Jak islámští vynálezci nezměnili svět

Poznámka: Paul Vallely, autor "How Islamic inventors changed the world" (Jak islámští vynálezci změnili svět), byl kontaktován ohledně tvrzení v tomto článku, nicméně dosud jsme nedostali odpověď.

Za posledních pár let bylo mnoho vynálezů připisováno islámským vynálezcům, které ve skutečnosti existovaly v před-islámské době, nebo byly vynalezeny jinými kulturami, nebo oboje. Tato tvrzení byla také vnucována veřejnosti v rámci národního turné, které se otevřelo u exhibice v Museum of Science a Industry v Manchesteru a University of Manchester v Anglii.

Pro oslavu této série událostí, byl Paulem Vallelyem napsán článek s názvem “How Islamic inventors changed the world” (Jak islámští vynálezci změnili svět), publikovaný u The Independent 11. března 2006. Tento nepřesný článek získal velkou chválu od muslimů a hojně koluje po islámských stránkách, fórech, blozích a je dokonce používán jako zdroj (pro potvrzení lživých tvrzení o islámských vynálezech) ve více, než dvaceti ^[1] různých článků na Wikipedii.

Paul Vallely odvážně začal s následujícím tvrzením: "Od kafe, přes šachy, až ke třem hodům, muslimský svět nám dal mnoho inovací, které bereme jako samozřejmost v každodenním životě. Při otevření nové výstavy, Paul Vallely nominuje 20 nejvlivnějších- a identifikuje jejich geniální vynálezce."^[2] Tento článek vyjmenovává a zkoumá všech dvacet “Islámských vynálezů, které změnily svět”, a při tom ukáže jejich opravdové vynálezce a opravdovou roli islámu/muslimů, pokud tam vůbec nějaká byla.

Kafe

Legenda, na kterou se odkazuje Paul Vallely je probrána na decentcoffee.com (anglicky):

"Arabské pití kávy začalo téměř před dvanácti sty lety (850 n. l.), když si etiopský pastevec jménem Khalid povšimnul, že když když jej odpolední slunce udělalo unaveným, jeho stádo skotačilo poskakovalo, poté co okusovalo nějké bobule. Khalid buď snědl bobule celé, nasbíral a uvařil je.

Když jeho žena uviděla jak je energický je, přičemž normálně by byl unavený, donutila jej aby se podělil o jeho zázračný vynález s místním duchovním v klášteře. Vedoucí mnich nesdílel jeho nadšení. Popsal bobule jeko "satanovo dílo" a hodil je do ohně aby zaplašil jejich hříšnou přítomnost. Brzy se místnost naplnila lahodnou vůní pečených bobulí, a další mnichové přispěchali, aby zjistili zdroj této nové slasti."

Všimněme si výše, že tato pasáž říká, že pastevec jménem Khalid (nebo Kaldi v jiné verzi příběhu) byl z Etopie. Etiopané byli převážně pravověrní křesťané. Navíc, v islámu neexistují kláštery nebo mnichové v islámu. Ve skutečnosti, je to zakázáno (Quran 57:027). Proto, pokud je tato legenda pravdivá, Khalid (nebo Kaldi) by nebyl muslim, ale křesťan.

Zároveň, objevení kafe, podle maronitského mnicha Antonius Faustus Naironus (1635–1707), proběhlo jinak, než říká výše napsaný příběh. V "De saluberrima potione Cahue, seu Cafe nuncupata discursus" (1671) píše, že pastevec si stěžoval převorovi blízkého habešského kláštera, že jeho zvířata nemohou spát. Dva mniši, společně s pastevcem byli vysláni nadřízeným, aby zjistili co zvířata jedly. Objevili kávovník, který donesli do kláštera, kde si z něj uvařili nápoj. Celou noc trávili příjemným povídáním, bez jakékoliv únavy.^[3]

Vidění

Základní optické principy dírky můžeme nalézt v čínských textech z pátého století př. n. l. ^[4] Obě tvrzení, jak to, že vytvoři teorii paprsků jdoucích do oka a že vymyslel dírkovou komoru, jsou lži. Teorie, že světlo jde do oka vzešla z řecké filozofie a jejími podpůrci byli Aristoteles, Galen, a Empedocles. Giovanni Battista della Porta (1538–1615), vědec z Neapole byl dlouho považován za vynálezce, díky jeho popisu nalezeném v Magia naturalis (1558). Nicméně prvním publikovaným obrázkem dírkové komory je kresba v Gemma Frisius' De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica (1545).^[5]

Zatímco latinština i arabština si mezi sebou půjčovaly slovíčka, latinský jazyk je starší, než arabština alespoň o tisíc šest set let. Slovo “kamera” nebylo odvozeno z arabského "qamara". "Camera" je latinské slovo, které znamená klenutý nebo zahnutý prostor, odvozené z řeckého καμαρα, které se vztahuje k čemukoliv, co má zahnutý povrch. Italské slovo "camera", francouzské "chambre", a anglické slovo "chamber" všechny sdílí stejný latinský kořen. "Camera obscura" doslova znamená “temná místnost”.^[6][7] Slovo “kamera”, používané dnes, poprvé nadhodil Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). Arbské slovo “qamara” bylo téměř určitě půjčeno z latinského slova "camera", anebo je podobnost těchto slov náhodná.^[5]

