L'age d'Aicha

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Aisha, de l’arabe عائشة, (également translittéré en A'ishah, Aisyah, Ayesha, A'isha, Aishat, ou Aishah) est née en 613/614 et est décédée en 678.[1]. Elle a été mariée à Muhammad à l’âge de 6 ou 7 ans, et ce dernier, alors âgé de 53 ans, a consommé le mariage lorsqu’Aicha avait 9 ou 10 ans selon de nombreux hadiths sahih (authentiques).[2][3][4][5][6] En raison des préoccupations liées au mariage des enfants, ce sujet suscite un vif intérêt dans la littérature apologétique et le débat public.

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Muhammad et sa femme Aicha libérant la fille d’un chef tribal. Image tirée du livre Siyer-i Nebi (Histoire du prophète)

A l’époque, se marier à un jeune âge n’était pas inconnu en Arabie, et le mariage d’Aicha à Muhammad avait peut-être une connotation politique, car son père, Abu Bakr, était un homme influent dans la communauté.[7] Abu Bakr a, de son côté, peut-être aussi cherché à renforcer le lien de parenté entre Muhammad et lui-même en unissant leurs familles par le mariage via Aicha. Leila Ahmed, femme de lettres égypto-américaine spécialiste de l’islam, note que les fiançailles et le mariage d’Aicha avec Muhammad sont présentés comme ordinaire dans la littérature islamique, et peuvent indiquer qu’il n’était pas inhabituel que des enfants soient mariés à leurs ainés à cette époque.[8] Dans les empires voisins de cette époque, la loi Byzantine interdisait le mariage des filles qui n’avaient pas atteint l’âge de la puberté, lequel était fixé à treize ans.[9] La loi Sassanide prévoyait, quant à elle, qu’une fillette pouvait se marier dès l’âge de neuf ans à condition que la consommation du mariage soit retardée jusqu’à ce qu’elle atteigne douze ans.[10]

Authenticité

Dans le Coran, une règle concernant le mariage avec celles qui n’ont pas encore atteint la menstruation apparaît au verset 4 de la sourate 65 (At-Talaq – Le Divorce).[11] Le tafsir (exégèse) d’Al-Jalalayn est l’un des commentaires du coran les plus respectés.[12] Pour ce verset, Jalalayn décrit dans son exégèse que "celles qui n’ont pas leurs règles" sont "celles qui n’ont pas encore leurs règles en raison de leur jeune âge, et que leur période [d’attente] sera [aussi] de trois mois."[13]

Dans l’ère moderne, l’âge qu’Aicha avait à son mariage a été une source de controverse et de débat. Certains musulmans ont tenté de réviser la chronologie préalablement acceptée de sa vie (voir la section Histoire Apologétique).[14] Le corpus de hadiths a permis d’obtenir des données sur les débuts de l’islam à travers une prétendue “chaîne ininterrompue de transmetteurs“. De nombreux hadiths indiquant qu’Aicha avait six ans lors de son mariage et neuf ans lorsque celui-ci a été consommé proviennent de collections ayant le statut de sahih, ce qui signifie qu’ils sont considérés comme dignes de confiance pour la majorité des Musulmans. Ils sont défendus, malgré la controverse qui entoure la question, car remettre en doute un ou des hadiths aussi largement transmis compromettrait de manière générale la science du hadith. L'âge et la consommation du mariage d'Aicha a également été mentionné par Ibn Hisham lors de sa recension de la sira d’Ibn Ishaq. De nombreuses déclarations sur cette tradition sont aussi référencées par les historiens Ibn Sa’d et al-Tabari.[15][16]

Les savants islamiques modernes remettent généralement en question la fiabilité des hadiths authentiques et des éléments biographiques de la tradition. Les récentes recherches universitaires indiquent que les hadiths précisant l’âge d’Aicha au moment de son mariage et de sa consommation remontent aux propos formulés par son petit-neveu, Hisham b. 'Urwa, après que ce dernier ait déménagé en Irak où il a trouvé un public réceptif probablement pour des raisons proto-sectaires (voir la section sur les points de vue académiques modernes ci-dessous).

A propos du mariage des enfants

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Une enfant mariée avec sa petite fille

Shafi'i, le fondateur de l’une des quatre écoles juridiques sunnites, a utilisé l’exemple du mariage d’Aicha pour soutenir le consensus juridique islamique selon lequel un père avait le droit d’inscrire sa fille mineure vierge dans un contrat de mariage en dépit de sa volonté. Ibn Hanbal, le fondateur d’une autre de ces quatre écoles, a fait allusion aux neuf ans qu’Aicha avait lors de la consommation pour certaines décisions connexes, notamment que le mari doit être autorisé à consommer un mariage une fois que sa femme atteint l’âge de neuf ans (voir Forced Marriage et Child Marriage in Islamic Law).

Selon Reuben Levy, professeur iranien à l’université de Cambridge, aucune limite d’âge n’a été fixée par l’islam pour contracter un mariage et que "de très jeunes enfants peuvent être légalement mariés".[17] La fille ne peut toutefois pas vivre avec son mari tant qu’elle n’est pas apte à avoir des relations sexuelles conjugales.

Dans la terminologie juridique islamique, le terme Baligh (بالغ) fait référence à une personne mature, pubère ou qui a atteint l’âge adulte et est entièrement responsable selon la loi islamique. Les théoriciens du droit attribuent des âges et des critères différents pour atteindre ces conditions pour les hommes et pour les femmes.[18] Dans le mariage, baligh est lié à l’expression juridique arabe, hatta tutiqa'l-rijal, ce qui signifie que le mariage ne peut avoir lieu tant que la fille n’est pas physiquement apte à avoir des rapports sexuels. Un certain nombre de juristes ont déclaré que la consommation pouvait avoir lieu avant même la puberté si la fille était considérée physiquement apte à faire cet acte.

Citations pertinentes

De nombreux hadiths complémentaires sont rassemblés ici : Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Aisha.

