Old Hijazi

Old Hijazi is the underlying Language of the Qur'an, as revealed by investigation into the Quranic Consonantal Text (QCT), the underlying consonantal skeleton (in Arabic, rasm رسم) of the Qur'an. This language differs markedly in pronunciation and grammar from the later classical Arabic that is imposed upon the text by modern day Muslims and scholars who follow the Muslim tradition of Quranic readings.

Introduction to the I'Arab

In order to understand how the language of the QCT differs from the later classical Arabic it is now read in, it's important to understand the i'arab.

The i'arab system in Arabic is a set of grammatical endings attached to words to convey aspects such as case, mood, and voice in a sentence. This system has its origin in classical Arabic as formulated by the classical Arabic grammarians after the 8th century, and it continues to be used, with very little change, in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), known in Arabic as fusha, the lingua franca of the Arab world and the language of books and official media such as government proclamations and news media.

In Classical Arabic and MSA, nouns (asma') can be marked for three grammatical cases: nominative (marfu'), accusative (mansub), and genitive (majrur). The markings consist of either a short vowel, a short vowel and an “n” sound, or (occasionally) a long vowel. Nouns can also be in the state of definiteness or indefiniteness, which each take different endings. The system of i'arab specifies the vowel endings for nouns in these different states (Fischer, 86).

It should be noted that Classical Arabic had a sentence structure of VSO: verb, subject, object, with some variation for emphasis and other reasons. MSA has moved (along with the Arabic dialects) to use more of an SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) system, although VSO is still more common in literature (kamal hasan, 7). In Classical Arabic and sometimes in MSA the case system was essential to understanding the meaning of some sentences; as MSA has changed to mirror the dialects, though, the importance of the system for understanding has diminished. Arabic has become a more “analytical” language relying on the positions of words in sentences to convey meaning, whereas classical Arabic was a more “synthetic” language that used the i’arab system to convey this information.

Here is a basic outline of i'arab for singular nouns:

1. Nominative case (marfu'): the noun takes a short -u for definite and -un for indefinite nouns. This case is typically used for the subject of a sentence.

2. Accusative case (mansub): the noun takes a short -a for definite and -un for indefinite nouns. This case is often used for the direct object of a sentence.

3. Genitive case (majrur): the noun takes a short -i for definite and -in for indefinite nouns. This case is commonly used for objects of prepositions and to express ownership or relation of one noun to another (Karing Ryding, 183-184).

These are the basic form for regular, singular nouns, there are other variations on these three cases for other types and classes of noun.

As for verbs (afa'al), they can take different endings based on tense, mood, and voice.

Present tense (al-mudari') verbs can have different endings based on the mood:

1. Indicative mood (marfu'): The verb ends in -u. This is used when the verb is in an independent clause.

2. Subjunctive mood (mansub): The verb ends in -a. This is used after certain particles or in clauses beginning with “that” id est “I wish that I was a swimmer” or “I wish that he goes” (in Arabic, it is normal to say “I want that he goes” or “I wish that he goes” rather than “I want him to go” or “I wish him to go” with an infinitive, as infinitive verbs strictly speaking do not exist; the closest equivalent to the infinitive is the verbal noun (“going” “being” etc), but most forms of Arabic prefer the subjunctive to the verbal noun).

3. Jussive mood (majzum): The verb ends in a sukun, indicating a full stop/lack of vowel. This is used in certain negative commands or after certain particles (Karin Ryding, 445).

The endings for nouns are thus u, a, and i, and for verbs they are u, a, and sukun (full stop, silent, no vowel). As with the nouns, modern Arabic dialects have completely lost these endings, and MSA may be spoken with or without them and be understood. They were, however, essential for understanding classical Arabic. All of the classical Islamic reading traditions feature full use of the I’arab system, for nouns and verbs. Despite the presence of the diacritical markings on every word indicating the presence of these short vowels, these endings are not pronounced at the end of a line of Quranic recitation. If the i’arab were to be pronounced at the end of all lines, the Qur’an would cease to rhyme; meanwhile, if the Qur’an is read without the i’arab, hundreds of new rhymes emerge.

The Quranic Consonantal Text

The Qur’anic consonantal text (QCT) is the original consonantal skeleton of the text of the Qur’an. It is derived from two sources, the vast Uthmanic corpus of copies of the Qur’an created after the Uthmanic recension and the Sana’a palimpsest that provides us our only glimpse as a manuscript tradition which differs markedly from the Uthmanic tradition. Both the Uthmanic corpus and Sana’a palimpsest derive from an underlying text of the Qur’an and the two traditions do not differ greatly in their transmission of this underlying text. The QCT was written without many (but not without all) of the diacritical marks and dots which now typify Arabic texts, including inter alia short vowel marks, hamzahs, (many) consonant dot, and differs significantly from modern Arabic texts in the markings of some long vowels, particularly at the end of words.