Šachy

Britští archeologové v červenci 2002 vykopali šachovou figurku ze slonoviny, u byzantského paláce v jižní Albánii, čímž dokázali, že evropané hráli šachy mnohem dříve, než se předpokládalo. Nedávné objevy z šestého století jsou zřejmě ignorovny pro to, aby mohli tvrdit, že vymysleli šachy pro hloupý západ o 400 let později, skrze Španělsko v 10. stoeltí.^[8] A i když forma šachů tak, jak je známe dnes byla z větší části vyvinuta v Persii, byli to zoroastriánští peršané (ne islámští), před muslimskými invazemi. Zároveň je ironickým faktem, že šachy jsou v islámu zakázány, jelikož byly odsouzeny Mohamedem, který přirovnal hraní šachů k barvení rukou prasečím tělem a krví.^[9][10] Takže ve skutečnosti Paul Vallely a samotní muslimové tvrdící, že islám byl důvodem rozšiřování šachů v Evropě je urážkou zbožným a jistě se díky tomu Mohamed obrací v horbě.

Létání

Co se týče létání, první byli draci, a ty vynalezli číňané. Jsou staré až 3000 let a byly dělány z bambusu a hedvábí. Prvním případem lidského letu bylo létáni na draku kolem roku -200. Roku -478 čínský filozof Mo Zi, strávil tři roky děláním jestřába z lehkého dřeva nebo bambusu, který plaval s větrem. Mohl létat, ale po jednom dnu zkoušení se zničil. Draci byli také používáni v čínské armádě po léta. Nesly čeredně nakreslené obličeje, trubky a provázky, které vytvářely zvuky a měly zastrašit nepřítele.

Bylo provedeno mnoho pokusů použít draky k létání lidí, první zaznamenaný úspěch byl velmi brutální. Roku +550 císař Kao Yang překonal své mocné nepřátele, rodiny Thopa a Yuan. Přikázal aby přeživší Thopas a Yuan byli vylepšeni křídly z bambusu a shozeni z vrcholu věže Zlatého Fénixe. Všichni zemřeli. Další zajatci byli přidělaní k drakům udělaným ve formě sov a spuštění dolů. Jen jeden zajatec přežil, poté co letěl 2,5 km. Později tento člověk, Yuan Huang-Thou zemřel hladem. Číňané se také snažili vyrobit létací stroje. V knize Pao Phu Tzu, z roku +320, Ko Hung říká: “Někteří udělali létající vozy z dřeva, using ox-leather straps fastened to returning blades to set the machines in motion”. He is clearly describing rotating blades attached to a spinning axle and driven by a (leather) belt that is a rotor top the principal of which underlie the modern-day helicopter. It seems that the system worked because flying cars had been used. The machine, known as “bamboo dragonfly”, is still used today as a child’s toy.^[11][12][13]

In the West, the ancient Greek engineer, Hero of Alexandria, worked with air pressure and steam to create sources of power. One experiment that he developed was the aeolipile, which used jets of steam to create rotary motion. The importance of the aeolipile is that it marks the start of engine invention—engine created movement will later prove essential in the history of flight.^[14]

Given all of the above information, how can anyone possibly accredit the invention of flight to a 9^th century Muslim jumping off a mosque in Spain?

Mytí

The first issue we need to address here, is the "Muslim" that Paul Vallely is referring to. His name was Sake Dean Mahomed and he was not a Muslim, but a convert to Christianity.^[15] Born to Muslim parents in 1759, He converted to Christianity and married the Anglo-Irish gentlewoman, Jane Daly, in an Anglican ceremony in 1786^[16] (long before opening "Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths" in 1821).^[17] Two of his children (Amelia and Henry) were also baptised into the Anglican faith, and one of his grandsons, Rev. James Kerriman Mahomed, was appointed as the vicar of Hove, Sussex.^[18] Also worthy of mention is the fact that Islam is not the only religion which dictates rules on personal cleanliness. The Jews too have rules governing hygiene.

A soap-like material found in clay cylinders during the excavation of ancient Babylon is evidence that soapmaking was known as early as 2800 BC. Inscriptions on the cylinders say that fats were boiled with ashes, which is a method of making soap, but do not refer to the purpose of the "soap." Such materials were later used as hair styling aids. Like the ancient Egyptians before them, daily bathing was an important event in the ancient Roman world^[19] and a common custom in Japan during the Middle Ages. And in Iceland, pools warmed with water from hot springs were popular gathering places on Saturday evenings. Soapmaking was an established craft in Europe by the 7^th century. Soapmaker guilds guarded their trade secrets closely. Vegetable and animal oils were used with ashes of plants, along with fragrance. Gradually more varieties of soap became available for shaving and shampooing, as well as bathing and laundering. The English began making soap during the 12^th century. The soap business was so good that in 1622, King James I granted a monopoly to a soapmaker for $100,000 a year. Well into the 19^th century, soap was heavily taxed as a luxury item in several countries. When the high tax was removed, soap became available to ordinary people, and cleanliness standards improved. Commercial soapmaking in the American colonies began in 1608 with the arrival of several soapmakers on the second ship from England to reach Jamestown, VA. The science of modern soapmaking was bom in the 1820's with the discovery by French chemist Michel Eugene Chevreul, of the chemical nature and relationship of fats, glycerine and fatty acids. His studies established the basis for both fat and soap chemistry.^[20]

