Dihya the Berber Queen (Al-Kaahina): Difference between revisions

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{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}[[File:Statue of Dyhia in Khenchela (Algeria).jpg|thumb|Dihya]]'''Dihya''' was a Berber queen who led her people in resisting the Islamic conquest of her home in North Africa. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahina, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch" or "the sorceress."

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=1}}[[File:Statue of Dyhia in Khenchela (Algeria).jpg|thumb|Dihya]]'''Dihya''' was a Berber queen who led her people in resisting the Arab-Islamic conquest of her home in North Africa. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahina, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch" or "the sorceress."

==Roman North Africa and Early Life==

Before the [[Islam|Islamic]] [[Jihad|conquest]], Northern Africa was a province of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire. At that time it comprised Tunisia, north Algeria and some parts of Morocco. Northern Roman Africa, reconquered in 533 AD by Emperor Justinian, was an Exarchate - a single province with virtual autonomy, governed by a supreme official called the Exarch.

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The siege of Carthage, however, had given Dihya the extra time to prepare. Soon a new power in Africa was born. One consequence of the Byzantine defeat was that the Romans had lost their interest Africa. From this point onward, only Muslim sources from far after the fact are available, and these tend to take a dim view of Dihya.

==Destruction of Carthage and Its Aftermath==

During the siege of Carthage, Dihya completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local ~~Visigoths~~.

During the siege of Carthage, Dihya completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local Visigothic warbands.

Dihya attacked the main Muslim army, completely defeating it and pushing the invaders back to Egypt. She even reclaimed the ruins of Carthage. At that point, she had become the leader of all of former Roman North Africa– both nomads, Berbers and Romans. All the ethnic and religious groups united under her banner. She was also joined by some deserters from the Muslim army. One of them, most likely an [[Islam and Apostasy|apostate]], became her lieutenant and adopted son. This was also the time when she gained her famous Arabic nickname.

Dihya seemed close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a ~~long time~~, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dihya prepared for the Arabs' return.

Dihya seemed close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a period, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dihya prepared for the Arabs' return.

One of the most bizarre episodes of Dihya’s struggle against the Muslims was the defection of her three natural sons. These joined the Muslims and converted to Islam according to the traditional sources, claiming that they did it on a peremptory order given by their mother. Some speculate that Dihya knew that in the long perspective she had no chance to stop the Muslims, and decided that it was the only way to save her beloved sons’ lives. Other authors suspect that her sons came to conduct espionage and sabotage.

Even if this second ~~option~~ is true, Dihya had no chance to make use of her sons’ skills. The exact cause of her downfall, and the date when this happened, is not certain.

Even if this second story is true, Dihya had no chance to make use of her sons’ skills. The exact cause of her downfall, and the date when this happened, is not certain.

Muslim chroniclers accuse Dihya of maintaining a "scorched earth policy" in the hope that this would make the Muslims abandon their invasion plans. For this reason they say she ordered her men to burn cities, to kill livestock and destroy all the fields. Africa, according to Islamic chronicles, turned into a desert on her orders. Muslims say these actions caused her to lose the support of the settled population, who were terrified by the destruction. Farmers and city dwellers became, from this time onwards, passive observers in the conflict. Chroniclers say proudly that such destruction could never stop them, since the main reason for Islamic conquests was enacting the rule of Allah.

==Death and Legacy==

Dihya soon found herself the only enemy of the Arab caliphate ~~on the African continent~~. The Caliphate sent considerable forces and finally defeated her Berber warriors. Sources differ on how she died. Some say that she died a soldier’s death – with a sword in her hand. Others maintain that she poisoned herself when all was lost and defeat was near. Even the exact date of her death is unknown. It happened between the years 702 and 705. Dihya's head was mummified and sent to the [[Caliph]], who ordered that it be nailed to the entrance of his favorite [[mosque]].

Dihya soon found herself the only enemy of the Arab caliphate in North Africa. The Caliphate sent considerable forces and finally defeated her Berber warriors. Sources differ on how she died. Some say that she died a soldier’s death – with a sword in her hand. Others maintain that she poisoned herself when all was lost and defeat was near. Even the exact date of her death is unknown. It happened between the years 702 and 705. Dihya's head was mummified and sent to the [[Caliph]], who ordered that it be nailed to the entrance of his favorite [[mosque]].

After Dihya’s death, the Islamicization of North Africa was a foregone conclusion. All large-scale organized resistance to the Muslims ceased, though scattered Berber tribes continued the armed resistance for some time. In all treaties with the Berbers, the Muslims demanded conversion to Islam. Facing the threat of complete destruction, most of the tribes agreed to abandon their old beliefs. Those who did not accept the new religion were killed. Many Berber women were said to have committed [[Suicide Bombing in Islam|suicide]].

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Small pockets of Christians however, survived up to 17<sup>th</sup> century. In addition, as late as the 12<sup>th</sup> century in some coastal cities, the Latin language could still be heard in the streets.

Despite her role in resisting the Arab conquests, modern Islamic and Arab authors refer to Dihya/Kahina as an example of strong, independent [[Islam and Women|women in Islamic societies]].

Despite her role in resisting the Arab conquests, some modern Islamic and Arab authors refer to Dihya/Kahina as an example of strong, independent [[Islam and Women|women in Islamic societies]].