The QCT shows a number of differences from both the later interpretation of it in the Islamic tradition and later medieval norms around writing Arabic.

Final Yaa’

In later Arabic, some words such as رأى and قهوى are spelled with the letter “y”, “yaa’”, but pronounced with a long “a” sound. This letter, the so-called Alif Maqsurah, is not always represented as such in the QCT. In some cases, the sound is written out as a regular alif ا and in other cases it is written as would be later expected, with a yaa’ ى. The difference between these spellings is likely meaningful. The instances in which the yaa’ is spelled out likely had an original long e sound, whereas those written with an alif likely represented a pronounced long a. These sounds were later merged into a single long “a” realization. (Marijn van Putten Dissimilation of ē to ā in the Qurʾānic Consonantal Text).

The Hamzah

In most cases where later forms of Arabic and interpretations of the QCT would have a hamzah (the letter ء, in later Arabic used to represent the glottal stop) the Qur’an does not spell word with a hamzah in any position. The orthography of the QCT seems to indicate a total lack of the glottal stop in all cases save one:

1. Post consonantal mid-word hamzahs are just not written: يسأل “he asks” is spelled يسل with no hamzah, أفئدة “benefits” is written افده.

2 The sequence u/a ‘ u with a long u is written with a single waw و:

رؤوس “heads” is written روس

رؤوف “compassionate” is written روف

3. Final long a followed by a hamzah is written without the hamzah, so أبناء “sons” is written ابنا .

Unlike with the other hamzahs, where rhyme seems to indicate the glottal stop was not pronounced, the rhyms involving these words seem to indicate the hamzah may have been pronounced in this position, though it was never written

Ta Marboutah

In later Arabic, the final a sound indicating a feminine noun, the ta marboutah, is written as haa’ ه with two dots over it, the so-called ta marboutah: ة . The QCT never has these two dots. When it does appear, the pronunciation was not with a t followed by the I’rab ending, but rather a consonantal, breathy haa’ that would have rhymed with the third person attached pronoun -hu.

Nunation Lost

The QCT never writes out the tanwiin, the addition of a nun to the I’arab ending of a noun, with one exception, where the expression k’ayyin min “oh how many of” is written كأين من . Otherwise the 3rd person masculine accusative an is written just as a long a ا or else the tanwin is not written at all. All other forms of grammatical nunation, the addition of a nun to a word to mark a grammatical structure, have also been lost in the orthography of the QCT. The loss of nunation is such that in the majzum or jussive for the word kaana “to be” is written without final nunnation in several spots: 1sg. ak اك (Q19:20) 3sg.m yak ىك (Q8:53; Q9:74; Q16:120, Q19:67; Q40̈:28, 85; Q75:37) 3sg.f. tak تك (Q4:40; Q11:17, 109; Q16:127; Q19:9; Q31:16; Q40:50) 1pl. nak نك (Q74:43, 44) This also extends to the “energetic” verbal ending -an: Q96:15 (later Arabic: )la-nasfa’an لنفسعا ‘We will surely drag’Q12:32 Q12:32 (later Arabic: ) la-yakunan لىكونا ‘he will surely be’

Enforcement of Classical Arabic on Early Arabic Texts

Early transcriptions of Arabic in Greek and Hebrew scripts

Since that short vowels aren’t represented in Arabic writing, early Arabic texts written in non-Arabic scripts provide important pronunciation details as these scripts are free from Arabic spelling rules and do show short vowels.

First Islamic century Greek transcriptions

These texts are mainly official documents belonging to the Umayyad caliphate which was founded by Muʕāwiyah, a companion of Muhammad. Although the Greek texts in these documents contain short Arabic phrases (mainly names and titles), they reveal that the documented dialect has the following features:

1-The loss of final short vowels and nunation.^[1]

E.g.:The name banī saʕd بني سعد is written without the final short vowel ‘i’ and without nunation (tanwīn):

Β(ανι) Σααδ β(εν) Μαλεχ / B(ani) saad b(en) malek / بني سعد بن مالك Classical Arabic pronunciation: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik

You can view the papyri here.

2- Final short vowels are retained In construct.

E.g.

Ομμου Ιωσεw / ommu yūsef/ أم يوسف ^[2]

But if the possessive noun begins with the definite article, the final short vowel of the possessed noun is replaced with the vowel of the ‘al’ article. E.g.: αβδαλλα/abdalla / عبد الله (Classical Arabic: Abdullah).