- Si vous avez des doutes à propos (de la période d'attente) de vos femmes qui n'espèrent plus avoir de règles, leur délai est de trois mois. De même pour celles qui n'ont pas encore de règles. Et quant à celles qui sont enceintes, leur période d'attente se terminera à leur accouchement. Quiconque craint Allah cependant, Il lui facilite les choses. (Traduction Hamidullah)
- Celles de vos femmes qui ont désespéré d’avoir de menstruation, si vous doutez, leur délai d’attente est de trois mois. Et celles qui n’ont pas de menstruation, [leur délai d’attente est aussi de trois mois]. Quant à celles qui portent, leur terme est lorsqu’elles mettent bas leur portée. Quiconque craint Dieu, il lui fait son affaire aisée. (Traduction Sami Aldeeb, pdf p.411)
Le père d'Hisham a rapporté : Khadija est morte trois ans avant que le Prophète ne parte pour Médine. Il y est resté à peu près deux ans, puis il a épousé Aicha lorsqu’elle n’était qu’une fille de six ans, et il a consommé ce mariage lorsqu’elle avait neuf ans.
Aicha a rapporté : que le Prophète (ﷺ) l’a épousée quand elle avait six ans et qu'il a consommé son mariage quand elle avait neuf ans. Hisham a dit : j’ai été informé qu’Aicha est restée avec le Prophète (ﷺ) pendant neuf ans (c'est à dire jusqu'à sa mort).
Aicha (qu’Allah soit satisfait d’elle) a rapporté : l’Apôtre d’Allah (que la paix soit sur lui) m’a épousée quand j’avais six ans, et j’ai été admise chez lui lorsque j’avais neuf ans.
Aicha (qu'Allah soit satisfait d'elle) a rapporté que l'Apôtre d'Allah (que la paix et la bénédiction soient sur lui) l'a épousée quand elle avait sept ans, et qu'il l’a emmenée chez lui en tant qu’épouse quand elle avait neuf ans, que ses jouets étaient avec elle ; et quand il (le Saint Prophète) est mort, elle avait dix-huit ans.
Rapporté par Aicha : Le Prophète (ﷺ) s'est fiancé avec moi quand j'étais une fillette (de six ans). Nous avons été à Médine et sommes restés chez les Banu al-Harith ibn Khazraj. Ensuite, je suis tombée malade et mes cheveux sont tombés. Plus tard, mes cheveux ont (de nouveau) poussé et ma mère, Um Ruman, est venue me voir alors que je jouais à la balançoire avec certaines de mes amies. Elle m'a appelée, et je suis allée vers elle, ne sachant pas ce qu'elle me voulait. Elle m'a attrapée par la main et m’a laissée debout devant la porte de la maison. J'étais alors essoufflée, et quand ma respiration est revenue à la normale, elle a pris de l'eau et m'a frottée le visage et la tête. Elle m'a emmenée ensuite dans la maison. Là, dans la maison, j’ai vu des femmes parmi les Ansars qui ont dit, "Meilleurs vœux, la bénédiction d'Allah et bonne chance." Puis, elle m’a confiée à elles qui m’ont préparée (pour le mariage). De façon inattendue, l'Apôtre d'Allah est venu vers moi dans la matinée et ma mère m’a remise à lui, et à ce moment-là, je n’étais qu’une fillette de neuf ans.
Aicha a rapporté : J'avais l'habitude de jouer avec les poupées en présence du Prophète, et mes amies jouaient aussi avec moi. Quand l'Apôtre d'Allah se permettait d’entrer (le lieu où je vivais), elles avaient l'habitude de se cacher, mais le Prophète les appelait pour qu'elles se joignent et jouent avec moi. (Jouer avec des poupées et des représentations similaires est interdit, mais cela était autorisé pour Aicha à cette époque, puisque c’était une petite fille qui n’avait pas encore atteint l'âge de la puberté). (voir aussi Fath'ul Bâri page 143, Vol.13)

Le neveu d’Aicha, Urwa ibn Al-Zubayr (mort en 94 après l’hégire) aurait écrit un certain nombre de lettres historiographiques à la fin de la cour Omeyyades que les historiens modernes, tels que le professeur Sean Anthony, considèrent comme une source importante sur les débuts de l’histoire islamique. Dans l’une d’elles, Urwa parle du mariage de sa tante :

§1.ʿAlī ibn Naṣr nous a rapporté, en disant : ʿAbd al-Ṣamad ibn ʿAbd al-Wārith nous a rapporté, et ʿAbd al-Wārith ibn ʿabd al-Ṣamad m’a également rapporté, en disant : mon père m’a rapporté, en disant : Abān al-ʿAṭṭār nous a rapporté, en disant : Hishām ibn ʿUrwah nous a rapporté de ʿUrwah qu’il a écrit à ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān :

§2. Tu m’as écrit au sujet de Khadījah bint Khuwaylid et tu m’as demandé : "Quand est-elle décédée ?" Elle est décédée environ trois ans avant le départ du Messager de Dieu de la Mecque. Il a épousé Aicha une fois Khadījah décédée. Le Messager de Dieu a vu Aicha deux fois [avant cela] et on lui a dit : "Elle sera ta femme." Ce jour-là, Aicha avait six ans. Puis, le Messager de Dieu a consommé son mariage avec Aicha après être allé à Médine, et le jour où il a consommé son mariage avec elle, elle avait neuf ans.


Lettre de 'Urwa enregistrée dans le volume 9 des chroniques d'al-Tabari, citée dans Muhammad and the Empires of Faith de Sean Anthony[19]

Le récit sur l'âge du mariage a aussi été incorporé dans les traditions circulant à Koufa concernant les vertus d'Aicha :

Selon Abd al-Hamid b. Bayan al-Sukkari - Muhammad b. Yazid - Ismai'il (c’est-à-dire Ibn Abi Khalid) - Abd al-Rahman b. Abi al- Dahhak – un homme de Quraysh - Abd al-Rahman b. Muhammad : "Abd Allah b. Safwan est venu avec une autre personne vers Aicha et Aicha a dit (à ce dernier), "Ô untel, as-tu entendu ce que Hafsah a dit ?" Il a dit : "Oui, ô Mère des Croyants." Abd Allah b. Safwan lui a demandé, "Qu'est-ce que cela ?" Elle a répondu, "Il y a neuf particularités en moi qui n'ont été chez aucune femme, à l'exception de ce que Dieu a accordé à Maryam bt. Imran. Par Dieu, je ne dis pas cela pour me glorifier au-dessus de mes compagnons." "Quelles sont-elles ?" demanda-t-il. Elle répondit, l’ange a descendu une image de moi-même ; le Messager de Dieu m’a épousée quand j’avais sept ans ; mon mariage a été consommé quand j’en avais neuf ; il m’a épousée quand j’étais vierge, pas d’autre homme ne m’a partagée avec lui ; l’inspiration lui est venue lorsque lui et moi étions dans une seule couverture ; j’étais l’une des personnes les plus chères pour lui, un verset du Coran a été révélé à mon sujet lorsque la communauté fut presque détruite ; j’ai vu Gabriel quand aucune de ses autres femmes ne l'a vu ; et il a été emmené (c'est-à-dire mort) dans sa maison alors qu'il n'y avait personne avec lui si ce n’est l'ange et moi-même."
Selon Abu Ja‘far (Al-Tabari) : Le Messager de Dieu l’a épousée, dit-on, durant le mois de Chawwal, et a consommé son mariage avec elle dans une année ultérieure, également durant Chawwal.

Lors de l’incident de la calomnie (al-ifk), largement rapporté dans Sahih Bukhari et Sahih Muslim, Aicha a été accusée d’adultère après avoir été laissée derrière par la caravane.

Rapporté par Aicha :

[…] Cette nuit-là, j’ai continué à pleurer et je n’ai pas pu m’endormir jusqu’au matin. Dans la matinée, l’Apôtre d’Allah a appelé Ali bin Abu Talib et Ousama ibn Zayd afin de les consulter au sujet du divorce d’avec sa femme (c.-à-d. Aicha) car il constatait que l’inspiration divine tardée à venir. Ousama ibn Zayd a dit ce qu’il savait de la bonne réputation de ses épouses et a ajouté : "Ô Apôtre d'Allah ! Garde ton épouse, car, par Allah, nous ne connaissons d’elle que le bien". Ali bin Abu Talib a dit : "Ô Apôtre d'Allah ! Allah ne t’a pas imposé de restrictions, et il y a de nombreuses autres femmes en plus d’elle, mais tu peux demander à la servante qui te dira la vérité". Sur ce, l’Apôtre d’Allah a appelé Barîra et dit : "Ô Barîra, as-tu déjà vu quelque chose qui ait éveillé tes soupçons à son sujet ?" Barîra a dit : "Non, par Allah qui vous a envoyé avec la Vérité, je n'ai jamais rien vu de mauvais en elle, sauf que c’est une fille d'un âge immature qui, quelquefois, s’endort et laisse la pâte à manger aux chèvres."[…]

J'étais une jeune fille et je n'avais pas beaucoup de connaissances du Coran. J'ai dit. "Je sais, par Allah, que vous avez écouté ce que les gens disent et que cela a été implanté dans votre esprit et vous l'avez pris comme une vérité. Maintenant, si je vous disais que je suis innocente et qu'Allah sait que je suis innocente, vous ne me croiriez pas et si je vous avouais faussement que je suis coupable, et Allah sait que je suis innocente, vous me croiriez.

