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It’s been taken for granted by both academics and Muslim scholars that Classical Arabic was the language of the Quran and Arabs before Islam and during the first three centuries of Islam. This is reflected in the way Muslims recite the Quran and Hadith today. It’s even reflected in all Arabic historical movies and TV works depicting the early centuries of Islam such as the | It’s been taken for granted by both academics and Muslim scholars that Classical Arabic was the language of the Quran and Arabs before Islam and during the first three centuries of Islam. This is reflected in the way Muslims recite the Quran and Hadith today. It’s even reflected in all Arabic historical movies and TV works depicting the early centuries of Islam such as the movie “[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDVe6EZ4-Xo Al-Risālah]” about the life of Muhammad where all the actors are shown speaking in Classical Arabic with its two main hallmarks: full case inflection (final short vowels and nunation or Tanwīn) and full use of the Hamzah (glottal stop). This belief is reinforced by the popular claim by Muslim scholars that the readings tradition of the Quran, which the Quran is recited based on, were transmitted to us verbatim from the mouth of Muhammad. And all of these readings employ a full case system and heavily use the Hamzah. But recent academic research pioneered by Ahmad Al-Jallad of Ohio University and Marijn Van Putten of the University of Leiden, shows that the Quran was actually composed in a different language, which they call Old Hijazi, the ancient vernacular dialect of the Hijaz region which includes Makkah and Medina. | ||
Old Hijazi differs markedly in pronunciation and grammar from the later classical Arabic that is imposed upon the Quran. This imposition led to the mismatch between the pronunciation and the text, which means the Quran was originally written phonetically in Old Hijazi. Old Hijazi sounds like modern Arabic vernacular as modern Arabic dialects are completely devoid of the case system and devoid of the Hamzah to varying degrees. | Old Hijazi differs markedly in pronunciation and grammar from the later classical Arabic that is imposed upon the Quran. This imposition led to the mismatch between the pronunciation and the text, which means the Quran was originally written phonetically in Old Hijazi. Old Hijazi sounds more like most modern Arabic vernacular as most modern Arabic dialects are completely devoid of the case system and devoid of the Hamzah to varying degrees. | ||
The characteristics of Old Hijazi | The characteristics of Old Hijazi have been revealed by (1) early Arabic texts written in Greek and Hebrew letters which showed what the early defective Arabic script couldn’t, (2) the investigation into the Quranic Consonantal Text (QCT) which is the underlying consonantal skeleton (in Arabic, rasm رسم) of the Qur'an that originally lacked dots and other signs. | ||
== Main characteristics of Old Hijazi == | == Main characteristics of Old Hijazi == | ||
The first five characteristics are proven by (a) the early Arabic scripts written in Greek and Hebrew letters, (b) the linguistic analysis of the Quranic consonantal text (QCT) which is the original text of the Quran that’s devoid of dots and signs that were added later. | The first five characteristics are proven by (a) the early Arabic scripts written in Greek and Hebrew letters, (b) the linguistic analysis of the Quranic consonantal text (QCT) which is the original text of the Quran that’s devoid of dots and signs that were added later. | ||
'''1- Lack of nunation and final short vowels except in construct.''' | '''1- Lack of nunation and final short vowels except in construct'''<ref>Marijn Van Putten, [https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Quranic Arabic], p.282</ref>'''.''' | ||
E.g. | E.g. | ||
| Line 33: | Line 33: | ||
'''2- The feminine ending is always “ah” and it only turns to “at” in construct or when a pronoun gets attached to it.''' E.g. : | '''2- The feminine ending is always “ah” and it only turns to “at” in construct or when a pronoun gets attached to it'''<ref>Marijn Van Putten & Phillip Stokes, [https://www.academia.edu/37481811/Case_in_the_Qur%CB%80%C4%81nic_Consonantal_Text_Wiener_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_die_Kunde_des_Morgenlandes_108_2018_pp_143_179 Case in the Quranic Consonantal Text], p165</ref>'''.''' E.g. : | ||
المدرسة جديدة (the school is new) | المدرسة جديدة (the school is new) | ||
| Line 45: | Line 45: | ||