3- The feminine ending “ah” changes to “at” only in construct^[3]. Which proves the lack of final short vowels in non-construct.

Example for feminine “at” in construct:

The (female) servant of God أمة الله

αμαθαλλα : amatalla^[4]

4- Case inflection with long vowels is retained.

The word “father” in the nominative appears as abū while in the genitive appears as abī^[5].

E.g.^[6]

Αβου Σαειδ /abū saʕīd/ أبو سعيد

Οβαιδαλλα β(ιν) Αβιλαας / ʕobaydallāh b(in) ʾabī l-ʕās ̣/ عبيد الله بن أبي العاص

5-  The alef maqsūrah ى is pronounced as ē instead of the Classical Arabic pronunciation ā.

E.g. ^[7]

Μαυλε /mawlē/مولى

ιαειε /yaḥyē/ يحيى

ιαλε /yaʕlē/يعلى

An example of these Umayyad Greek-Arabic texts:

A Greek Inscription from Jordan Dated 42 AH / 662-63 CE

This inscription includes the Arabic pronunciation of the title and name of Muʕāwiyah, the first Umayyad caliph.

“In the days of the servant of God Muʕāwiya, the commander of the faithful, the hot baths of the people there were saved and rebuilt…”

In this inscription, not a single Arabic word recieved a final short vowel:

“The servant of God Muʕāwiya the commander of the faithful”

The Greek transcription:                ABDALLA MAAUIA AMIRAALMUMENEN

Classical Arabic pronunciation: ʕabdullāhi muʕāwiyatu amīru l-muʾminin

عبدُ اللهِ معاويةُ أميرُ المؤمنين

In classical Arabic, the first 4 words receive the following final short vowels:

“ʕabd” receives ‘u’. “Allah” receives ‘i’. Muʕāwiyah receives ‘u’ which turns the ‘ah’ to ‘at’: muʕāwiyatu. “amīr” receives ‘u’.

You can view the inscription here.

Another Umayyad Greek-Arabic text:

A Bilingual Umayyad Document From The Year 54 AH / 674 CE

This is an Umayyad Note to the people of the city of Neṣṣana demanding that they pay their due of the Jizyah (Tax on non-Muslims). It’s written both in Arabic and Greek. The Greek portion includes the following Arabic names that lacked any case inflection:

Alaaret b(en) Abd الحارث بن عبد

Classical Arabic: Al-ḥārithi bni ʕabd (The name in the document is in the genitive case, hence taking the ‘i’ final short vowel)

Adie B(en) Kaled عدي بن خالد

Classical Arabic: Adeyyi bni khālid (The name in the document is in the genitive case)

بني سعد بن مالك

B(ani) saad b(en) malek

Classical Arabic: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik

You can view the document here.

The Damascus Psalm Fragment

This document, dated to the third Islamic century, was discovered in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus in 1900. It includes a translation of a portion of “The Book of Psalms” of the bible (Psalm 77). This Arabic translation is written with Greek letters. The translation is literal with strict adherence to the syntax and wording of the original language*, which caused parts of it to sound awkward and hard to understand.

The dialect of the Psalm Fragment has the following features:

1- The loss of final short vowels and nunation^[8].

E.g.

yuheyyī māy(i)deh li-šiʕb-hu(hi)^[9]

ὑεϳει μάϳδεὑ λιχχειγβὑϳ

يهيِّي (يهيء) مايدة (مائدة) لشعبه

Classical Arabic:

yuhayyiʾu māʾidatan li-šaʕbih

2- In construct, final short vowels are retained in some cases and lost in others^[10].

Example for the loss^[11]:

حول خيامْهُم

ḥawl ḫiyēm-hum

χαυλ χηέμὑμ

Example for retention^[12]:

بأوثانِهُم

bi-ʔaṯwāni-hum

βη αυθάνϳὑμ

3- The Alef maqṣūrah is pronounced as [ā] in backed and labial environments, but as [ē] otherwise^[13].

E.g.

أعطى  aʕṭā

αγτα

أتى  atē

Ατε

4- The “L” of the definite article doesn’t assimilate to the following coronal consonant^[14].

E.g.^[15]

οελναρ

wel-nār

والنار

Note: In the Greek transcriptions from the first Islamic century, the L is assimilated:

Αβδεραμαν^[16]

ʕabdərahṃān

5- The pronominal suffix of the 3^rd person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form. While classical Arabic has both “hum” and “him”.

In the following example^[17], the final pronoun should take the “him” form in accordance with classical Arabic rules. The psalm fragment instead uses the “hum” form.