Dans les récits de cet incident qui a presque conduit Muhammad à divorcer, Aicha est à de nombreuses reprises mentionnée comme une jeune fille (jariyatun hadithatu s-sinni جَارِيَةٌ حَدِيثَةُ السِّنِّ), elle-même le déclarant deux fois et une fois par son esclave Barîra. Aicha indique que "à cette époque, j'étais une jeune femme" et "j’étais une jeune fille et je n’avais pas beaucoup de connaissances du Coran" (les deux utilisent la même expression arabe qui vient d'être mentionnée). Barîra dit, "je n'ai jamais rien vu de mauvais en elle, sauf que c’est une fille d'un âge immature qui, quelquefois, s’endort et laisse la pâte à manger aux chèvres."

Le hadith détaillant cet incident est largement transmis d’Aicha à 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (son neveu), lequel l'a transmis à son élève Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri. Une brève réponse à une question au sujet des noms de ses accusateurs (mais sans plus de détails) apparaît également dans une lettre de 'Urwa, transmise par son fils, Hisham.[20]

La même expression se retrouve dans les récits de Muhammad protégeant Aicha avec son vêtement lorsque des Éthiopiens jouaient [dans la cour de la mosquée] (voir Sahih Bukhari 7:62:163). Une version d’un hadith à propos d’Aicha qui a eu ses menstruations pendant un pèlerinage à La Mecque la décrit également par cette même expression (voir Sahih Muslim 7:2773) et dans un autre récit beaucoup plus long et détaillé (voir Sahih Muslim 7:2774).


Points de vue académiques modernes

Provenance et datation des hadiths sur l'âge du mariage

La recherche académique la plus complète concernant les hadiths se rapportant à l’âge du mariage d’Aicha a été réalisée par le Dr Joshua Little pour sa thèse de doctorat en 2022.[21][22] Un outil important dans l’analyse académique moderne des hadiths largement transmis est l’ICMA (isnad-cum-matn Analysis). L'isnad est la chaîne de transmission attribuée à un récit particulier et le matn est son libellé. Dans l’ICMA, les groupes d’isnad convergents d’un hadith sont comparés à des groupes de variation dans les matns pour voir dans quelle mesure ils sont corrélés les uns avec les autres. Souvent, cela conduit à l’identification d’un ou plusieurs liens communs c.-à-d. la personne à partir de laquelle les transmissions d’un matn commencent d’abord à se ramifier, même si la chaîne peut se poursuivre par un seul élément avant cette personne.[23] La technique est utile pour dater le moment où un hadith a commencé à circuler et pour identifier qui aurait pu le formuler de cette manière, sans toutefois qu’il soit nécessaire qu’il y ait un lien historique aux événements qui y sont rapportés. Le Dr Little a exposé 21 raisons pour lesquelles les hadiths sont connus pour être très peu fiables dans un sens historique par la recherche académique moderne.[24]

Après une recherche approfondie des versions disponibles (plus de 200) des hadiths liés à l’âge du mariage d’Aicha, Little a effectué une ICMA pour identifier un petit nombre de liens communs dont il pouvait reconstruire les matns, alors que d’autres pouvaient être rejetés en raison de matns contradictoires ou disparates qui leur sont attribués, et qui, à leur tour, présentaient une série d'autres problèmes. Diverses attributions à un seul élément sont également considérées comme douteuses.

Outre Hisham b. 'Urwa (mort en 146 AH), qui était le petit-neveu d'Aicha et dont le récit est le plus largement transmis, Muhammad b. 'Amr (mort en 144 AH) est l'autre lien commun médinois reconstructible, bien que, comme Hisham, il ait déménagé en Irak et semble simplement ajouter une des versions du hadith d’Hisham à un autre récit. Les autres premiers liens communs sont trois habitants de Koufa (en Irak) qui sont morts entre 146-160 AH. Bien qu'il soit possible qu'un ou plusieurs autres récits remontent à Aicha elle-même, cela ne peut être démontré sur une base de l’ICMA.[25]

Little a alors analysé plus en profondeur ses matns reconstitués pour ces liens communs. Sur la base de mots, de phrases et de séquençages partagés, il a conclu qu’ils dérivaient tous d’une seule et simple formulation et ne sont pas des souvenirs transmis indépendamment d’un événement commun. Cette formulation d’origine semble être celle qui s’est largement transmise par Hisham, lequel a également transmis quelques versions avec des détails supplémentaires. Hisham a attribué tout cela à son père 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (faussement, soutient Little, bien qu’il soit utile de mentionner que dans sa thèse, il ne note pas que le contenu de la lettre de 'Urwa sur Aicha qu’Hisham a rapporté est aussi raconté par un lien commun partiel syrien qui l'a attribué via son oncle à al-Zuhri, l’élève d'Urwa, qui a déménagé de Médine en Syrie.[26] Il existe des preuves qu’Hisham n’a, à l’origine, pas répandu l'isnad de la plupart de ses versions remontant à Aicha elle-même, mais plutôt seulement à son père 'Urwa, le neveu d’Aicha. Ses versions ont été racontées à la 3ème personne et non par lui.[27] Il est d’autant plus clair qu’une telle "augmentation" d’isnads s’est produite pour les transmissions d’autres rapporteurs qui remontent jusqu’à Aicha par d’autres voies.

Mis à part la version la plus couramment transmise qui stipule simplement qu'Aicha était mariée à Muhammad à l'âge de six ans et que leur mariage a été consommé quand elle avait neuf ans, l'ICMA de Little confirme qu’Hisham a également raconté une variante en ajoutant qu'il a été informé que Muhammad et Aicha étaient ensemble depuis neuf ans[28] (peut-être aussi une autre variante dans laquelle elle jouait avec des poupées[29]). Par l’intermédiaire de son père 'Urwa, il a également parlé du mariage dans une courte lettre - voir le passage noté un peu plus haut.[30] Enfin, il a également relaté le récit d’Aicha selon lequel les femmes venaient la chercher pendant qu’elle jouait afin qu’elle puisse être préparée à sa consommation conjugale.[31] Chacun de ces exemples peut être consulté dans la section Citations pertinentes.

Hisham semble avoir transmis le hadith après s’être établi à Koufa en Irak. Quelques transmissions sont attribuées à ses étudiants médinois, mais celles-ci s’avèrent toutes douteuses pour diverses raisons (et il est difficile de les expliquer[32]). Le hadith était très probablement inconnu à Médine, car il n’est pas mentionné dans les œuvres biographiques d’Ibn Ishaq ni (semble-t-il) par Musa b. 'Uqbah. Il ne figure pas non plus dans les textes juridiques malékites alors qu’il aurait dû y être selon Little si le hadith avait circulé à Médine. On prête à certains des premiers koufans la transmission de l’histoire aux liens communs koufans avant l’arrivée d’Hisham en Irak, mais ces isnads sont douteux d’après Little, car le hadith sur l'âge du mariage n'apparaît pas dans les premières compilations de hadiths juridiques koufans, ni dans les premières versions de hadiths koufans qui racontent les vertus d’Aicha. Au contraire, ces références koufanes sur le mariage d'Aicha semblent aussi provenir des compositions d'Hisham.

