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==Les effets sur la santé==
==Les effets sur la santé==
La communauté médicale est préoccupée par certains des effets sur la santé qui découlent des modèles extrêmes de tenues vestimentaires islamiques, avec principalement des problèmes de carence en vitamine D suite au manque de peau exposée aux rayons UV. Il a été établi par des preuves scientifiques crédibles que presque toutes les femmes qui observent le hijab intégral sont chroniquement déficientes en vitamine D.<ref>Mishal, A.A., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11804019/ Effects of Different Dress Styles on Vitamin D Levels in Healthy Young Jordanian Women]. Osteoporosis International, 2001. 12(11): p. 931-935.</ref> La vitamine D est un nutriment vital et une carence de ce genre peut entraîner diverses maladies.
La communauté médicale est préoccupée par certains des effets sur la santé qui découlent des modèles extrêmes de tenues vestimentaires islamiques, avec principalement des problèmes de carence en vitamine D suite au manque de peau exposée aux rayons UV. Il a été établi par des preuves scientifiques crédibles que presque toutes les femmes qui observent le hijab intégral sont chroniquement déficientes en vitamine D.<ref>Mishal, A.A., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11804019/ Effects of Different Dress Styles on Vitamin D Levels in Healthy Young Jordanian Women]. Osteoporosis International, 2001. 12(11): p. 931-935.</ref> La vitamine D est un nutriment vital et une carence de ce genre peut entraîner diverses maladies.
===Carence en vitamine D===
 
=== Carence en vitamine D ===
La vitamine D est une vitamine liposoluble qui est un nutriment essentiel pour la santé humaine.<ref>Moan, J. et A. Juzeniene, [https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/3790568/2370319.pdf Solar radiation and human health]. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 2010: p. 109-110.</ref><ref>Bandgar, T.R., [https://www.japi.org/s2e474b4/vitamin-d-and-hip-fractures-indian-scenario Vitamin d and hip fractures: Indian scenario]. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 2010. 58(9): p. 535-537.</ref> La vitamine D est synthétisée lorsque les rayons ultraviolets du soleil frappent la peau humaine, déclenchant ainsi une série de réactions, et c’est par cette méthode que la grande majorité de l’apport quotidien en vitamine D d’une personne est produite. Elle est naturellement absente dans presque tous les aliments couramment consommés, très peu d’aliments de choix contiennent des quantités appréciables et très peu de produits de consommation en sont enrichis.<ref>Office of Dietary Supplements - National Institutes of Health. [http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind/ Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D.] 2011. Consulté le 2 juillet 2011.</ref>
La vitamine D est une vitamine liposoluble qui est un nutriment essentiel pour la santé humaine.<ref>Moan, J. et A. Juzeniene, [https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/3790568/2370319.pdf Solar radiation and human health]. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 2010: p. 109-110.</ref><ref>Bandgar, T.R., [https://www.japi.org/s2e474b4/vitamin-d-and-hip-fractures-indian-scenario Vitamin d and hip fractures: Indian scenario]. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 2010. 58(9): p. 535-537.</ref> La vitamine D est synthétisée lorsque les rayons ultraviolets du soleil frappent la peau humaine, déclenchant ainsi une série de réactions, et c’est par cette méthode que la grande majorité de l’apport quotidien en vitamine D d’une personne est produite. Elle est naturellement absente dans presque tous les aliments couramment consommés, très peu d’aliments de choix contiennent des quantités appréciables et très peu de produits de consommation en sont enrichis.<ref>Office of Dietary Supplements - National Institutes of Health. [http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind/ Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D.] 2011. Consulté le 2 juillet 2011.</ref>


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De faibles niveaux de vitamine D ont également été associés à toute une série de troubles dévastateurs, notamment les maladies cardiovasculaires, le diabète de type 1, la sclérose en plaques et la polyarthrite rhumatoïde. Il existe également une forte association entre une carence en vitamine D et un risque accru de développer plusieurs cancers mortels, y compris le cancer du sein.<ref>Holick, M.F., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15585788/ Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease]. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2004. 80(6 Suppl).</ref>
De faibles niveaux de vitamine D ont également été associés à toute une série de troubles dévastateurs, notamment les maladies cardiovasculaires, le diabète de type 1, la sclérose en plaques et la polyarthrite rhumatoïde. Il existe également une forte association entre une carence en vitamine D et un risque accru de développer plusieurs cancers mortels, y compris le cancer du sein.<ref>Holick, M.F., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15585788/ Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease]. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2004. 80(6 Suppl).</ref>