هذه مدرسة الحي (This is the neighborhood’s school) | هذه مدرسة الحي (This is the neighborhood’s school) | ||
Classical Arabic | Classical Arabic: hādhihī madrasatu l-ḥay | ||
Old Hijazi: hādhih madrasatu l-ḥay | Old Hijazi: hādhih madrasatu l-ḥay | ||
'''3- The indefinite accusative marker is always | '''3- The indefinite accusative marker is always an ‘ā’ long vowel.''' E.g. : | ||
اشتريت كتابا جديدا (I bought a new a book). | اشتريت كتابا جديدا (I bought a new a book). | ||
| Line 65: | Line 65: | ||
Classical Arabic: Kitābuhū jadīd. | Classical Arabic: Kitābuhū jadīd. | ||
Old Hijazi: Kitābuh jadīd. | Old Hijazi: Kitābuh jadīd. | ||
| Line 77: | Line 77: | ||
Classical Arabic: ʕalayhim | Classical Arabic: ʕalayhim | ||
Old Hijazi: ʕalayhum | Old Hijazi: ʕalayhum | ||
| Line 89: | Line 89: | ||
'''6- Lack of Hamzah (glottal stop) | '''6- Lack of Hamzah (glottal stop).''' | ||
This characteristic is proven by (a) and (b) mentioned earlier. It’s also proven by early Arab grammarians’ description of the dialect of Quraysh which Muhammad belonged to. | This characteristic is proven by (a) and (b) mentioned earlier. It’s also proven by early Arab grammarians’ description of the dialect of Quraysh which Muhammad belonged to. | ||
| Line 102: | Line 102: | ||
Classical Arabic: ذئب dhiʾb | Classical Arabic: ذئب dhiʾb | ||
Old Hijazi: ذيب dhīb | Old Hijazi: ذيب dhīb | ||
Note: QCT evidence based on rhyme shows that the Hamzah is retained when it's the last letter of a word while preceeded by the long vowel ā. E.g. : samāʾ سماء | |||
This characteristic is proven by QCT analysis (specifically, evidence based on rhyme) and early Arab grammarians’ description of the | '''7- The ض letter (ḍ) sounds very similar to the sound of ظ (ḍh) as apposed to the modern pronunciation fo ض as ḍ (emphatic d).''' | ||
This characteristic is proven by QCT analysis (specifically, evidence based on rhyme) and early Arab grammarians’ description of the sounds of the Arabic letters. | |||
== Quranic Comparison between Classical Arabic and Old Hijazi == | == Quranic Comparison between Classical Arabic and Old Hijazi == | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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==The Quranic Consonantal Text== | ==The Quranic Consonantal Text== | ||
[[File:Qct1.jpg|thumb|Comparison of modern Arabic Print to the QCT]] | |||
The Qur’anic consonantal text (QCT) is the original consonantal skeleton of the text of the Qur’an. It is derived from the vast Uthmanic corpus of copies of the Qur’an created after the third caliph Uthman standardized the Quran and ordered the destruction of all other different versions. The QCT was written without most (but not without all) of the diacritical marks and dots which now typify Arabic texts, including hamzahs, consonant dots and short vowel marks (rarely used in modern Arabic writing but used in the Quran and Hadith to ensure proper pronunciation). Other differences between QCT and modern Arabic writing include the mid-word long ā vowel which is usually unwritten in QCT. | The Qur’anic consonantal text (QCT) is the original consonantal skeleton of the text of the Qur’an. It is derived from the vast Uthmanic corpus of copies of the Qur’an created after the third caliph Uthman standardized the Quran and ordered the destruction of all other different versions. The QCT was written without most (but not without all) of the diacritical marks and dots which now typify Arabic texts, including hamzahs, consonant dots and short vowel marks (rarely used in modern Arabic writing but used in the Quran and Hadith to ensure proper pronunciation). Other differences between QCT and modern Arabic writing include the mid-word long ā vowel which is usually unwritten in QCT. | ||
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=== <big>A Greek Inscription from Jordan Dated 42 AH / 662-63 CE</big> === | === <big>A Greek Inscription from Jordan Dated 42 AH / 662-63 CE</big> === | ||
[[File:Muawiyah Arabic In Greek.jpg|thumb|A Greek inscription containing an Arabic line written in Greek letters which reveals that final short vowels weren’t used: ABDALLA MAAUIA AMIRAALMUMENEN (The servant of Allah Muʕāwiyah the commander of the faithful)|450x450px]] | |||
This inscription includes the Arabic pronunciation of the title and name of Muʕāwiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. | This inscription includes the Arabic pronunciation of the title and name of Muʕāwiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. | ||
| Line 318: | Line 321: | ||