Destilace

Speculation has linked some Egyptian illustrations with distillation, but the earliest evidence for its invention so far is a distillation apparatus and terra-cotta perfume containers recently identified in the Indus Valley (pre-Islamic Pakistan) dating from around 3,000 BC, and Miriam the Prophetess (also known as “Maria the Jewess”) invented the kerotakis, an early still dated around the 1^st century AD.^[22] The first firm documentary evidence for distillation in the West comes from Greek historian Herodotus' record of the method of distilling turpentine dated 425 BC.^[23] Also, the origins of whisky is dated to the 5^th century AD, introduced to Ireland by Saint Patrick (390–461 AD), the patron of the Irish.^[24]So the Arabs may have improved upon the process of distillation some 3500 years later, but they most definitely did not invent it.

It is also of great interest to note that the authorship of many books previously attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (including "his" most famous work, Summa Perfectionis) have now been attributed to an unknown European alchemist, sometimes to the little-known Paul of Taranto, writing shortly after 1300 AD.^[25] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica:

"[Geber was an] unknown author of several books that were among the most influential works on alchemy and metallurgy during the 14th and 15th centuries.

The name Geber, a Latinized form of Jābir, was adopted because of the great reputation of the 8th-century Arab alchemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān. A number of Arabic scientific works credited to Jābir were translated into Latin during the 11th to 13th centuries. Thus, when an author who was probably a practicing Spanish alchemist began to write in about 1310, he adopted the westernized form of the name, Geber, to give added authority to his work, which nevertheless reflected 14th-century European alchemical practices rather than earlier Arab ones.

Four works by Geber are known: Summa perfectionis magisterii (The Sum of Perfection or the Perfect Magistery, 1678), Liber fornacum (Book of Furnaces, 1678), De investigatione perfectionis (The Investigation of Perfection, 1678), and De inventione veritatis (The Invention of Verity, 1678). They are the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set of laboratory directions to appear before the 16th century. Accordingly, they were widely read and extremely influential in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual rule."^[26]

Kliková hřídel

Naneštěstí pro našeho geniálního muslima al-Jazari, kliková hřídel byla známá již číňanům z dynastie Han.^[27] Dynastie Han trvala od roku 206 př.n.l. do 220 n.l. Již v prvním století byly hřídele používány v římských zdravotních zařízeních, ale až roku 834 můžeme najít zmínku o hřídeli v Evropě. A picture in a graphic codex of a man sharpening a sword on a grindstone turned by a crank.^[27][28] 206 BC to 834 AD is certainly a lot earlier than when Paul Vallely claims a 12^th century Muslim invented 'one of the most important mechanical inventions in the history of humankind'. What Al-Jazari described was a crank and connecting rod system in a water pump. He incorporated a crankshaft, but it was unnecessarily complex indicating that he did not fully understand the concept of power conversion.^[29]

Piston technology was also used by Hero of Alexandria in the 1^st century AD with the creation of the worlds first steam-powered engine—the aeolipile, more than a thousand years before al-Jazari. (please refer to Invention 4: Flying for further details.) In his works "Pneumatica" and "Automata" he also described over a hundred machines and automata, including mechanical singing birds, puppets, a fire engine, a wind organ (please refer to Invention 11: The windmill for further details), and a coin-operated machine, so if anyone deserves the title given to al-Jazari by Paul Vallely as the "father of robotics" it's Hero of Alexandria. It must also be noted that Hero's works "Mechanica" (in three books) survive only in their Arabic translations, so the Muslims had access to all this pre-Islamic genius,^[30] yet writing a factually accurate article on Islamic achievements seems to have proved too much for some.

As for the water clock, the ancient Egyptians used a time mechanism run by flowing water. One of the oldest was found in the tomb of an Egyptian pharaoh buried in 1500 BC, and the Chinese began developing mechanized clocks from around 200 BC. The Greeks also measured time with various types of water clocks. The more impressive mechanized water clocks were developed between 100 BC and 500 AD by Greek and Roman horologists and astronomers.^[31] What we now know as the Antikythera mechanism was discovered among a shipwreck in 1900 off the island of Antikythera.

Science historian Derek Price, concluded that it was an ancient computer used to predict the positions of the sun and moon on any given date. Michael Wright, the curator of mechanical engineering at the Science Museum in London, thinks that the original device modelled the entire known solar system. Ancient Greek sources make references to such devices so this is highly plausible. Roman philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC), writes of a device “recently constructed by our friend Poseidonius, which at each revolution reproduces the same motions of the sun, the moon and the five planets.” Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC) is also said to have made such a device.^[32][33] By the 9^th century AD a mechanical timekeeper had been developed that lacked only an escapement mechanism.