Après avoir conclu qu’Hisham était responsable de l’histoire composée dans le hadith dont tous les autres dérivent finalement, Little a poursuivi en affirmant qu’Hisham avait entièrement inventé l’histoire, y compris les versions plus longues et la lettre de 'Urwa. Hisham a été accusé d’être un transmetteur peu fiable après son arrivée en Irak où le hadith sur sa grand-tante aurait été utile là-bas. En effet, la virginité d’Aicha au moment de son mariage et son statut d’épouse préférée de Muhammad étaient une caractéristique fondamentale des polémiques proto-sunnites contre les proto-chiites, en particulier à Koufa où ces derniers étaient dominants, et le hadith d’Hisham a dû y être très bien accueilli puisqu’il a été immédiatement incorporé dans ce matériel proto-sunnite koufan sur les vertus d’Aicha.

Autres considérations

A different explanation for the Medinan legal silence on Aisha's age, as well as the hadith's non-use by many later scholars was alluded to by Carolyn Baugh in her 2017 book, Minor Marriage in Early Islamic Law. Maliki law was based largely on Medinan community custom, though sometimes anecdotes about companions were used for making specific points. Contrary to Little, Baugh doubts how useful the Aisha hadith would actually have been for legal purposes.[33] Maliki jurists in Medina and Hanafi jurists in Kufah did not seek to prove that a father could contract his virgin minor daughter in marriage, which was taken for granted.[34] Rather, they discussed a father's right to compell her without consultation, and whether he still had this right when she was no longer a virgin or minor, whether she had a right to rescind later and so on. Indeed, unlike various reports about companions used by Maliki scholars and highlighted by Baugh, the Aisha hadith does not seem to be of any use for the areas of juristic disagreement or the points which they felt a need to prove (see Child Marriage in Islamic Law). Shafi'i is the first legal scholar to make use of the Aisha marital age hadith (and more generally pioneered the Quran and sound hadith corpus as the decisive sources of law). He used the Aisha hadith for purposes of proving a father's right to marry off his daughter regardless of her wishes, though he had to read in his own assumptions to do so (see Forced Marriage)[35]. Subsequent scholars followed Shafi'i in this usage. However, the Aisha hadith merely states that her marriage was contracted when she was six (or seven), and it does not specify whether she was consulted or forced by her father, nor even whether she had reached puberty at nine.

Dr Little's case is nevertheless strong that Hisham formulated the Aisha marital age hadith(s) in Iraq and that others derived their versions therefrom. He also provides a plausible motivation for Hisham to have fabricated the story entirely. Nevertheless, others may point to a couple of traditions which do not depend on that hadith and which may support the possibility of a historical kernal. The hadith shown in the Relevant Quotations section above about the incident of the slander (al-Ifk) do not involve Hisham and emphasise that Aisha was then "a girl of young age", though the historicity of this too might be doubted given the polemical considerations around the event.

More significant may be an independent tradition which Little says can provisionally be traced back to the Medinan historian Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (d. 124 AH). Al-Zuhri's hadith, which must have been transmitted while he was in Medina, states that the Messenger of God married Aisha bint Abu Bakr in Shawwal in the tenth year after the prophethood, three years before the migration, and he arranged the marriage feast in Medina (i.e. for consummation) in Shawwal, at the beginning of eight months after his emigration to Medina. Little speculates that Hisham picked a consummation age of nine and used this report of a three year gap between Aisha's marriage and consummation to derive six or seven as the age of her marriage.[36] Others may notice another significance to this apparently earlier al-Zuhri tradition. The three year gap between marriage and consummation mentioned therein, without any obvious polemical function (no age is mentioned), probably and independently implies that Aisha was a child at the time.

Wider implications

While Little's ICMA "reveals a vast amount of accretion, error, contamination, interpolation, borrowing, and false ascription", the "overwhelming majority of the putative [partial common links] and [common links] within the marital-age hadith turned out to be genuine sources whose distinctive redactions were identifiable and (to some degree) reconstructable. Such positive results only held as far back as the middle of the 8th Century CE, however: from thereon backwards, the evidence was either insufficient or outright inconsistent with genuine, early transmission."[37]

In a section on the implications of his thesis for the academic study of hadith and history, Little observes, "whilst it is true that most hadiths can be presumed to derive from sources operating in the middle of the 8th Century CE (i.e., the early 2nd Century AH), many can be shown to be later borrowings or dives, and almost all can be shown to have undergone reworking or alteration in the course of transmission, at least from the middle of the 8th Century CE to the middle the 9th." From a historical perspective, Little also argues that he has "shown, in fairly minute detail, how a false hadith could arise, spread, diversify, and attain universal acceptance within early Sunnī Hadith scholarship."[38]

Apologetic history

The majority of scholars today agree that Aisha was 9 when her marriage to Prophet Muhammad was consummated. This has been the mainstream Muslim understanding throughout Islam's 1,400 year history.[39] The first recorded objection raised to Aisha's age was by Maulana Muhammad Ali who lived from 1874 to 1951.[40] However, he is not considered credible to the Sunni sect since he belonged to the Ahmadiyya sect whose beliefs drastically differ from mainstream Islam. The Ahmadiyya and their writings are also heavily focused on missionary work.[41]

Adding to Ali's objections, there is Habib Ur Rahman Siddiqui Kandhalvi (1924-1991) who in his Urdu booklet, "Tehqiq e umar e Siddiqah e Ka'inat" (English trans. 1997), laments that he is "tired of defending this tradition" that is "laughed" at and "ridiculed" by English-educated individuals he meets in Karachi who claim it is against "sagacity and prudence" and "preferred English society to Islam over this", and he readily admits his "aim is to produce an answer to the enemies of Islam who spatter mud at the pious body of the Generous Prophet".[42] A posthumous fatwa was issued against him in November 2004, labelling him a "Munkir-e-Hadith" (hadith rejector) and a "Kafir" (infidel) on the basis of being a rejector of hadith.[43]

Deriving arguments from both Habib Ur Rahman and Muhammad Ali, Moiz Amjad (who refers to himself as "The Learner") is the most recent reference to online apologetic. Moiz admits to having lifted his arguments from them, summarizing and presenting them in response to a Muslim asking him how he can respond to critical Christians.[44] With Moiz's restructured response the arguments originating from the Ahmadiyya in the 1920s and 1930s finally achieved a little popularity among a few orthodox Muslims. However, this popularity seems to be strictly limited to articles or arguments on the Internet and not between contemporary sheikhs and scholars.

In July 2005, Shaykh Dr. Gibril Haddad responded to Moiz Amjad's polemics with, "Our Mother A'isha's Age At The Time Of Her Marriage to The Prophet."[45] Shaykh Haddad was listed amongst the inaugural "500 most influential Muslims in the world"[46] and is considered a Muslim scholar and muhaddith (hadith expert).[46] Haddad included many facts that are easily verifiable for those who have access to the hadith and sira literature. For example, his analysis highlighted the fact that many of the arguments were based solely on faulty assumptions taken from hadiths completely unrelated to Aisha's age, or were misrepresenting the sources that were being cited (i.e. hadiths actually in support the idea that Aisha was 9). His reply has not yet been answered by Moiz Amjad.