=== <big>A Bilingual Umayyad Document From The Year 54 AH / 674 CE</big> === | === <big>A Bilingual Umayyad Document From The Year 54 AH / 674 CE</big> === | ||
[[File:Names.jpg|thumb|A Bilingual Umayyad Document where a number of names were written in both Arabic and Greek. The names in Greek lack nunation and final short vowels.|234x234px]] | |||
This is an Umayyad Note to the people of the city of Neṣṣana demanding that they pay their due of the Jizyah (Tax on non-Muslims). It’s written both in Arabic and Greek. The Greek portion includes the following Arabic names that lacked any case inflection: | This is an Umayyad Note to the people of the city of Neṣṣana demanding that they pay their due of the Jizyah (Tax on non-Muslims). It’s written both in Arabic and Greek. The Greek portion includes the following Arabic names that lacked any case inflection: | ||
| Line 334: | Line 338: | ||
Classical Arabic: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik | Classical Arabic: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik | ||
You can view the document [https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/papyri/jerus.html here]. | You can view the document [https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/papyri/jerus.html here]. | ||
== The Damascus Psalm Fragment == | == The Damascus Psalm Fragment == | ||
| Line 379: | Line 383: | ||
E.g. | E.g. | ||
أعطى aʕṭā | |||
Αγτα | |||
أتى atē | |||
Ατε | Ατε | ||
'''4- The “L” of the definite article doesn’t assimilate to the following coronal consonant'''<ref>Ibid, p.49</ref>. | '''4- The “L” of the definite article doesn’t assimilate to the following coronal consonant'''<ref>Ibid, p.49</ref>. | ||
E.g.<ref>Ibid, p.80</ref> | E.g.<ref>Ibid, p.80</ref> | ||
| Line 404: | Line 409: | ||
ʕabdərahṃān | ʕabdərahṃān | ||
'''5- The pronominal suffix of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form. While classical Arabic has both “hum” and “him”.''' | '''5- The pronominal suffix of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form. While classical Arabic has both “hum” and “him”.''' | ||
| Line 414: | Line 420: | ||
βη αυθάνϳὑμ | βη αυθάνϳὑμ | ||
'''6- The indefinite accusative is marked with ā instead of classical Arabic “an”.''' | '''6- The indefinite accusative is marked with ā instead of classical Arabic “an”.''' | ||
| Line 426: | Line 433: | ||
χαϳμετ σεϳλουμ [ḫaymet seylūm] خيمة سيلوم <ref>Ibid, p.91</ref> | χαϳμετ σεϳλουμ [ḫaymet seylūm] خيمة سيلوم <ref>Ibid, p.91</ref> | ||
'''8- ā is realized as [ē] unless there is an inhibiting factor, that is, an emphatic or a labial'''<ref>Ibid, p.51</ref>'''.''' | |||
E.g. | |||
فسالت | |||
φασέλετ | |||
fa-sēlet<ref>Ibid, p.79</ref> | |||
| Line 539: | Line 549: | ||
'''1- Frequent loss of Hamzah'''<ref>Blau and Hopkins, [https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160 Judaeo-Arabic Papyri], 1987, p.126</ref>''':''' | '''1- Frequent loss of Hamzah'''<ref>Blau and Hopkins, [https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160 Judaeo-Arabic Papyri], 1987, p.126</ref>''':''' | ||
אלרדיה (The cloaks الأردية ) | |||
אלרדיה (The cloaks الأردية ) | |||
Litteral transcription: alrdyh | Litteral transcription: alrdyh | ||
| Line 686: | Line 691: | ||
Also when modern Muslim scholars cite this Hadith they pronounce the letters at the last part of the Hadith with inflection as can be heard in this video: | Also when modern Muslim scholars cite this Hadith they pronounce the letters at the last part of the Hadith with inflection as can be heard in this video: | ||
< | |||
<center><youtube>bWxjAURbMYw</youtube></center> | |||
Since that these letters should be inflected in Classical Arabic, why were they left without any inflection in the readings tradition? Van Putten answers:{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.200]|The form of the mysterious letters is fairly easy to understand from a situation that started out as lacking inflectional endings, which were classicized. | Since that these letters should be inflected in Classical Arabic, why were they left without any inflection in the readings tradition? Van Putten answers:{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.200]|The form of the mysterious letters is fairly easy to understand from a situation that started out as lacking inflectional endings, which were classicized. | ||
| Line 720: | Line 726: | ||
=== Evidence Against the Pausal Spelling Rule === | === Evidence Against the Pausal Spelling Rule === | ||