And what of the Combination Lock, did al-Jazari invent it? Again, the answer is an emphatic no. The earliest known combination lock was unearthed in a Roman period tomb in Kerameikos, Athens.^[34] The ancient Chinese were also responsible for the creation of some of the earliest key-operated padlocks and beautiful letter-combination padlocks.^[35][36]

Prošívání

Je zajímavé, že autor sám tvrdí, že "není jasné, jestli to bylo vynalezeno v muslimském světě" a přesto uvádí prošívání jako islámský vynález. Nicméně důkazy proti tvrzení, že muslimové vynalezli prošívání jsou jasné, přestože to mohlo projít do Evropy skrze střední východ. Opravdový původ zůstává neznámý, ale pokud půjdeme po stopách historie, dojdeme až do starověké Číny a Egypta, kolem roku -3400^[37] s nálezem prošívaného pláště s vyřezanou figurkou faraone ze slonoviny z egyptské první dynastie. Navíc roku 1924 archeologové objevili prošívaný koberec v Mongolsku.^[38] Odhadované stáří je mezi prvním a druhým stoletím. Je zde také mnoho odkazů na prošívání v literatuře ^[38] a nedávno v září 2007 byla nalezena mužská mumie v Xinjiang, Číně, zabalená do prošívaného hedvábí.^[39]

Architektura

Co se týče revolučních architektonických vynálezů, nic není větší, než vytvoření betonu, materiálu zdokonaleném římany. To jim umožnilo stavět budovy, které nebylo možno postavit s použitím tradičních kamenů a stavebních překladů. Tento vynález udělal možnost konstruovat amfiteátry, koupelny a chrámy v horách v římském světě.^[40] Když si ujasníme tohle, přestože gotický oblouk začal být používán až ve 13. století, byli to habešové (ne muslimové), kdo jej první používal již od roku -722.^[41]

Co se týče islámských technik stavění kupolí, nejlepším příkladem kupole ve starověkém světě je panteon v Římě, postaven téměř 500 let před islámem v roce 118–135 Apollodorusem z Damašku a opět, bylo to možné jen díky vynálezu betonu, který byl zdokonalen římany. Původně chrám pro římské bytosti, stal se křesťanským kostelem od 7. století. Je to důležitý a dojemný příklad designu, budova, která má už více, než 2000 let při nepřetržitém používání, svoji původní střechu. Kopule má rozpětí 43.2 metrů. Byla největší kopulí ve světě, až do 15. století, kdy byla postavena katedrála ve Florenci (1420–36).

Druhou nejpůsobivější před-islámskou kopulí, je ta u Hagia Sophia (kostel svaté moudrosti) v Istanbulu, Turecko. Postavena pod dohledem byzantského císaře Justiniána během let 532–537 AD, byla konvertována na mešitu po invazi muslimů, kteří dobyli Konstantinopol roku 1453 AD. Kopule má šířku 31 metrů a narozdíl od tvrzení v článku, muslimové si půjčovali nápady od starší křesťanské architektury. Byl to ve skutečnosti tento byzantský kostel ze 6. století, který byl používán o tisíc let později jako model pro mnoho Ottomanských mešit, včetně Sultan Ahmed Mosque (dokončena v 1616 AD), Şehzade Mosque (dokončená 1548 AD), Süleymaniye Mosque (dokončená 1557 AD), Rüstem Pasha Mosque (dokončená 1563 AD), a Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque (dokončená 1580 AD).^[42]

Článek se také zmiňuje o tom, že rozety jsou islámským vynálezem, přestože jejich původ lze vystopovat k římkému okulusu, opět nalezeném v kopuli Panteonu. Navíc, vynález rozet zcela záleží skle a řemeslnictví. Výroba skla vzešla z blízkého východu kolem roku -2000. První tvůrci tlačili sklo do surové formy. Kolem roku -1500, jemnější nádoby byly vytvářeny v Egyptě. Nejlepšími výrobci a vývozci skla tehdy byli féničané, kteří měli velké zásoby křemenatých písků. Foukání skla se vyvinulo kolem 1. století př. n. l. v Palestině.^[43] První známe vitráže dělali saxoné v 7. století a jejich výroba byla považována za záhadu.

A nakonec, tu máme žebrové klenby, které byly vyvinuty z římské architektury středověkými evropskými staviteli^[44] a které byly poprvé použity v in St. Etienne, Francie. První přeživší ukázka žebrové klenby může být nalezena v Durham Cathedral (postavěna od 1093–1133 AD) Durhamu v Anglii.^[45]

Když se zamyslíme nad těmito fakty, myslíme si, že je v pořádku předpokládat, že vývoj architektury v Evropě a zbytku ne-islámského světa by se, a taky že se obešlo bez té údajné "muslimské geniality".