The concern is not only towards the woman who chooses to observe the more covering forms of Islamic dress but also towards any potential children she may carry. Infants born to vitamin D deficient mothers have been found to suffer from an increased prevalence of seizures.<ref>Bandgar, T.R., Vitamin d and hip fractures: Indian scenario. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 2010. 58(9): p. 535-537.</ref> If these children observe the full hijab in childhood, they run the risk of not reaching the height they would have otherwise reached if they were not vitamin D deficient.<ref>Holick, M.F., Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2004. 80(6 Suppl)</ref>
La préoccupation n’est pas seulement envers les femmes qui choisissent d’observer les formes de tenues islamiques les plus couvrantes, mais aussi envers les enfants qui pourraient potentiellement les porter. Les nourrissons nés de mères déficientes en vitamine D souffrent d’une prévalence accrue de convulsions.<ref>Bandgar, T.R., [https://www.japi.org/s2e474b4/vitamin-d-and-hip-fractures-indian-scenario Vitamin d and hip fractures: Indian scenario]. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 2010. 58(9): p. 535-537.</ref> Si ces enfants observent le hijab intégral durant leur enfance, elles courent le risque de ne pas atteindre la taille qu’elles auraient dû atteinte si elles n’étaient pas déficientes en vitamine D.<ref>Holick, M.F., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15585788/ Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease]. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2004. 80(6 Suppl).</ref>
====Islamic Dress and Health====
 
Since almost all the daily intake of Vitamin D is from sunlight, exposure there is significant concern for women who wear the burqa or "full hijab". This style of dress, leaving only a very small portion of skin around the eyes exposed, greatly reduces the surface area of the body which sunlight is exposed to and hence reduces the amount of Vitamin D synthesized. Such low rates of Vitamin D production will quickly exhaust the bodies excess emergency stores of Vitamin D contained in the fat and the person will likely go into a deficient state.
=== Tenue islamique et santé ===
Étant donné que la quasi-totalité de l’apport quotidien en vitamine D provient de la lumière du soleil, l’exposition est très préoccupante pour les femmes qui portent la burqa ou le "hijab intégral". Ce style vestimentaire, qui ne laisse exposer qu’une très petite partie de la peau autour des yeux, réduit considérablement la surface du corps à laquelle la lumière du soleil est exposée et réduit donc la quantité de vitamine D synthétisée. Ces faibles taux de production de vitamine D épuiseront rapidement les réserves excédentaires de vitamine D contenues dans la graisse et les personnes seront probablement dans un état de carence.
 
Pour cette raison, de graves carences en vitamine D sont largement répandues dans de nombreux pays à majorité musulmane. Une étude réalisée par des médecins du King Fahd University Hospital en Arabie saoudite a montré que sur les 52 femmes testées, toutes présentaient une grave carence en vitamine D et risquaient de graves problèmes de santé, même si elles vivaient dans l’un des endroits les plus ensoleillés de la planète.<ref>Elsammak, M.Y., et al., [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20213587/ Vitamin D deficiency in Saudi Arabs. Hormone and Metabolic Research], 2010. 42(5): p. 364-368.</ref> En outre, dans une étude entreprise en Jordanie, 83,3% des femmes portant le style le plus couvrant de robes islamiques se sont avérées déficientes en été. C’est assez frappant par rapport au fait que seulement 18,2% des hommes jordaniens étudiés étaient déficients.<ref>Mishal, A.A., Effects of Different Dress Styles on Vitamin D Levels in Healthy Young Jordanian Women. Osteoporosis International, 2001. 12(11): p. 931-935.</ref> La Jordanie, comme l’Arabie Saoudite, a la particularité d’être l’un des endroits les plus ensoleillés de la planète, ainsi, l’effet du port de la burqa sur les niveaux de vitamine D et la santé est profond.


