Qur'an: Difference between revisions

• “Additive rather than subordinate”: Unlike written language which switches terms and grammatical constructions to break monotony, oral performances create much longer strings of repeating combinations. For example, consider the “and...and...and...” so typical of the books of the Pentateuch, the Gospel of Mark, or classical Arabic generally.

• “Aggregative rather than analytic”: Oral peoples prefer fixed expressions and formulas that create totalizing pictures, such as ‘the swift-footed Achilles’ or ‘the glorious October revolution.’ To the literate mind these come across as cliché, but to people who cannot look anything up references must come pre-loaded with maximal content. A simple Qurʾānic example is the Christology densely packaged in the phrase ‘Jesus, son of Mary’ and its variations.

• “Redundant or copious”: As a spoken word is ephemeral by nature, important information must be constantly re-presented and reenforced by the speaker. Although we readers would see this as needlessly repetitive or boring, it is a natural outcome of a literature in which the listener cannot slow down, pause, or re-read what has already appeared, and there is no guarantee of a second performance like one would have from words frozen on paper. For instance, the constant reassurance that God reveals (nazala, nazzala, anzala, etc.) information to humanity.

• “Conservative or Traditionalist”: It is only by retelling a story that it remains in existence. Furthermore, it is memory-efficient to work from existing material that the audience would know, rather than introducing totally new stories. “Narrative originality lodges not in making up new stories but in managing a particular interaction with this audience at this time — at every telling the story has to be introduced uniquely into a unique situation, for in oral cultures an audience must be brought to respond, often vigorously. But narrators also introduce new elements into old stories. In oral tradition, there will be as many minor variants of a myth as there are repetitions of it ...” Consider how the Qurʾān repeats certain significant stories like the fall of Iblīs with each account stressing different elements.

• “Agonistically toned”: Oral cultures generally throw down dares, puzzles, and provocations for its listeners to keep them engaged. “Proverbs and riddles are not used simply to store knowledge but to engage others in verbal and intellectual combat: utterance of one proverb or riddle challenges hearers to top it with a more apposite or a contradictory one.” On a similar note excessively violent material with gory detail, as well as rich declarations of praise, are common. The audience is not only to be interested; they must react. We have seen already the ‘challenge verse’ of Yūnus 10:38. More examples would include the very colorful explanations of Paradise and frightening imagery of damnation.

Nothing compels us to view the milieu of the Qur’an as a culturally undeveloped space. Indeed, the cultural and social scenario of the peripheral Hijaz is only being explored by research; yet the literature that we already possess, in particular poetry and heroic prose narratives, justifies an image of a society whose verbal sensibilities and literary formation defy all clichés of an “empty Hijaz.”¹⁰ The extensive corpus of hero stories of the so-called ayyām al-ʿarab,¹¹ the “battle days of the Arab tribes disparately transmitted prose texts interspersed with poetry that report the tribal confrontations of sixth/seventh centuries, offers—despite the fact that it was written down only in retrospect—an authentic record of autochthonous nomadic culture, and provides convincing explanations of the social and ideological preconditions for the changes that set in with the Qur’anic proclamation.

When, after communion with the spirits, diviners gave their response to those who had sought them out, they did so in a highly stylised language, in rhymed prose of lofty style and cryptic diction. This distinctive style of divinatory speech was evidently employed to highlight the supernatural origin of the message, for the diviners were but the mouthpiece of a spirit. Often they would begin with a string of oaths, issued fast and hard like a drum roll, which formed the prelude to their verdict. It was a common practice to test prospective diviners by challenging them to identify a concealed object. Here is the reply of Salma al-’Udhri to such a challenge by two members of the tribe of Khuza’a, who are considering employing him to adjudicate in a contest of honour between them about who has the better horse (Ibn Habib, Mun. 110): I swear by the light and the moon (ahlifu bin-nûri wa-l-qamri) by the lightning flash and by fate (was-sana wad-dahri) by the winds and the cleaving (war-riyâhi wa-l-fatri) You have hidden for me a vulture’s corpse (la-qad khaba’tum lî juththata nasri) in a bundle of hair (fi ‘ikmin min sha’ri) in the possession of the youth from the Banu Nasr (ma’a l-fatâ min banî Nasri)