Nástroje

More than a thousand years before al-Zahrawi, the Greek and Roman physicians in the Classical World had access to a variety of surgical instruments. This is known through several ancient texts which give brief descriptions and also from a 1887 find in the ruins of Pompeii. A house that belonged to a Greek surgeon in 79 AD was identified by its large stores of surgical equipment numbering over a hundred. These medical instruments, which are now on display in museums around the world, were all available to the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) who lived more than a thousand years before Islam, and many of them in a similar form are still being used today. These instruments include a variety of scalpels, hooks, uvula-crushing forceps, bone drills, bone forceps, catheters and bladder sounds, vaginal speculum, and even a portable medicine chest to carry them in.^[46] It was also the Greek physician and medical researcher Claudius Galenus (129–217 AD), someone who greatly influenced Western medical science, who first used catgut to close wounds and not al-Zahrawi. In fact "Muslim" physician Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) 700 years later (920 AD) used a pig product.^[47] The actions of a pious Muslim, we're sure.

As for the circulation of the blood, it may have been described by Muslim medic Ibn Nafis 300 years before William Harvey, but the Chinese Book of Medicine describes this 1,600 years before Ibn Nafis.^[48]

The article also alleges that Muslim doctors first developed hollow needles to suck cataracts from the eye, and anaesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes. This is not so. Cataract surgery has been performed for many centuries. The earliest reference to cataract surgery was written by the Hindu surgeon Susruta in manuscripts dating from the 5^th century BC. In Rome, archaeologists found surgical instruments used to treat cataract dating back to the 1^st and 2^nd century AD. Hollow needles were used to break up the cataract and remove it with suction.^[49] Anaesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes were used both by the ancient Chinese and Romans. Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (40–90 AD) in his work Materia Medica (one of the most influential herbal books in history) referred to the taking of an alcoholic extract before an operation. This would suggest that it was typical for the surgeons of ancient Rome to decrease pain of an operation by giving their patients sedative drugs.^[50]

Větrný mlýn

The windmill was not invented in the year 634 for a Persian caliph. Although the Arabs invaded Persia in 634 AD, contrary to the articles claims, there was no caliph in Persia at that time; he was in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Caliph Abu Bakr died early that year and Umar ibn al-Khattab took over. Fīrūz (Abu-Lu'lu'ah), the Arab-owned non-Muslim slave, who in 644 AD assassinated Caliph Umar in the mosque at Medina, is described by Islamic sources as a Persian builder of windmills.^[51] Therefore, the construction of windmills was an already established craft in Persia, antedating the presence of Islam.

If we look to the history behind the development of windmills, the first rotary mills were discovered in Catal Hayuk in Turkey and existed 8,000 years ago,^[52] while the first windmills were developed much later to automate the tasks of grain-grinding and water-pumping. One of the earliest watermills mentioned can be found in 1^st century BC Greek writings, where a watermill was called a hydraletēs, but because of the heavy use of slave labor we do not find the first archeological evidence of watermills until the 4^th and 5^th century AD. ^[53] The earliest mention of a type of windmill can be found in the book Pneumatica written by a 1^st century AD writer called Hero, in it he describes the creation of a type of windpowered organ. ^[54] The idea was never worked out however and we don't find the earliest-known design of the vertical axis system until developed in Persia about 500–900 AD. China is also often claimed as the birthplace of the windmill. The belief that it was invented in China more than 2,000 years ago is widespread and may be accurate, but the earliest actual documentation of a Chinese windmill was in 1219 AD by the Chinese statesman Yehlu Chhu-Tshai.^[55]

Inoculation

It was smallpox that was used for inoculation by the Turks, not cowpox. Inoculation was widespread at the time, and involved the use of smallpox scabs. The use of the much less dangerous cowpox virus to induce immunity is known not as inoculation, but as vaccination. It was in fact Jenner who first reported the use of cowpox to vaccinate against the much more lethal smallpox, hence he invented vaccination. And Yes, Jenner and Pasteur were not the inventors of inoculation but neither were the Muslims. What Paul seems to be continually doing is referring to anything that originated from the Eastern hemisphere (regardless of whether it was before or after the advent of Islam or not) as originating from 'the Muslim world' when even the most unenlightent amongst us will realize that China and India are not a part of this so-called Muslim world. It has been said that Inoculation against smallpox began in China during the 10^th century,^[11] but the earliest documented reference to smallpox inoculation in China comes from text written in 1549.^[56] The earliest known attempts to produce artificial immunity involved powdered smallpox scabs being blown into the sinuses, and in the 17^th century, they prepared pills made from the fleas of cows in an effort to prevent the disease. In India, physicians conferred immunity by applying scabs to the scarified skin of the healthy. The technique of inoculation spread west to Turkey and then Europe.^[57]

The fountain pen

The history of the fountain pen cannot begin otherwise than with the quill pen. The quill pen was used for the writings of Egyptian kings 4,000 years ago. They most often used a goose feather carved into a sharp tip and dipped into ink of vegetable origin. Though the first pencil was invented by Conrad Gessner in 1567^[58], it remained like this until the end of the 18^th century when the metal pen was invented. Daniel Schwenter wrote about the idea of creating a fountain pen in his Delicia Physic-Mathematicae in 1636 ^[59]; efforts to manufacture a pen with its own ink supply began in the year 1656. For example, Samuel Pepys had one in the year 1663. It functioned in such a way that a small pipe above the tip of the feather was filled with ink by means of a small piston. But a slightly more practically usable pen came to the world in the 19^th century. A fountain pen which functioned on the same principle (a pen with a piston) was created by the inventor Folsch in 1809.^[60] Later in 1931, László Bíró presented the first ballpoint pen at the Budapest world fair,^[61] the ballpoint pen was designed to use better ink that would not clog or smear.^[62]

Those who claim that the fountain pen was invented in AD 953 by a Muslim need to produce both the evidence of a fountain pen, and evidence of the type of ink used.