Due to this reason, serious vitamin D deficiency is wide-spread in many Muslim majority countries. A study performed by doctors at King Fahd University Hospital in Saudi Arabia, showed that out of all 52 women tested, ''all'' had seriously deficient levels of Vitamin D and were at risk of many serious health problems, despite living in one of the sunniest places on the planet.<ref>Elsammak, M.Y., et al., Vitamin D deficiency in Saudi Arabs. Hormone and Metabolic Research, 2010. 42(5): p. 364-368.</ref> Furthermore, in a study undertaken in Jordan, 83.3% of women wearing the most covering style of Islamic dresses were found to be deficient in summer time. This is rather striking when compared to the fact only 18.2% of Jordanian men studied were found to be deficient.<ref>Mishal, A.A., Effects of Different Dress Styles on Vitamin D Levels in Healthy Young Jordanian Women. Osteoporosis International, 2001. 12(11): p. 931-935.</ref> Jordan, like Saudi Arabia, holds the distinction of being one of the sunniest places on the planet, so the effect of wearing the burqa on Vitamin D levels and health is profound.
=== Effet de l’ethnicité et de la migration ===
====Effect of Ethnicity and Migration====
There is also concern for the health of immigrants from Islamic majority countries, most of which are around the equator and receive the highest amount of sunlight of any place on earth. There concern arises when these women migrate to countries with lower amounts of sunlight throughout the year compared to their previous home country. Skin tone is darkest at the equator in response to the sunlight.<ref>Barsh, G.S., What Controls Variation in Human Skin Color? PLoS Biol, 2003. 1(1): p. e27.</ref><ref>Relethford, J.H., Hemispheric difference in human skin color. American journal of physical anthropology, 1997. 104(4): p. 449-457.</ref> Darker skin blocks out significantly more UV radiation and hence decreases Vitamin D production by an enormous amount (people with dark skin pigmentation may need 20 - 30 times as much exposure to sunlight).<ref>Mike Adams - [http://www.naturalnews.com/003069.html Vitamin D myths, facts and statistics] - NaturalNews, January 1, 2005</ref> All these factors combined with the heavily covering Islamic dress create serious potential health concerns for Islamic migrants in countries away from the equator such as Canada, the United States, Europe and Australia.<ref>Hagenau, T., et al., Global vitamin D levels in relation to age, gender, skin pigmentation and latitude: an ecologic meta-regression analysis. Osteoporosis International, 2009. 20(1): p. 133-140.</ref><ref>Hanley, D.A. and K.S. Davison, Vitamin D Insufficiency in North America. The Journal of Nutrition, 2005. 135(2): p. 332-337</ref>
There is also concern for the health of immigrants from Islamic majority countries, most of which are around the equator and receive the highest amount of sunlight of any place on earth. There concern arises when these women migrate to countries with lower amounts of sunlight throughout the year compared to their previous home country. Skin tone is darkest at the equator in response to the sunlight.<ref>Barsh, G.S., What Controls Variation in Human Skin Color? PLoS Biol, 2003. 1(1): p. e27.</ref><ref>Relethford, J.H., Hemispheric difference in human skin color. American journal of physical anthropology, 1997. 104(4): p. 449-457.</ref> Darker skin blocks out significantly more UV radiation and hence decreases Vitamin D production by an enormous amount (people with dark skin pigmentation may need 20 - 30 times as much exposure to sunlight).<ref>Mike Adams - [http://www.naturalnews.com/003069.html Vitamin D myths, facts and statistics] - NaturalNews, January 1, 2005</ref> All these factors combined with the heavily covering Islamic dress create serious potential health concerns for Islamic migrants in countries away from the equator such as Canada, the United States, Europe and Australia.<ref>Hagenau, T., et al., Global vitamin D levels in relation to age, gender, skin pigmentation and latitude: an ecologic meta-regression analysis. Osteoporosis International, 2009. 20(1): p. 133-140.</ref><ref>Hanley, D.A. and K.S. Davison, Vitamin D Insufficiency in North America. The Journal of Nutrition, 2005. 135(2): p. 332-337</ref>