==See Also==

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}[[File:Statue of Dyhia in Khenchela (Algeria).jpg|thumb|Dihya]]'''Dihya''' was a Berber queen who led her people in resisting the Islamic conquest of her home in North Africa. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahina, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch" or "the sorceress."
+{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=1}}[[File:Statue of Dyhia in Khenchela (Algeria).jpg|thumb|Dihya]]'''Dihya''' was a Berber queen who led her people in resisting the Arab-Islamic conquest of her home in North Africa. She is better known as Kahina or al-Kahina, a title given to her by the Arab Muslims, which means "the witch" or "the sorceress."
 ==Roman North Africa and Early Life==
 Before the [[Islam|Islamic]] [[Jihad|conquest]], Northern Africa was a province of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire. At that time it comprised Tunisia, north Algeria and some parts of Morocco. Northern Roman Africa, reconquered in 533 AD by Emperor Justinian, was an Exarchate - a single province with virtual autonomy, governed by a supreme official called the Exarch.
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 The siege of Carthage, however, had given Dihya the extra time to prepare. Soon a new power in Africa was born. One consequence of the Byzantine defeat was that the Romans had lost their interest Africa. From this point onward, only Muslim sources from far after the fact are available, and these tend to take a dim view of Dihya.
 ==Destruction of Carthage and Its Aftermath==
-During the siege of Carthage, Dihya completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local Visigoths.
+During the siege of Carthage, Dihya completed her lifetime's achievement. She consolidated all the major Berber tribes under a common purpose - driving out the invaders. Beginning with guerrilla warfare, she soon graduated to launching full-scale invasion against the Muslims. She was joined in this by the survivors of the Byzantine army, as well as the remnants of the local Visigothic warbands.
 Dihya attacked the main Muslim army, completely defeating it and pushing the invaders back to Egypt. She even reclaimed the ruins of Carthage. At that point, she had become the leader of all of former Roman North Africa– both nomads, Berbers and Romans. All the ethnic and religious groups united under her banner. She was also joined by some deserters from the Muslim army. One of them, most likely an [[Islam and Apostasy|apostate]], became her lieutenant and adopted son. This was also the time when she gained her famous Arabic nickname.
-Dihya seemed close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a long time, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dihya prepared for the Arabs' return.
+Dihya seemed close to creating an independent state. She ruled with an iron fist. She quickly transformed the anarchic Berber tribes into a disciplined army. She showed great military and administrative skills. She managed to hold Muslims at bay for a period, perhaps as long as for three years. She also established an administration capable of maintaining a large standing army for this time. Dihya prepared for the Arabs' return.
 One of the most bizarre episodes of Dihya’s struggle against the Muslims was the defection of her three natural sons. These joined the Muslims and converted to Islam according to the traditional sources, claiming that they did it on a peremptory order given by their mother. Some speculate that Dihya knew that in the long perspective she had no chance to stop the Muslims, and decided that it was the only way to save her beloved sons’ lives. Other authors suspect that her sons came to conduct espionage and sabotage.
-Even if this second option is true, Dihya had no chance to make use of her sons’ skills. The exact cause of her downfall, and the date when this happened, is not certain.
+Even if this second story is true, Dihya had no chance to make use of her sons’ skills. The exact cause of her downfall, and the date when this happened, is not certain.
 Muslim chroniclers accuse Dihya of maintaining a "scorched earth policy" in the hope that this would make the Muslims abandon their invasion plans. For this reason they say she ordered her men to burn cities, to kill livestock and destroy all the fields. Africa, according to Islamic chronicles, turned into a desert on her orders. Muslims say these actions caused her to lose the support of the settled population, who were terrified by the destruction. Farmers and city dwellers became, from this time onwards, passive observers in the conflict. Chroniclers say proudly that such destruction could never stop them, since the main reason for Islamic conquests was enacting the rule of Allah.
 ==Death and Legacy==
-Dihya soon found herself the only enemy of the Arab caliphate on the African continent. The Caliphate sent considerable forces and finally defeated her Berber warriors. Sources differ on how she died. Some say that she died a soldier’s death – with a sword in her hand. Others maintain that she poisoned herself when all was lost and defeat was near. Even the exact date of her death is unknown. It happened between the years 702 and 705. Dihya's head was mummified and sent to the [[Caliph]], who ordered that it be nailed to the entrance of his favorite [[mosque]].
+Dihya soon found herself the only enemy of the Arab caliphate in North Africa. The Caliphate sent considerable forces and finally defeated her Berber warriors. Sources differ on how she died. Some say that she died a soldier’s death – with a sword in her hand. Others maintain that she poisoned herself when all was lost and defeat was near. Even the exact date of her death is unknown. It happened between the years 702 and 705. Dihya's head was mummified and sent to the [[Caliph]], who ordered that it be nailed to the entrance of his favorite [[mosque]].
 After Dihya’s death, the Islamicization of North Africa was a foregone conclusion. All large-scale organized resistance to the Muslims ceased, though scattered Berber tribes continued the armed resistance for some time. In all treaties with the Berbers, the Muslims demanded conversion to Islam. Facing the threat of complete destruction, most of the tribes agreed to abandon their old beliefs. Those who did not accept the new religion were killed. Many Berber women were said to have committed [[Suicide Bombing in Islam|suicide]].
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 Small pockets of Christians however, survived up to 17<sup>th</sup> century. In addition, as late as the 12<sup>th</sup> century in some coastal cities, the Latin language could still be heard in the streets.
-Despite her role in resisting the Arab conquests, modern Islamic and Arab authors refer to Dihya/Kahina as an example of strong, independent [[Islam and Women|women in Islamic societies]].
+Despite her role in resisting the Arab conquests, some modern Islamic and Arab authors refer to Dihya/Kahina as an example of strong, independent [[Islam and Women|women in Islamic societies]].
 ==See Also==