However, Haddad's response did not stop Amjad's arguments from being rehashed by apologists on the Internet with the same missionary and apologetic focus. Other transmitters of these arguments include, but are not limited to; T.O Shavanas,[47] “Imam” Chaudhry (word-for-word plagiarism of Amjad's work),[48] Zahid Aziz,[40] Nilofar Ahmed,[49] and David Liepert.[50]

Modern revisionary perspectives

Some Muslim authors have eschewed the traditionally-accepted ahadith and attempted to calculate Aisha's age based on details found in other ahadith and some biographies, though Kecia Ali labels these attempts as "revisionist".[14]

Not enough narrators

This claim objects that there is only one narrator, Hisham ibn `urwah, and that although it is a sahih (authentic hadith) he alone is not enough to consider the hadith reliable. However, many of the chains of narration for these hadiths[51] do not involve Hisham (for example, Sahih Muslim 8:3311[52]), and in any case, there is no requirement in Islam for multiple narrations. Even a single sahih hadith is sufficient to establish Islamic laws and practices.

Shaykh Haddad also refutes the claim that most of these narrations are reported only by Hisham: "Try more than eleven authorities among the Tabi`in that reported it directly from `A'isha, not counting the other major Companions that reported the same, nor other major Successors that reported it from other than `A'isha."[45]

Details of some of these other chains of narration that do not include Hisham ibn 'Urwah ibn az-Zubayr can be found in the first half of an article by the IslamQA website.

Locality of narrations

A related claim is that Hisham's hadith is not narrated by Medinans, despite him living there for most of his life. However, Shaykh Haddad responds with examples of Medinans reporting the narration:

Al-Zuhri also reports it from `Urwa, from `A'isha; so does `Abd Allah ibn Dhakwan, both major Madanis. So is the Tabi`i Yahya al-Lakhmi who reports it from her in the Musnad and in Ibn Sa`d's Tabaqat. So is Abu Ishaq Sa`d ibn Ibrahim who reports it from Imam al-Qasim ibn Muhammad, one of the Seven Imams of Madina, from `A'isha. All the narratives of this event have been reported. In addition to the above four Madinese Tabi`in narrators, Sufyan ibn `Uyayna from Khurasan and `Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya from Tabarayya in Palestine both report it.

Revelation time of surah al-Qamar

This arguments uses the Sahih Bukhari hadith in which Aisha explains she was a young girl when Surah (chapter) al-Qamar of the Quran was revealed.[53] With the rough estimation that this chapter was revealed nine years before hijrah (c. 622) some conclude that this makes Aisha older than other hadiths claim.

However, the precise date of the revelation of Surah al-Qamar is unknown. Ibn Hajar, Maududi, and other traditionalists said it was revealed 5 years before Hijrah (BH).[54] Zahid Aziz said it was revealed before 6 BH.[55] Alternatively there is no reputable source that claims this chapter came about 9 BH.

Shaykh Haddad confirms this as he argues that the traditional estimate of the revelation of Surah al-Qamar is consistent with Aisha’s age being nine years.

The hadith Masters, Sira historians, and Qur'anic commentators agree that the splitting of the moon took place about five years before the Holy Prophet's (upon him blessings and peace) Hijra to Madina. Thus it is confirmed that our Mother `Aisha was born between seven and eight years before the Hijra and the words that she was a jariya or little girl five years before the Hijra match the fact that her age at the time Surat al-Qamar was revealed was around 2 or 3. A two year old is not an infant. A two year old is able to run around, which is what jariya means. As for "the comments of the experts" they concur on 6 or 7 as the age of marriage and 9 as the age of cohabitation.

Battle of Badr and Uhud

This apologetic argument aims to make the claim that Aisha was at the Battles of Badr and Uhud, and that since standard practice at the time disallowed anyone under 15 from joining the battlefield, she could not have been younger than this.

However, there are no sources that can be found mentioning Aisha's participation in the Battle of Badr. A few hadiths highlight Aisha's involvement in the Battle of Uhud, but only to the extent that she was not involved in the battlefield and merely carrying water skins to the combatants.[56] Women and young children were allowed to perform such functions during battles.[57]

Shaykh Haddad responds to this apologetic argument:

First, the prohibition applied to combatants. It applied neither to non-combatant boys nor to non-combatant girls and women. Second, `A'isha did not participate in Badr at all but bade farewell to the combatants as they were leaving Madina, as narrated by Muslim in his Sahih. On the day of Uhud (year 3), Anas, at the time only twelve or thirteen years old, reports seeing an eleven-year old `A'isha and his mother Umm Sulaym having tied up their dresses and carrying water skins back and forth to the combatants, as narrated by al-Bukhari and Muslim.

Age of Asma

One da'if (weak) hadith narrated from al-Zinad and recorded in the works of some medieval scholars, including al-Dhahabi,[58] states that Aisha's older sister Asma was ten years older than her. This has been combined with information about Asma's age at the time of her death and used to suggest that Aisha was over thirteen at the time of her marriage.

Shaykh Haddad and the IslamQA website both independently criticise this approach as relying on a single narrator, who most scholars regard as weak, and note that a hadith by a more reliable chain from the same narrator gives a broader range for the age difference between the sisters.[45][59] Both also note that al-Dhahabi too gave the vaguer opinion that Asma was "ten or more" years older than Aisha.

Tabari's account of Abu Bakr's children and wives

This account uses al-Tabari's exegesis to argue that Aisha was born in the pre-islamic period, and thus could not have been less than 14 tears old.[60]

However, al-Tabari's own account reports at least five times that Aisha was around 6-7 years old during marriage and the marriage was consummated 3 years later.[61][62][63][64][65]

Furthermore, Shaykh Gibril Haddad says that the initial passage mentioned is misinterpreted, stating "Al-Tabari nowhere reports that 'Abu Bakr's four children were all born in Jahiliyya' but only that Abu Bakr married both their mothers in Jahiliyya, Qutayla bint Sa`d and Umm Ruman, who bore him four children in all, two each, `A'isha being the daughter of Umm Ruman."[45]

Time of Umar's conversion to Islam

This argument draws on al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Biography of the Prophet) to claim that since Ayesha converted to Islam before Umar she could not have been born during the first year of Islam.[66]

However, even if the claim Aisha converted to Islam before Umar were true it, does not mean this took place during the first year of Islam, since Umar converted in 617 AD, about 4 years after Aisha’s birth in 613 AD.[1] Furthermore Aisha never accounted converting to islam as hadiths show she never remembered a time before when her family wasn't Muslim.[67]

Besides disputing the claim that Ibn Hisham reported that Aisha accepted Islam quite some time before `umar ibn al-Khattab, Shaykh Haddad also casts doubt on the claim stating:

Nowhere does Ibn Hisham say this. Rather, Ibn Hisham lists `A'isha among 'those that accepted Islam because of Abu Bakr.' This does not mean that she embraced Islam during the first year of Islam. Nor does it mean that she necessarily embraced Islam before `Umar (year 6) although she was born the previous year (year 7 before the Hijra) although it is understood she will automatically follow her father's choice even before the age of reason.