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In the United Kingdom, cases of rickets have been rare until recently. Cases of the disease have increased dramatically due to the growing Muslim population.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/rise-in-rickets-linked-to-ethnic-groups-that-shun-the-sun-2319920.html|title= Rise in rickets linked to ethnic groups that shun the sun|publisher= The Independent|author=Jeremy Laurance |date= July 25, 2011|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Flife-style%2Fhealth-and-families%2Fhealth-news%2Frise-in-rickets-linked-to-ethnic-groups-that-shun-the-sun-2319920.html&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://digitaljournal.com/article/316191|title= Rickets on the increase amongst British children|publisher= DigitalJournal|author= Katerina Nikolas|date= December 16, 2011|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitaljournal.com%2Farticle%2F316191&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1154211.stm|title= Rickets upsurge among UK Asians|publisher= BBC News|author= |date= February 5, 2001|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F1154211.stm&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref>
In the United Kingdom, cases of rickets have been rare until recently. Cases of the disease have increased dramatically due to the growing Muslim population.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/rise-in-rickets-linked-to-ethnic-groups-that-shun-the-sun-2319920.html|title= Rise in rickets linked to ethnic groups that shun the sun|publisher= The Independent|author=Jeremy Laurance |date= July 25, 2011|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Flife-style%2Fhealth-and-families%2Fhealth-news%2Frise-in-rickets-linked-to-ethnic-groups-that-shun-the-sun-2319920.html&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://digitaljournal.com/article/316191|title= Rickets on the increase amongst British children|publisher= DigitalJournal|author= Katerina Nikolas|date= December 16, 2011|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitaljournal.com%2Farticle%2F316191&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1154211.stm|title= Rickets upsurge among UK Asians|publisher= BBC News|author= |date= February 5, 2001|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F1154211.stm&date=2013-09-22|deadurl=no}}</ref>
===Obesity===
 
=== Obesity ===
It has been noted that the observance of hijab, the garments and the traditions surrounding them, can discourage exercise both psychologically and practically.<ref name="TDCJul12010">Caroline May - [{{Reference archive|1=http://dailycaller.com/2010/07/01/the-burka-may-be-making-muslim-women-fatter-by-discouraging-exercise/|2=2012-03-05}} The burka may be making Muslim women fatter by discouraging exercise] - The Daily Caller, July 1, 2010</ref><ref name="ANSMar132012">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/generalnews/2012/03/13/visualizza_new.html_131156617.html|2=2012-03-15}} Qatar: surge in diabetes/obesity, unhealthy Arab habits] - ANSAmed, March 13, 2012</ref> The style of dress can make it easy to hide the bloat of a large meal, and it can be physically restrictive for those who wish to exercise, especially outdoors where one has to be aware of the weather (if it is too hot or humid). In the West, where most indoor gyms are mixed-sex, exercise without Islamic dress can be very difficult for observant Muslim women, and some forms of Islamic dress can make playing almost any sport nearly impossible.<ref name="TDCJul12010" /><ref name="ANSMar132012" />
It has been noted that the observance of hijab, the garments and the traditions surrounding them, can discourage exercise both psychologically and practically.<ref name="TDCJul12010">Caroline May - [{{Reference archive|1=http://dailycaller.com/2010/07/01/the-burka-may-be-making-muslim-women-fatter-by-discouraging-exercise/|2=2012-03-05}} The burka may be making Muslim women fatter by discouraging exercise] - The Daily Caller, July 1, 2010</ref><ref name="ANSMar132012">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/generalnews/2012/03/13/visualizza_new.html_131156617.html|2=2012-03-15}} Qatar: surge in diabetes/obesity, unhealthy Arab habits] - ANSAmed, March 13, 2012</ref> The style of dress can make it easy to hide the bloat of a large meal, and it can be physically restrictive for those who wish to exercise, especially outdoors where one has to be aware of the weather (if it is too hot or humid). In the West, where most indoor gyms are mixed-sex, exercise without Islamic dress can be very difficult for observant Muslim women, and some forms of Islamic dress can make playing almost any sport nearly impossible.<ref name="TDCJul12010" /><ref name="ANSMar132012" />


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