بأوثانِهُم

bi-ʔaṯwāni-hum

βη αυθάνϳὑμ

6- The indefinite accusative is marked with ā instead of classical Arabic “an”.

This is attested twice in the word γεδδα [ǧeddā]^[18] which means “very”.

7- The Feminine Ending is “eh” instead of “ah” which matches modern Levantine Arabic^[19]

οελευδιεὑ [wel-ʾʔewdiyeh] والأودية^[20]

χαϳμετ σεϳλουμ [ḫaymet seylūm] خيمة سيلوم ^[21]

8- ā is realized as [ē] unless there is an inhibiting factor, that is, an emphatic or a labial^[22].

Examples:

Ζηεδ [ziyēd], Μελεχ [mēlek], Αβδελεση [ʕabdelʕēṣī]

The text of the Damascus Psalm Fragment

fa-sēlet mayyah wel-ʔewdiyeh fāḍat leʕal wa-ḫubz yeqdir yuʕtī

ʔeu yuheyyī māy(i)deh li-šiʕb-hu(hi) [sic] [*li-siʕbi-h(?)]

فسىلت (فسالت) مَيَّه والأودية فاضت لعل وخبز يقدر يعطي أو يهيِّي (يهيء) مايدة (مائدة) لشعبه.

li-dhālik semiʕ el-rab fa-ʔamtenaʕ wel-nār ʔeshteʕalet fī yaʕqūb wa ruǧz ṣaʕ(ad)

ʕalā ʔisrāel

لذلكْ سمع الرب فأَمتَنَع والنار اشتعلت في يعقوب ورُجُز صعد على إسراييل

li-ʔen(nahum) (la)m yūmi(nū) billāh wa-lā (tawa)kkelū ʕalā khalāṣ-h

لأنهم لم يومنوا بالله ولا توكلوا على خلاصه

wa ʔamar el-siḥēb min fawq wa ʔabwāb el-se…samā fateḥ

وأَمَر السحىب (السحاب) من فوق وأبواب السما فتح

wa ʔamṭar lehum m(ann)a liyā(kul)ū (wa) (ḫub)z min el-(semā) ʔaʕṭā-hum

وأمطر لهم منَّا لياكلوا و خبز من السما أعطاهم

(ḫub)z el-melēyke (ʔak)el ʔinsēn (ša)ba(ʕ) baʕaṯ la-hum ley(i)temellew

خبز الملايكة أكل إنسان شبع بعث لهم ليتمَلَّوْا.

ʔahāǧ el-teym(an) min el-semā wa ʔatē bi-quwwet-uh el-ʕāṣif

أهاج التيْمَن* من السما وأتى بقوته العاصف

* Al-Jallad Notes: The name of the south wind in Classical Arabic is al-ǧanūb. The use of Teym[an] here might be an Aramaicism, tayman “south.” An identical term is used in the Hebrew Bible, têmān. (p.83)

wa ʔamṭar ʕaley-hum mithl el-turāb luḥūm wa mithl raml el-buḥūr ṭiyūr

mujneḥah

وأمطر عليهم مثل التراب لحوم ومثل رمل البحور طيور مِجْنِحَة

fa-waqaʕat fī wasaṭ ʕasker-hum ḥawl ḫiyēm-hum

فوقعت في وسط عسكرهم حول خيامهم

fa-ʔakelūwa šebiʕū ǧeddā wa šehwet-hum ǧēb la-hum

فأكلوا وشبعوا جدا وشهوتهم جاب لهم

(la)m yuʕdemū (š)ehwet-hum wa ʕindmā kēn el-ṭaʕām fī fāh-hum

لم يُعدموا شهوتهم وعندما كان الطعام في فاهم

wa ʔabtelew wa marmarū el-ʔilēh el-ʕālī wa šehād(ā)t-uh lam yeḥfaḏ̣ū

وابتلوا ومرموا الإله العالي وشهاداتُه لم يحفظوا

fa ʔanqalebū wa ġadarū miṯl ābāy(i)-hum ʔanqalebū miṯl el-qaws el-ʕawǧē

فأَنقلبوا وغدروا مثل آبايهُم أَنقلبوا مثل القوس العوجى

wa (ʔa)sḫaṭū-h bi-ʔawθāni-hum wa bi-menḥūtēti-hum ʔaġārū-h

وأسخطوه بأوثانهم وبمنحوتاتهم أغاروه.

semiʕ allāh wa teġāfel (wa) ʔafsel ǧed(dā)—li-isra(il)

سمع الله وتغافل وأفسل جدا لإسراييل

wa ʔaqṣā ḫaymet seylūm el-mesken elleðī ʔesken fil-bašer

وأقصا خيمة سيلوم المسكن الذي أسكن في البشر

wa ʔas(l)e(m) lilseb(ī) (q)oe(t-hum)

وأسلم للسبي قوتهم.

