons were called Hasan and Husayn.</ref>

	The next verse (Q. 9:31) criticises the authority accorded by Jews to their scholars. Building on an observation by Saqib Hussain, Zellentin argues that this is further evidence that 'Uzayr in the previous verse refers to a rabbinic figure,<ref>At 28 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> and regards the verses as a well informed polemic.<ref>This argument was further developed in a presentation by Hythem Sidky with Zellentin [https://event.fourwaves.com/iqsa2025/abstracts/94a52e0d-1e00-470c-a5fc-484fb862df96 Once again on ʿUzayr, the Son of God] (2025)<BR/>		The next verse (Q. 9:31) criticises the authority accorded by Jews to their scholars. Building on an observation by Saqib Hussain, Zellentin argues that this is further evidence that 'Uzayr in the previous verse refers to a rabbinic figure,<ref>At 28 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> and regards the verses as a well informed polemic.<ref>This argument was further developed in a presentation by Hythem Sidky with Zellentin [https://event.fourwaves.com/iqsa2025/abstracts/94a52e0d-1e00-470c-a5fc-484fb862df96 Once again on ʿUzayr, the Son of God] (2025)<BR/>
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	It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).		It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).

	On the other hand, others have noted the vehemence with which Q. 9:30 polemically puts Jews in similar company to Christians in calling a man the son of god, says they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved in the past, invokes Allah's destruction on them and is astonished at their delusion. This may indicate that the author thought Jews called R. Eliezer god's son in a more literal sense. It would be an easy mistake to make or could be deliberate exaggeration. Significantly, the end of Q. 9:31 accuses both the Jews and Christians of failing to worship only one god and of shirk (associating partners with Allah). This may suggest a theological parallel between Christian worship of Jesus and an imagined quasi-divine Jewish reverence for R. Eliezer.		On the other hand, others have noted the vehemence with which Q. 9:30 polemically puts Jews in similar company to Christians in calling a man the son of god. It says they both imitate the saying of those who disbelieved in the past, invokes Allah's destruction on them and is astonished at their delusion. This may indicate that the author thought Jews called R. Eliezer god's son in a more literal sense. It would be an easy mistake to make or could be deliberate exaggeration. Significantly, the end of Q. 9:31 accuses both the Jews and Christians of failing to worship only one god and of shirk (associating partners with Allah). This may suggest a theological parallel between Christian worship of Jesus and an imagined quasi-divine Jewish reverence for R. Eliezer.

	Ironically, the Quran itself unwittingly credits rabbinic interpretations as divine revelation. The most famous example [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Whoever_kills_a_soul_it_is_as_if_he_has_slain_mankind\|occurs in Q. 5:32]]. Some critics ~~have~~ also ~~argued~~ there is a double standard in the polemic since {{Quran\|33\|36}} gives legal authority to Allah and Muhammad and due to the traditional Sunni reliance on his sunnah as recorded in hadiths.		Ironically, the Quran itself unwittingly credits rabbinic interpretations as divine revelation. The most famous example [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Whoever_kills_a_soul_it_is_as_if_he_has_slain_mankind\|occurs in Q. 5:32]]. Some critics also argue there is a double standard in the polemic since {{Quran\|33\|36}} gives legal authority to Allah and Muhammad, and due to the traditional Sunni reliance on his sunnah as recorded in hadiths.

	=== The afterlife in the Torah ===		=== The afterlife in the Torah ===