Historical linguists Van Putten and Phillip Stokes note that such a spelling convention is unique among the languages of the world<ref>Marijn Van Putten & Phillip Stokes, Case in the Quranic Consonantal Text, | Historical linguists Van Putten and Phillip Stokes note that such a spelling convention is unique among the languages of the world<ref>Marijn Van Putten & Phillip Stokes, [https://www.academia.edu/37481811/Case_in_the_Qur%CB%80%C4%81nic_Consonantal_Text_Wiener_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_die_Kunde_des_Morgenlandes_108_2018_pp_143_179 Case in the Quranic Consonantal Text], p149</ref> . They also challenge the pausal spelling convention by the following arguments based on the linguistic analysis of QCT: | ||
==== 1- Internal Rhymes. ==== | ==== 1- Internal Rhymes. ==== | ||
| Line 790: | Line 796: | ||
Ghanim Qadduuri, Rasm Al-Mishaf, p357</ref> | Ghanim Qadduuri, Rasm Al-Mishaf, p357</ref> | ||
Khalaf’s statement agrees with what early grammarians report. Mukhtār Al-Ghawth says in his book "The dialect of Quraish": “Since that the Hamzah is hard to pronounce, some early Arabic dialects leaned towards dropping the hamzah. This was most notable in the dialect of Quraish as all early sources agree that this dialect lacked the hamzah.” | Khalaf’s statement agrees with what early grammarians report. Mukhtār Al-Ghawth says in his book "The dialect of Quraish": “Since that the Hamzah is hard to pronounce, some early Arabic dialects leaned towards dropping the hamzah. This was most notable in the dialect of Quraish as all early sources agree that this dialect lacked the hamzah.” <ref>[https://waqfeya.net/book.php?bid=1006 لغة قريش]، مختار الغوث، ص39</ref> | ||
The enforcement of Hamzah on the Quran is apparent in the instances of pseudo-correct application of the Hamzah. Van Putten lists 12 examples<ref>Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.158-167</ref> of such cases, such as the word kās كاس (cup) which is read as kaʾs in all canonical readings. | The enforcement of Hamzah on the Quran is apparent in the instances of pseudo-correct application of the Hamzah. Van Putten lists 12 examples<ref>Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.158-167</ref> of such cases, such as the word kās كاس (cup) which is read as kaʾs in all canonical readings. | ||
| Line 797: | Line 803: | ||
== The Hamzah and the Consonantal Text of the Quran == | == The Hamzah and the Consonantal Text of the Quran == | ||
[[File:الهمزات بين القديم والحديث.jpg|thumb|A table showing how the Hamzah is written in standard and pre-standard Arabic|450x450px]] | |||
The consonantal text of the Quran provides evidence that the original language of the Quran lacked the Hamzah. | The consonantal text of the Quran provides evidence that the original language of the Quran lacked the Hamzah. | ||
| Line 846: | Line 853: | ||
By dropping the Hamzah from khāṭiʾah, it becomes: khāṭiyah خاطية. It’s read as such in the reading of Abū jaʕfar. | By dropping the Hamzah from khāṭiʾah, it becomes: khāṭiyah خاطية. It’s read as such in the reading of Abū jaʕfar. | ||
The second evidence the QCT provides for the lack of Hamzah: | The second evidence the QCT provides for the lack of Hamzah: | ||
| Line 906: | Line 911: | ||
People started writing the Hamzah as one of the three letters ا ي و following the steps of the Uthmanic script. It became forgotten that the Alef is the supposed shape of hamzah. And it became forgotten that the Uthmanic Qurans were written in the dialect of the people of Hijaz who drop the hamzah. People were careful to follow the Uthmanic Quranic text which was agreed upon by the prophet's companions. This made people stick to the shapes of words as written in Uthmanic text. The Hamzah in the Uthmanic text was written as the vowels و ي ا . So when people copied this orthography, they added dots over these letters to indicate the hamzahs. Then the dot changed to the ء symbol after Al-Khalīl invented it.}} | People started writing the Hamzah as one of the three letters ا ي و following the steps of the Uthmanic script. It became forgotten that the Alef is the supposed shape of hamzah. And it became forgotten that the Uthmanic Qurans were written in the dialect of the people of Hijaz who drop the hamzah. People were careful to follow the Uthmanic Quranic text which was agreed upon by the prophet's companions. This made people stick to the shapes of words as written in Uthmanic text. The Hamzah in the Uthmanic text was written as the vowels و ي ا . So when people copied this orthography, they added dots over these letters to indicate the hamzahs. Then the dot changed to the ء symbol after Al-Khalīl invented it.}} | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||