The system of numbering

Algebra may have been named after a book by al-Khwarizmi titled Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, but the origins of algebra itself can be traced to the ancient Babylonians who were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion.^[63] Having something named after what popularised or refined it by no means makes it the inventor, and by doing so you would have to discount the works of mathematician Diophantus of Alexandria (200 and 214 AD–284 and 298 AD) who authored a series of books called "Arithmetica" and is commonly referred to as "the father of algebra".

Paul Vallely begrudgingly admits that the system of numbering in use all round the world is 'probably' Indian in origin, yet the title of the supposed Islamic invention still remains "The system of numbering". The first known use of numbers dates back to around 30,000 BC, but it is universally accepted that the system of numbering we use today (the digits 0 to 9) was invented in India.^[64][65] The reason why they are referred to as "Arabic" numerals in the West is due to them being introduced to the Europeans through the Arabs, who in the same way had earlier received them from the Hindus. Likewise, the Arabs themselves commonly refer to them as "Hindu numerals".^[66]

The use of zero as a number is found in many ancient Indian texts. The concept of negative numbers was recognised between 100–50 BC by the Chinese. Greek and Indian mathematicians studied the theory of rational numbers. (The best known of these works is Euclid's Elements, dated 300 BC. Euclid is also often referred to as the "Father of Geometry".) The earliest use of irrational numbers is in the Indian Sulba Sutras (800–500 BC). The first results concerning transcendental numbers were made by Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761. The earliest known conception of mathematical infinity appears in the Hindu text Yajur Veda (1,400 and 1,000 BC). The earliest reference to square roots of negative numbers were made by Greek mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria (10–70 AD). Prime numbers have been studied throughout recorded history. The mathematical branch of Trigonometry has been studied by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, but it was the ancient Greeks who proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae. And finally, the earliest known algorithms were developed by ancient Babylonians (1600 BC).^{[67][68][69][70][71]}

As for al-Kindi, while he is thought to be the earliest to describe frequency analysis, the technique itself may not have been discovered by al-Kindi as claimed. Nobody knows who actually discovered/invented/realized that the frequencies of letters could be used to break ciphers,^[72] and cryptology itself can be traced back to the time of Julius Caesar.

Three course meal

Having to include the three course meal in any religion's top 20 list of inventions is embarrassing. The expression scraping the barrel comes to mind, but did a Muslim actually invent it? Unsurprisingly, the answer is no. The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD (almost 600 years before the advent of Islam) and with them they brought the concept of the three-course meal^[73] which consisted of a first course, main course, and dessert.^[74] A typical starter/first course would be haddock, herring, mullet, or mackerel; the main course roasted beef, pork, or venison served with a prepared sauce and boiled vegetables; followed by a dessert of stuffed fried dates, apples soaked in a cream sauce, or pastries covered in honey and pepper; and to wash it all down, plenty of wine.^[75] It was the pre-Islamic Persians who introduced the dessert into Asia Minor as far as Ephesus (condemning the Greeks for its omission in meals).

Also, Abbas ibn Firnas did not invent crystal glass. Clear glass appeared during the 15^th century in Venice, and was called cristallo. Crystal was invented 175 years later, after glassmaker George Ravenscroft added lead oxide to glass, creating lead crystal glass.^[76]; ^[77]

Carpets

The earliest known carpet was discovered by Russian Professor Rudenko in 1949 during excavations of burial mounds in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. Called the Pazyryk rug,^[78][79] it dates from the fifth century BC^[80] and is now kept in the Hermitage museum of St. Petersburg.^[81] It was preserved from decay, due to water seeping into the burial mound and freezing.^[82] The advanced weaving technique used in the Pazyryk carpet indicates a long history of evolution and experience in this art. Most experts believe that the Pazyryk carpet is a late achievement of at least one thousand years of technique evolution and history. Evidence suggests that some forms of rug-weaving were used in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Middle East and Asia about 4,000 years ago. Therefore, the carpet is a pre-Islamic invention.