Judaeo-Arabic Texts

A collection of papyri from Egypt includes Arabic texts written with Hebrew characters. These papyri predate 900 AD^[23].

Although the Hebrew script is defective and doesn’t write short vowels and many long ‘a’ vowels, these Judaeo-Arabic texts are still valuable as they don’t abide by Arabic orthography rules. E.g. A word pronounced as “kalbun”(with final short vowel and nunation) is written in Arabic as “klb” without the suffix in accordance with Arabic orthography rules. But when this word is written in Judaeo-Arabic as “klb”( instead of “klbn”) then this means it’s pronounced without the suffix because these texts are phonetic and don’t abide by Arabic orthography rules^[24].

In the following example^[25] from the Judaeo-Arabic Papyri, the word عافية ʕāfiyah is written as ʕfyh which means the word lacked nunation otherwise it would have been written as ʕfytn (ʕāfiyatin).

The same example also shows the word محمود  maḥmūd is written as mḥmwd which means the word lacked nunation otherwise it would have been written as mḥmwdn (maḥmūdun).

ונחן פי עפיה ואלה מחמוד עלא דלך

ونحن في عافية والله محمود على ذلك

(We are in good health thanks to Allah)

Litteral transcription: wnḥn fy ʕfyh walh mḥmwd ʕlā dlk

Pronunciation: wanaḥn fī ʕāfiyah wallāh maḥmūd ʕalā dhālik

Classical Arabic: wanaḥnu fī ʕāfiyatin wallāhu maḥmūdun ʕalā dhālik

Besides the loss of final short vowels and nunations, other features of these texts include:

1- Frequent loss of Hamzah:

J. Blau and S. Hopkins, JUDAEO-ARABIC PAPYRI, 1987

https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160

אלרדיה (The cloaks الأردية )

Litteral transcription: alrdyh

Pronunciation: alardiyah

Classical Arabic: alʾardiyah

Note: The Hebrew letter א can be used to express the long vowel ā or a glottal stop. If the word for “the cloaks” was pronounced with a glottal stop, it would have been written with two א :  אלארדיה

p.126

תכוד (تأخذ  you take)

Litteral transcription: tkwd

Pronunciation: tākhudh

Classical Arabic: taʾkhudh

Note: If the word was pronounced with a glottal stop, it would have been written as: תאכוד

The indefinite accusative is marked with ‘ā’ instead of classical Arabic “an”. a p.149

וידא

(and also) (وأيضا)

Litteral transcription: wydā

Pronunciation: wēḍā

Classical Arabic: waʾayḍan

וגדא

(and tomorrow) (وغدا)

Litteral transcription: wgdā

Pronunciation: waghadā

Classical Arabic: waghadan

The pronominal suffix of the 3^rd person masculine is ‘h’ with no vowel after it as opposed to classical Arabic forms: hū/hī, hu/hi.

After consonants the pronoun is spelled as wh, to be pronounced uh or oh. And after vowels the pronoun is spelled h.

P.151

ולדוה

His son ولده

Litteral transcription: wldwh

Pronunciation: waladuh

Classical Arabic: waladuhū

מין אכיה

From his brother من أخيه

Litteral transcription: myn akyh

Pronunciation: min ʾakhīh

Classical Arabic: min ʾakhīhi

5- The pronominal suffix of the 3^rd person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form. While classical Arabic has both “hum” and “him”.

In the following example, the pronominal suffix should take the “him” form in accordance with classical Arabic rules. But it’s written as “hum”.

p.152

עלא חאלתהום

In their condition على حالتهم

Litteral transcription: ʕlā ḥālthwm

Pronunciation: ʕalā ḥālatihum

Classical Arabic: ʕalā ḥālatihim

Loss of verbal moods.

יהרובו

They are going to flee يهربوا

Litteral transcription: yhrwbw

Pronunciation: yahrubū

Classical Arabic: yahrubūn

p.155

p.50

they probably predate 900 CE

maqsura pronouonced as ē, adverbal aa, lack of final short vowels and twnwin. Source for all is p.137

Blau judaeo Arabic texts_2002 - A handbook of early Middle Arabic

This is a transcription of the Hebrew script into IPA. In the first line, each Hebrew character is converted into the IPA equivalent. The second line shows the Arabic pronunciation with full vowels.

ḥfdk alh wʕfk