Having passed this test, the diviners would then proceed to give their answer to the question set before them. Here, for example, is the reply of a diviner of ‘Usfan to two members of the tribe of Quraysh, who had asked which of them was the more noble (Ibn Habib, Mun. 108): I swear by dust-coloured gazelles (halaftu bi-azbin ‘ufri) in mirage-glinting deserts (bi-lamma‘ati qafri) roaming among thorn-trees and lote-trees (yarudna bayna silmin wa-sidri) The highest degree of glory and honour (inna sana’ al-majdi thumma l-fakhri) is ever to be found in ‘A’idh (la-fî ‘A’idh ilâ âkhiri d-dahri)

Though the Quran vigorously asserts that it is ‘not diviner’s speech’ (lâ bi-qawli kâhin), one can understand why Muhammad’s contemporaries regarded it as such, since the same rhythmic drive is present, though the content has of course been adapted to the new message. Here is a particularly fine example (91.1–10): By the sun and its midday brightness (wash-shamsi wa-ḍuḥâ-hâ) By the moon which rises after it (wa-l-qamari idhâ talâ-hâ) By the day which reveals its splendour (wan-nahâri idhâ jallâ-hâ) By the night which veils it (wal-layli idhâ yaghshâ-hâ) By the heaven and Him that built it (was-samâ’i wa-mâ banâ-hâ) By the earth and Him that spread it (wa-l-ardi wa-mâ ṭaḥâ-hâ) By a soul and Him that moulded it (wa-nafsin wa-mâ sawwâ-hâ) And gave it knowledge of sin and piety (fa-alhama-hâ fujûra-hâ wa-taqwâ-hâ) Blessed shall be the man who has kept it pure (qad aflaha man zakkâ-hâ) And ruined he that has corrupted it (wa-qad khâba man dassâ-hâ)

Like the characters of Greek and Latin histories, pre-Islamic heroes were made to utter speeches felt by the later Muslim historian to be appropriate to the event or subject being treated, deemed to be similar to what would have been uttered by such a figure on such an occasion. These are usually long and fulsome, packed with rhetorical devices, whereas it may be that pre-Islamic Arabic oratory was, by contrast, not so different from the short staccato-like expression of the diviners. Here is one of God’s first addresses to Muhammad (74.1–7): You, enveloped in your cloak (yâ ayyuhâ l-muddaththir) Arise and warn (qum fa-andhir) Magnify your Lord (wa-rabbaka fa-kabbir) Purify your attire (wa-thiyâbaka fa-ṭahhir) Shun pollution (war-rujza fa-hjur) Do not grant favours in expectation of gain (wa-lâ tamnun tastakthiru) For your Lord’s sake be patient (wa-li-rabbika fa-ṣbir)

This may be compared with the words of Hadrami ibn ‘Amir, orator of the tribe of Asad, who represented them to the Prophet (Ibn al-Athir, Usd 2.29): We have come to you (innâ ataynâka) journeying through a black night (nataḍarra’ al-layla al-bahîma) in a sterile white year (fi sanatin shahbâ’) of our own accord (wa-lam tursil ilaynâ) We are of your ilk (wa-naḥnu minka) united by [our common ancestor] Khuzayma (tajma’unâ Khuzayma) Our sacred territories are well protected (ḥimânâ manî’) our women are virtuous (wa-nisâ’unâ mawâjid) our sons brave and noble (wa-abnâ’unâ anjâd amjâd)

Similar also are the sermons of the famed bishop of Najran, Quss ibn Sa’ida, of whom Muhammad is said to have memorised the following excerpt (Isfahani 14.40): Oh people, assemble (ayyuhâ n-nâsu jtami’û) listen and pay heed (wa-sma’û wa-’û) All who live die (man ‘âsha mât) and all who die are lost (wa-man mâta fât) and everything that is coming will come (wa-kulla mâ huwa âtin ât) I swear by the light and the moon (ahlifu bin-nûri wa-l-qamri) by the lightning flash and by fate (was-sana wad-dahri) by the winds and the cleaving (war-riyâhi wa-l-fatri) You have hidden for me a vulture’s corpse (la-qad khaba’tum lî juththata nasri) in a bundle of hair (fi ‘ikmin min sha’ri) in the possession of the youth from the Banu Nasr (ma’a l-fatâ min banî Nasri)