What of the West and the flooring being referred to by Paul Vallely? The Colosseum in Rome which was completed in 80 AD had wooden (not earthy) flooring. In fact, the typical Roman home as early as the 2^nd century BC had mosaic flooring, as found in the "House of the Tragic Poet" in Pompeii, Italy.^[83]; ^[84] The Romans also made use of rugs on the floors and the walls of their palaces. In 47 BC when the Egyptians banished Queen Cleopatra from Egypt, replacing her with her brother, she had herself delivered to the Roman Emperor Julius Caesar, smuggled inside a rolled up carpet. Their love for carpets was so great that many considered them to be more valuable than money and they even used them to pay their taxes.^[85]

Moderní šek

The ancient Romans are believed to have used an early form of cheque known as praescriptiones in the first century BC,^[86] and the saqq (or sakk, which developed into the modern word cheque)^[87] system being referred to by Paul Vallely was a 3^rd century pre-Islamic innovation of the Persian Sassanid Empire. Modern cheques need paper to be written, so clues to the invention of cheques can be traced following the lead of the invention of paper. Closely related is also the history of money and banking.

Paper is thought to have been invented in China 1^st century BC. It was kept as a secret for five centuries and went to Japan in AD 610. It was not used only for writing and books (The Chinese are also responsible for the invention of printing, possibly between the 4^th and 7^th century AD.) but also for making umbrellas, flags, house holds, toilet paper, and even armour so strong as to resist arrows. More to the point of cheques, they used it for the first promissory note, the first paper money. The invention was necessitated by the highway men who became so numerous that the merchants were not able to pay their taxes to the state. The state machinery was vital to the Chinese Empire to survive for so many thousand years. The civil servants brought the idea of notes marked with certain value that can be exchanged to gold at the end of the journey. Thus was developed the first cheques in history.^{[11][88][89][90]}

Země je kulatá

Fakt, že je Země kulatá byl běžnou znalostí mezi středověkými evropany, což je dokázáno většinou učebnic raného středověku, koule (globus cruciger; latinský název pro "kouli s křížem") křesťanský symbol reprezentující Kristovu (kříž) vládu nad světem (koule) použitá v korunovačních klenotech mnoha království a ve svaté říši římsé již od roku 395 a skrze celý středověk,^[91] a psaní raných křesťanských učenců, včetně Anicius Boëthius (480–524 AD), biskupa Isidore ze Seville (560–636 AD), biskupa Rabanus Maurus (780–856 AD), mnicha Bede (672–735 AD), biskupa Vergilius ze Salzburg (700–784 AD) a nejdůležitější teolog středověku: Tomáš Akvinský (1225–1274 AD). Víra, že středověcí křesťané věřili v placatou Zemi je chybná,^[92] a byla jmenována druhou největší chybnou představou v historii, podle Historical Association of Britain roku 1945.^[93] Což by nemělo být žádným překvapením, když uvážíme, že řecký vědec Pythagoras (570–495 BC), Aristoteles (384–322 BC) a Hipparchus (190–120 BC) také dospěli k závěru, že je Země kulatá ještě o tisíc let dříve.

Eratosthenes (275–194 BC) roku 240 BC změřil obvod Země číslu velmi blízkému tomu, které známe dnes. Změřil vzdálenost mezi Alexandrií a Aswanem a také změřil zakřivení země mezi těmito dvěma body na povrchu koule (Země) a došel k číslu udávajícím obvod Země. Eratosthenovu metodu později použil Hermannus Contractus (1013–1054 AD), středověký křesťanský učenec. Řecký filozof a matematik Aristarchus (320–230 BC) dokonce věděl, že se Země točí kolem Slunce a ne naopak (viz geocentrismus).^[94]

Na východě, práce klasických indického indického astronoma a metematika Aryabhata (476–550 AD) se také zabývá kulatostí Země a pohybem planet. Poslední dva díly jeho sanskrtského magnum opus Aryabhatiya, které byly nazvány "Kalakriya" (počítání času) a "Gola" (míč), říkají, že Země je kulatá a že její obvod je 4,967 yojanas, což je v moderních jednotkách 39,968 km, což je blízko dnešní hodnotě 40,075 km.^[95] Zároveň prohlásil, že zdánlivá rotace objektů na obloze je způsobena rotací Země, vypočítal délku hvězdného dne na 23 hodin, 56 minut, a 4.1 sekund.^[96]

Shrnuto: všechno co bylo připisováno arabským muslimům Paulem Vallelym, bylo nejen objeveno před-islámským východem, ale také před-křesťanskými řeky. Islámská víra brzdí vědecký pokrok a nic to nedemonstruje lépe, než moderní víra, že Země je plochá. Bylo to roku 1993, kdy nejvyšší náboženská autorita Saudské Arábie Sheik Abdul-Aziz Ibn Baaz prohlásila, že "Země je plochá. Kdokoliv tvrdí, že je kulatá je ateista, zasluhující trest."^[97] and in October 2007 on Al-Fayhaa TV in Iraq, a Muslim scientist also declared that the Earth is flat as evidenced by Qur'anic verses and that the Sun is much smaller than the Earth and revolves around it.^[98]

Střelný prach

As the article readily admits; the Chinese invented saltpetre (from Medieval Latin sal petrae: "stone salt" or possibly "salt of Petra") gunpowder, and saltpetre is in fact potassium nitrate.^[99] There is also only one reference from the Crusade of the Muslims launching a missile of some kind, but it did no damage. Were gunpowder in actual military use by the times of the Crusades, the first device to apply it in would have been a cannon, but it was in fact the Chinese who fired the first cannon.^[100]

Although the date of their introduction is uncertain, writings indicate that in 994 AD the Chinese used fire arrows in battle. Fire arrows were traditional arrows tipped with flammable materials like pitch, bitumen, or resin. In 994 AD the Chinese city of Tzu T'ung was attacked by an army of 100,000 men. The commander of the defensive forces, named Chang Yung, ordered a response to the attack using artillery fire made up of catapulted stones and fire arrows launched by bows.