Tabari's account of Abu Bakr's migration to Habshah

This argument claims that al-Tabari states that when Abu Bakr was planning to migrate to Abyssinia (Ethiopia), he spoke to Mut`am, with whose son, Jabayr, Aisha was engaged. This migration occured eight years before hijrah, at which time Aisha had only just been born if she consumated her marriage to Muhammad at the age of 9 or 10.

Proponents of this claim admit they have no primary source, which originated in Kandhalvi's Urdu booklet.[44] Shayk Haddad responds that "there is no mention of emigration in Tabari's account of Abu Bakr's discussion with Mut`im" and "there had been only some preliminary talk, not a formal arrangement".[45]

The meaning of bikr

This argument cites a hadith in Ibn Hanbal's Musnad saying that Khaulah suggested Aisha to Muhammad as a virgin (bikr) he could marry. The claim is that bikr would not be used for a young girl.[68]

However, there are multiple sahih hadith narrations of a highly relevant conversation between Muhammad and Jabir in which bikr (virgin) is clearly compatible with jariyah (young girl).

Narrated Jabir: "Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said to me, "Have you got married O Jabir?" I replied, "Yes." He asked "What, a virgin [bikr] or a matron [thayyib]?" I replied, "Not a virgin but a matron." He said, "Why did you not marry a young girl [jariyah] who would have fondled with you?

Shaykh Haddad says regarding the claim, "This is ignorant nonsense, bikr means a virgin girl, a girl who has never been married even if her age is 0 and there is no unclarity here whatsoever.".[45]

Fatima's age difference

This claim is that according to ibn Hajar, Fatima was five years older than Aisha and Muhammad was 35 years old when Fatima was born. Therefore, based on this claim, Aisha must have been a teenager at the time her marriage was consummated.

However, the proponent of this claim[44] has combined and selectively quoted conflicting sources. Shaykh Haddad responds:

Ibn Hajar mentions two versions: (1) al-Waqidi's narration that Fatima was born when the Prophet was 35; and (2) Ibn `Abd al-Barr's narration that she was born when he was 41, approximately one year more or less before Prophethood, and about five years before `A'isha was born. The latter version matches the established dates.

Hadith saying Aisha had reached puberty

This argument is based off a mistranslated hadith, Sahih Bukhari 1:8:465, which reinterprets to the idea that Aisha had seen her parents follow islam since the age of puberty, and not a day passed by without Muhammad visiting them.

Narrated `Aisha: (the wife of the Prophet) I had seen my parents following Islam since I attained the age of puberty. Not a day passed but the Prophet (ﷺ) visited us, both in the mornings and evenings[...]

However, the word أَعْقِلْ means thoughts or reasoning, but the translator, Muhsin Khan, has used the word 'puberty'. The meaning rather is simply that 'Aisha was aware that her parents were following Islam. A literal translation would be "I was not aware of my parents other than that the two of them both acknowledged the religion". The exact same Arabic phrase is translated correctly in another hadith by the same translator.[69]

Hadith in which Aisha mensturated

This argument is also based off a mistranslated hadith, Sunan Abu Dawud 4915 (Ahmad Hasan numbering; 4933 Dar-us-Salam).

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) married me when I was seven or six. When we came to Medina, some women came. according to Bishr's version: Umm Ruman came to me when I was swinging. They took me, made me prepared and decorated me. I was then brought to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), and he took up cohabitation with me when I was nine. She halted me at the door, and I burst into laughter. Abu Dawud said: That is to say: I menstruated, and I was brought in a house, and there were some women of the Ansari in it. They said: With good luck and blessing. The tradition of one of them has been included in the other.


Ahmad Hasan mistranslates Abu Dawud's comment as "That is to say: I menstruated". Aisha's phrase "I burst into laughter" is fa-qultu heeh heeh (فَقُلْتُ هِيهْ هِيهْ), "And I said heh, heh". The Dar-us-Salam English-Arabic edition of Sunan Abu Dawud translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab (Hadith 4933) renders Aisha's words here: "She made me stand at the door and I started to breathe deeply".

Abu Dawud's comment is ay tanaffasat (أَىْ تَنَفَّسَتْ), which is "That is to say 'I breathed'". The verb nun-fa-sin is used here in Arabic form V with the ta prefix and shadda (doubled) middle letter, which Lane's Lexicon says means "breathed". Form I can mean menstruated, but that is not the form used in the hadith.[70]

See Also

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Acknowledgments

This article is greatly indebted to the following:

Références

  1. 1.0 1.1 Al-Nasa'i 1997, p. 108
  2. Le père d'Hisham a rapporté : Khadija est morte trois ans avant que le Prophète ne parte pour Médine. Il y est resté à peu près deux ans, puis il a épousé Aicha lorsqu’elle n’était qu’une fille de six ans, et il a consommé ce mariage lorsqu’elle avait neuf ans.
    Sahih Bukhari 5:58:236
  3. Aicha a rapporté que le Prophète l'a épousée quand elle avait six ans et qu'il a consommé son mariage quand elle avait neuf ans, puis elle est restée avec lui pendant neuf ans (c'est-à-dire jusqu'à sa mort).
    Sahih Bukhari 7:62:64
  4. Aicha (qu’Allah soit satisfait d’elle) a rapporté : l’Apôtre d’Allah (que la paix soit sur lui) m’a épousée quand j’avais six ans, et j’ai été admise chez lui lorsque j’avais neuf ans.
    Sahih Muslim 8:3310
  5. Aicha rapporte que : "L'Apôtre d'Allah m'a épousée quand j'avais sept ans." (Le narrateur, Sulaiman a dit: "Ou six ans.")
    Sunan Abu Dawud 2116 (Ahmad Hasan Ref)
  6. Most sources suggest age at consummation as nine, and one that it may have been age 10; See: Denise Spellberg (1996), Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231079990, pp. 39–40;
  7. Afsaruddin, Asma (2014). "ʿĀʾisha bt. Abī Bakr". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett. Encyclopaedia of Islam (3 ed.). Brill Online. Retrieved 2015-01-11
  8. Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale University Press. p. 51-54. ISBN 978-0300055832.
  9. Sean Anthony, "Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam", Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, p. 115
  10. CHILDREN iii. Legal Rights of Children in the Sasanian Period - Encyclopedia Iranica online
  11. And those who no longer expect menstruation among your women - if you doubt, then their period is three months, and [also for] those who have not menstruated. And for those who are pregnant, their term is until they give birth. And whoever fears Allah - He will make for him of his matter ease.
    Quran 65:4
  12. Tafsir al-Jalalayn is one of the most significant tafsirs for the study of the Qur’an. Composed by the two “Jalals” -- Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce), Tafsir al-Jalalayn is generally regarded as one of the most easily accessible works of Qur’anic exegesis because of its simple style and one volume length. For the first time ever Tafsir al-Jalalayn is competently translated into an unabridged highly accurate and readable annotated English translation by Doctor. Feras Hamza. altafsir.com
  13. And as for those of your women who read allā’ī or allā’i in both instances no longer expect to menstruate if you have any doubts about their waiting period their prescribed waiting period shall be three months and also for those who have not yet menstruated because of their young age their period shall also be three months — both cases apply to other than those whose spouses have died; for these latter their period is prescribed in the verse they shall wait by themselves for four months and ten days Q. 2234. And those who are pregnant their term the conclusion of their prescribed waiting period if divorced or if their spouses be dead shall be when they deliver. And whoever fears God He will make matters ease for him in this world and in the Hereafter. Tafsir al-Jalalayn, trans. Feras Hamza Quran 65:4
  14. 14.0 14.1 Ali, Kecia. Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith and Jurisprudence. OneWorld. p. 173-186. ISBN 978-1780743813.
  15. When the Prophet married Aisha she very young and not yet ready for consummation.Al-Tabari, Vol. 9, p. 128
  16. According to Abd al-Hamid b. Bayan al-Sukkari - Muhammad b. Yazid - Ismai'il (that is Ibn Abi Khalid) - Abd al-Rahman b. Abi al- Dahhak - a man from Quraysh - Abd al-Rahman b. Muhammad: "Abd Allah b. Safwan together with another person came to Aishah and Aishah said (to the latter), "O so and so, have you heard what Hafsah has been saying?" He said, "Yes, o Mother of the Faithful." Abd Allah b. Safwan asked her, "What is that?" She replied, "There are nine special features in me that have not been in any woman, except for what God bestowed on Maryam bt. Imran. By God, I do not say this to exalt myself over any of my companions." "What are these?" he asked. She replied, "The angel brought down my likeness; the Messenger of God married me when I was seven; my marriage was consummated when I was nine; he married me when I was a virgin,no other man having shared me with him; inspiration came to him when he and I were in a single blanket; I was one of the dearest people to him, a verse of the Qur’an was revealed concerning me when the community was almost destroyed; I saw Gabriel when none of his other wives saw him; and he was taken (that is, died) in his house when there was nobody with him but the angel and myself." According to Abu Ja‘far (Al-Tabari): The Messenger of God married her, so it is said, in Shawwal, and consummated his marriage to her in a later year, also in Shawwal. Al-Tabari, Vol. 7, pp. 6-7
  17. Levy p.106
  18. John Esposito, "The Oxford Dictionary of Islam", p.35, Oxford University Press 2004
  19. Sean Anthony, Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam, Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 114-15
  20. An analysis of the hadith transmission is summarized on pp. 34-37 of Goerke, A, Motzki, H & Schoeler, G (2012) First-Century Sources for the Life of Muhammad? A Debate, Der Islam, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 2-59. https://doi.org/10.1515/islam-2012-0002
  21. Joshua Little (2022) The Hadith of ʿAʾishah's Marital Age: A Study in the Evolution of Early Islamic Historical Memory, PhD thesis, Oxford University It is available on his blog together with very useful diagrams of the reported isnads and matns: The Unabridged Version of My PhD Thesis by Joshua Little - Islamicorigins.com - 7 March 2023 See alternatively: A Summary of my PhD Research by Joshua Little - Islamicorigins.com - 25 February 2023
  22. See also this lecture by Dr. Joshua Little entitled The Hadith of ʿAʾishah's Marital Age: A Study in the Evolution of Early Islamic Historical Memory - youtube.com, 26 February 2023
  23. See Chapter 1 of Dr Little's thesis for a detailed explanation.
  24. This is useful preparatory viewing for Dr Little's Aisha lecture: Oxford Scholar Dr. Joshua Little Gives 21 REASONS Why Historians are SKEPTICAL of Hadith - youtube.com February 2023
  25. pp. 397-99 of Dr Little's thesis
  26. 'Urwa wrote a number of letters on early Islamic history to the late Umayyad court. These letters were transmitted by his son Hisham and the traditions therein were often also transmitted by 'Urwa's Medinan student al-Zuhri. 'Urwa's letters are translated in full in Sean Anthony, Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam, Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, Chapter 4. In 2012, the creators of the ICMA method, Andreas Görke, Harald Motzki and Gregor Schoeler, strongly argued that the traditions in the letters attributed to 'Urwa probably do in some way originate with him, especially when they are supported by parallel traditions going back to 'Urwa (Goerke, A, Motzki, H & Schoeler, G (2012) First-Century Sources for the Life of Muhammad? A Debate, Der Islam, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 2-59. https://doi.org/10.1515/islam-2012-0002). One of 'Urwa's letters is a short one about Aisha's marriage. It was reported in a couple of chains through Hisham and is quoted in the Relevant Quotations section above. Little contests a couple of arguments for the general authenticity of 'Urwa's letters but without wider engagement with Goerke et al. He also questions how we can in any case identify which words or elements thereof Hisham accurately transmitted (p. 314). However, Dr Little did not notice that another hadith he discusses which is ascribed to 'Urwa's Medinan student al-Zuhri contains the same core tradition as this letter, especially the distinctive sequence of elements but also much of the same or similar wording, albeit not in the form of a letter. Compare the Arabic provided in the isnad diagrams on his blog, or the transliteration of 'Urwa's reconstructed letter on pp. 310-11 of the thesis with al-Hajjaj b. Abi Mani's reconstructed transmission of the same elemental sequence (pp. 204-5, 370-72; see also 482). Al-Hajjaj who lived in Aleppo, Syria, ascribed it via his uncle to al-Zuhri, who does not himself count as a common link but did move from Medina to Damascus and later Resafa, Syria, where he tutored the Caliph's sons. Part of the letter content and wording also comprise ʾAbū ʾUsāmah Ḥammād's narration from Hisham (pp. 223-4).
  27. Ibid. p. 305 including footnote 996
  28. Ibid. p. 272
  29. Ibid. p. 322
  30. Ibid. pp. 309 ff.
  31. See the section of Hisham, pp. 295 ff., especially the reconstructions of Hisham's four versions of the hadith on pp. 302-317