Having passed this test, the diviners would then proceed to give their answer to the question set before them. Here, for example, is the reply of a diviner of ‘Usfan to two members of the tribe of Quraysh, who had asked which of them was the more noble (Ibn Habib, Mun. 108): I swear by dust-coloured gazelles (halaftu bi-azbin ‘ufri) in mirage-glinting deserts (bi-lamma‘ati qafri) roaming among thorn-trees and lote-trees (yarudna bayna silmin wa-sidri) The highest degree of glory and honour (inna sana’ al-majdi thumma l-fakhri) is ever to be found in ‘A’idh (la-fî ‘A’idh ilâ âkhiri d-dahri)

Though the Quran vigorously asserts that it is ‘not diviner’s speech’ (lâ bi-qawli kâhin), one can understand why Muhammad’s contemporaries regarded it as such, since the same rhythmic drive is present, though the content has of course been adapted to the new message. Here is a particularly fine example (91.1–10): By the sun and its midday brightness (wash-shamsi wa-ḍuḥâ-hâ) By the moon which rises after it (wa-l-qamari idhâ talâ-hâ) By the day which reveals its splendour (wan-nahâri idhâ jallâ-hâ) By the night which veils it (wal-layli idhâ yaghshâ-hâ) By the heaven and Him that built it (was-samâ’i wa-mâ banâ-hâ) By the earth and Him that spread it (wa-l-ardi wa-mâ ṭaḥâ-hâ) By a soul and Him that moulded it (wa-nafsin wa-mâ sawwâ-hâ) And gave it knowledge of sin and piety (fa-alhama-hâ fujûra-hâ wa-taqwâ-hâ) Blessed shall be the man who has kept it pure (qad aflaha man zakkâ-hâ) And ruined he that has corrupted it (wa-qad khâba man dassâ-hâ)

Like the characters of Greek and Latin histories, pre-Islamic heroes were made to utter speeches felt by the later Muslim historian to be appropriate to the event or subject being treated, deemed to be similar to what would have been uttered by such a figure on such an occasion. These are usually long and fulsome, packed with rhetorical devices, whereas it may be that pre-Islamic Arabic oratory was, by contrast, not so different from the short staccato-like expression of the diviners. Here is one of God’s first addresses to Muhammad (74.1–7): You, enveloped in your cloak (yâ ayyuhâ l-muddaththir) Arise and warn (qum fa-andhir) Magnify your Lord (wa-rabbaka fa-kabbir) Purify your attire (wa-thiyâbaka fa-ṭahhir) Shun pollution (war-rujza fa-hjur) Do not grant favours in expectation of gain (wa-lâ tamnun tastakthiru) For your Lord’s sake be patient (wa-li-rabbika fa-ṣbir)

This may be compared with the words of Hadrami ibn ‘Amir, orator of the tribe of Asad, who represented them to the Prophet (Ibn al-Athir, Usd 2.29): We have come to you (innâ ataynâka) journeying through a black night (nataḍarra’ al-layla al-bahîma) in a sterile white year (fi sanatin shahbâ’) of our own accord (wa-lam tursil ilaynâ) We are of your ilk (wa-naḥnu minka) united by [our common ancestor] Khuzayma (tajma’unâ Khuzayma) Our sacred territories are well protected (ḥimânâ manî’) our women are virtuous (wa-nisâ’unâ mawâjid) our sons brave and noble (wa-abnâ’unâ anjâd amjâd)

Similar also are the sermons of the famed bishop of Najran, Quss ibn Sa’ida, of whom Muhammad is said to have memorised the following excerpt (Isfahani 14.40): Oh people, assemble (ayyuhâ n-nâsu jtami’û) listen and pay heed (wa-sma’û wa-’û) All who live die (man ‘âsha mât) and all who die are lost (wa-man mâta fât) and everything that is coming will come (wa-kulla mâ huwa âtin ât)