In 1045, a Chinese government official named Tseng Kung-Liang wrote a complete account of the Chinese use of gunpowder, including its adaptation to weaponry. Called "Wu-ching Tsung-yao" (Complete Compendium of Military Classics) the work detailed the use of ballistic fire arrows not launched by bows, but by charges of gunpowder. While the date of their introduction is uncertain, the fire arrows launched by gunpowder are considered to be the first true rockets. These fire arrows were traditional feathered arrows propelled by ignited gunpowder housed in a tube tied to the arrow. The fire arrows carried flammable materials or sometimes poison-coated heads. In a form more closely resembling modern rockets, the gunpowder tube was lengthened to the tip of the arrow and given a pointed nose, eliminating the need for a traditional arrowhead.

In 1258, the Mongols were reported to have used gunpowder-propelled fire arrows in their effort to capture the Arab city of Baghdad. The Mongols reportedly launched gunpowder propelled fire arrows from ships during their attacks on Japan in 1274 and 1281. By the end of the 13th century, armies of Japan, Java, Korea, and India are believed to have acquired sufficient knowledge of gunpowder propelled fire arrows to begin using them against the Mongols. Use of the weapons quickly spread throughout Asia and Eastern Europe.

At the same time gunpowder propelled fire arrows were blazing in battle, scientific papers on the subject of the preparation of gunpowder and its application in weaponry were being published in Europe. Notable works were prepared by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, and Marchus Graecus before the close of the 13^th Century. In 1379, an Italian named Muratori used the word "rochetta" when he described types of gunpowder propelled fire arrows used in medieval times. This is believed to be the first use of the word later translated in English as "rocket".^[101]

Zahrady

Gardens were an Arab tradition long before Islam, so for Islam to claim this as an invention ignores thousands of years of pre-Islamic Arab culture, not to mention the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon which were built by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 BC to please his sick wife, Amytis of Media.^[102] It also ignores the Roman tradition of gardens and fountains used for meditation and the beautifully artistic Chinese Suzhou gardens (770–476 BC) which were designed specifically for relaxation.^[103] The oldest pictorial records of gardens are from Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings. Much like modern gardens, they came complete with shelters, pools, shady walks, pergolas, and plants growing in terracotta pots. In ancient times, temples contained what would be recognised as gardens. When they were closed to the public they became compounds for priests. Planting positions have been located in the Egyptian Temples of Hatshseput and Mentuhotep, and the Greek Temple of Hephaistos.^[104] Also one of the centerpieces of a Roman period home was the oeci or (peristyle) garden. Sometimes the center included a fish pond or swimming pool instead of a garden. Depending on the size of the home, the floorplan could continue indefinitely, with gardens leading to rooms leading to other gardens.^[83]

Článek, který napsal Paul Vallely je zcela zavádějící. Vynechává, zkresluje a dělá chyby ohledně nejzákladnějších historických faktů, aby dal čtenáři falešný dojem. Nechá vás to přemýšlet nad tím, co ho mohlo vést k napsání takového klamného žurnalistického kousku? Tato ukázka měla ukázat 1001 islámských vynálezů. Pokud prvních dvacet jsou prokazatelně špatně, jak na tom asi bude zbylých 981? Neměly by Museum of Science and Industry a University of Manchester raději pátrat a zachovávat přesnou historii, než pomáhat stránkám jako MuslimHeritage.com, zvěčňovat chyby o historii a okrádat jiné civilizace, jako je starověká Čína, starověký Řím, Indie a před-islámský Egypt o uznání, které si právem zaslouží?

Nezávisle na Paul Vallelyově pokusu (kterému chybí fakta) změnit historii světa, aby ukázal islám v lepším světle a jeho levým pokusem bagatelizovat ne-islámské civilizace a jejich historické dědictví, zůstává to bolestivě jasné, že vědecký a literární pokrok je pomalý anebo stagnující v islámském světě, specificky kvůli islámské víře a jejím restrikcím na její stoupence.

Navíc, pan Isaac Newton, který byl Michaelem H. Hartem označen za druhého nejvlivnějšího člověka v historii, byl oddaným křesťanem,^[105] ale jeho objevy nejsou nikdy popisovány jako "křesťanské objevy". Popravdě, toto nedávné označování vynálezů údajnými náboženskými přesvědčeními jejich vynálezců je docela zvláštní praktika. Pokud bychom měli udělat to samé pro vynálezy od následovatelů křesťanství, židovství, hinduismu nebo i řecko-římského pohanství, seznam by byl téměř nekonečný.

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• Islam’s Gifts to the World - A pictorial presentation of some of Islam's great contributions to the world. (satire)
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