  32. Little struggles somewhat to discount Ibn ʾabī al-Zinād's transmission from Hishām as having occurred in Medina (see pp. 426-433). The Medinan, Ibn ʾabī al-Zinād, is a confirmed partial common link from Hishām, and the (generally unreliable) Medinan historian al-Wāqidī is one of those who report it from him. In order to place the transmission as having occured in Iraq, where (if biographical sources are to be trusted) Ibn ʾabī al-Zinād moved from Medina, though to a different Iraqi city than Hishām and did so only after Hishām's death, or at most shortly beforehand, and where al-Wāqidī also moved from Medina but only after Ibn ʾabī al-Zinād's death, Little requires both that al-Waqidi did not transmit directly from Ibn ʾabī al-Zinād and that the latter did not transmit directly from Hishām. Incidentally, al-Wāqidī separately reports a distinct but isolated Medinan narration about Aisha's marriage (pp. 215-6).
  33. Baugh writes: "Although it is not impossible that Malik would have accepted the content of the report given early practice, Malik is one of many jurists who did not rely on the text, which does not in fact occur in any of the early books of jurisprudence except for that of al-Shafi'i and, shortly after him, 'Abd al Razzaq's Musannaf. Even later jurists such as Ibn Taymiya and Ibn al-Qayyim shy away from it, although it is used by Ibn Qudama before them. Presuming its authenticity (it occurs in Bukhari and Muslim), questions occur such as, was 'A'isha in fact compelled against her will? Can we assume that Abu Bakr did not consult her? Had she, at age nine, entered her majority or was she still prepubescent?" Carolyn Baugh, Minor Marriage in Early Islamic Law, Leiden: Brill, 2017, p. 43 footnote 101 Similarly, on p. 62 she elaborates why the legal implications of the hadith are obscure.
  34. In Chapter 4 she details the proof-texts used by Maliki jurists; see p. 79 regarding Hanafi jurists.
  35. See also the quotes in Dr Little's thesis, pp. 454-5, where Shafi'i can be seen using the hadith in an attempt to prove the right of paternal compulsion.
  36. See 1 hour 38 minutes in Dr. Joshua Little's lecture entitled The Hadith of ʿAʾishah's Marital Age: A Study in the Evolution of Early Islamic Historical Memory - youtube.com, 26 February 2023 For detailed discussion see pp. 373-74, 378-82, 460-61 of Dr Little's thesis.
  37. pp. 400-401 of Dr Little's thesis
  38. pp. 507-9 of Dr Little's thesis
  39. Hashmi, Tariq Mahmood (2 April 2015). "Role, Importance And Authenticity Of The Hadith". Mawrid.org. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
  40. 40.0 40.1 Zahid Aziz - Age of Aisha (ra) at time of marriage - Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha`at Islam Lahore Inc. U.S.A.
  41. Who are the Ahmadi? - BBC News
  42. All Habib Ur Rahman Siddiqui Kandhalvi quotations are taken from the Preface of the 2007 English translation of his Urdu booklet, "Tehqiq e umar e Siddiqah e Ka'inat", translated by Nigar Erfaney and published by Al-Rahman Publishing Trust under the title, "Age of Aisha (The Truthful Women, May Allah Send His Blessings)"
  43. The original fatwa and the English translation branding Habib Ur Rahman Siddiqui Kandhalvi's beliefs outside of Islam, thus making him a 'kafir', can be viewed here: Fatwa's on hadith rejectors?
  44. 44.0 44.1 44.2 See: "What was Ayesha's (ra) Age at the Time of Her Marriage?", by Moiz Amjad.
  45. 45.00 45.01 45.02 45.03 45.04 45.05 45.06 45.07 45.08 45.09 45.10 Shaykh Gibril F Haddad - Our Mother A'isha's Age At The Time Of Her Marriage to The Prophet - Sunni Path, Question ID:4604, July 3, 2005 archive 1 archive 2
  46. 46.0 46.1 Edited by Prof. John Esposito and Prof. Ibrahim Kalin - The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the World (P. 94) - The royal islamic strategic studies centre, 2009
  47. T.O Shanavas - AYESHA’s AGE: THE MYTH OF A PROVERBIAL WEDDING EXPOSED - Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc.
  48. Imam Chaudhry - What Was The Age of Ummul Mo'mineen Ayesha (May Allah be pleased with her) When She Married To Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him)? - Islamic Supreme Council of Canada
  49. Nilofar Ahmed - Of Aisha’s age at marriage - Dawn, February 17, 2012
  50. Dr. David Liepert - Rejecting the Myth of Sanctioned Child Marriage in Islam - The Huffington Post, January 29, 2011
  51. Quran, Hadith, and Scholars on Aisha's Age at Consummation and Marriage
  52. 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reported that Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) married her when she was seven years old, and he was taken to his house as a bride when she was nine, and her dolls were with her; and when he (the Holy Prophet) died she was eighteen years old.
    Sahih Muslim 8:3311
  53. Narrated Yusuf bin Mahik: I was in the house of `Aisha, the mother of the Believers. She said, "This revelation: "Nay, but the Hour is their appointed time (for their full recompense); and the Hour will be more previous and most bitter." (54.46) was revealed to Muhammad at Mecca while I was a playfull little girl." Sahih Bukhari 6:60:399
  54. The incident of the shaqq-al-Qamar (splitting of the moon) that has been mentioned in it, determines its period of revelation precisely. The traditionists and commentators are agreed that this incident took place at Mina in Makkah about five years before the Holy Prophet's hijrah to Madinah. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an - The Meaning of the Qur'an
  55. The Moon,the fifty-fourth chapter, was revealed, she was a girl playing about and remembered certain verses then revealed. Now the fifty-fourth chapter was undoubtedly revealed before the sixth year of the Call. Zahid Aziz
  56. Narrated Anas: On the day (of the battle) of Uhad when (some) people retreated and left the Prophet, I saw 'Aisha bint Abu Bakr and Um Sulaim, with their robes tucked up so that the bangles around their ankles were visible hurrying with their water skins (in another narration it is said, "carrying the water skins on their backs"). Then they would pour the water in the mouths of the people, and return to fill the water skins again and came back again to pour water in the mouths of the people.
    Sahih Bukhari 4:52:131
  57. The women and young children went on the battlefield after the battle and gave water to the wounded Muslims and finished off the enemy wounded. al-Tabari vol.12 p.127,146.
  58. al-Dhahabi. "Siyar a`lam al-nubala'". IslamWeb. Retrieved 3 September 2018. قال عبد الرحمن بن أبي الزناد : كانت أسماء أكبر من عائشة بعشر" (Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi al-Zunad said: Asma was older than Aisha by ten years.)
  59. Fatwa 124483 - IslamQA.info
  60. All four of his [i.e. Abu Bakr's] children were born of his two wives - the names of whom we have already mentioned - during the pre-Islamic period. Tarikh al-umam wa al-mamloo'k, Al-Tabari, Vol. 4, Pg. 50, Arabic, Dar al-fikr, Beirut, 1979
  61. The angel brought down my likeness; the Messenger of God married me when I was seven; my marriage was consummated when I was nine; he married me when I was a virgin, no other man having shared me with him Al-Tabari, Vol. 7, p. 7
  62. I was then brought [in] while the Messenger of God was sitting on a bed in our house. [My mother] made me sit on his lap... Then the men and women got up and left. The Messenger of God consummated his marriage with me in my house when I was nine years old. Neither a camel nor a sheep was slaughtered on behalf of me. Al-Tabari, Vol. 9, p. 131
  63. The Messenger of God saw 'A'ishah twice-[first when] it was said to him that she was his wife (she was six years old at that time), and later [when] he consummated his marriage with her after coming to Medina when she was nine years old. Al-Tabari, Vol. 9, p. 131
  64. [The Prophet] married her three years before the Emigration, when she was seven years old, and consummated the marriage when she was nine years old, after he had emigrated to Medina in Shawwil. She was eighteen years old when he died. Al-Tabari, Vol. 9, p. 131
  65. The Prophet married Aishah in Shawwal in the tenth year after the [beginning of his] prophethood, three years before Emigration. He consummated the marriage in Shawwal, eight months after Emigration. On the day he consummated the marriage with her she was nine years old. Al-Tabari, Vol. 39, pp. 171-173
  66. According to Ibn Hisham, Ayesha (ra) was the 20th or the 21st person to enter into the folds of Islam. While `umar ibn al-khattab was the 41st. Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, Ibn Hisham, Vol. 1, Pg. 227 - 234, Arabic, Maktabah al-Riyadh al-hadithah, Al-Riyadh
  67. Narrated 'Aisha: (the wife of the Prophet) I never remembered my parents believing in any religion other than the true religion (i.e. Islam), and (I don't remember) a single day passing without our being visited by Allah’s Apostle in the morning and in the evening." Sahih Bukhari 5:58:245
  68. Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Vol 6, Pg 210, Arabic, Dar Ihya al-turath al-`arabi, Beirut, cited by Moiz Amjad What was Ayesha's (ra) Age at the Time of Her Marriage?
  69. Narrated Aisha: (wife of the Prophet) Since I reached the age when I could remember things, I have seen my parents worshipping according to the right faith of Islam. Not a single day passed but Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) visited us both in the morning and in the evening...
    Sahih Bukhari 3:37:494
  70. nun-fa-sin - Lane's Lexicon