Le Hijab (voile islamique)

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Toutes les écoles en droit islamique exigent que les femmes musulmanes qui ont atteint l'âge de la majorité observent le hijab lorsqu'elles sont en présence de non-mahrams. Conceptuellement, le hijab est un ensemble d’exigences selon lesquelles les femmes et les hommes doivent couvrir certaines parties de leur corps (le mot arabe hijab fait littéralement référence au concept de voile comme avec un écran ou un rideau). Si les exigences imposées aux hommes sont similaires aux attentes communes au sujet de la décence publique dans le monde moderne, celles pour les femmes s'étendent à couvrir l'intégralité du corps, à l'exception du visage et des mains, malgré la divergence des écoles juridiques sur les exigences pour les femmes de se couvrir les pieds, le visage et les mains. Familièrement, le mot "hijab" fait référence aux couvre-chefs utilisés par les femmes musulmanes pour couvrir leurs cheveux et leur cou. Il existe de nombreuses variations culturelles sur le hijab (vêtement), dont beaucoup offrent différents degrés de couverture, notamment la burqa, le niqab et le dupatta. Certains savants modernes sont en désaccord avec les interprétations traditionnelles qui exigent que la tête soit couverte et de nombreuses femmes musulmanes choisissent de ne pas le faire, comme abordé ci-dessous.

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Dans quelques versets, le Coran énonce des exigences concernant le jilbab (un pardessus ou un manteau à capuche) et le khimar (probablement un morceau de tissu sur la tête servant à couvrir la poitrine). Un verset mentionne le mot hijab comme une sorte de rideau ou de voile de séparation derrière lequel les visiteurs pouvaient demander des choses aux épouses de Muhammad. Plus tard, ce terme a acquis le sens conceptuel mentionné ci-dessus. Bien que le Coran contienne des directives générales sur le but de ces exigences, la littérature prophétique est plus spécifique dans son analyse sur les circonstances derrière la révélation de ces versets, même si les hadiths fournissent encore peu d’informations sur ce qu’ils impliquent précisément. Un récit suggère que le verset sur le hijab qui concerne les épouses de Muhammad était le résultat de la pression d’Omar, qui s’opposait à ce qu’elles soient reconnaissables en public. Le Coran indique que les exigences vestimentaires pour les femmes croyantes étaient, en général, de les prévenir des agressions sexuelles et à titre de modestie.

Traditionnellement, ces récits ont été adoptés, même si récemment ils ont été critiqués comme problématiques. Le Coran a été contesté parce qu’il laisse entendre que les femmes doivent porter le fardeau de leur harcèlement en changeant de tenue, et les hadiths à propos d’Omar, le second des califes bien guidés et ami de Muhammad, ont été débattus parce que cela dépeint à la fois cette figure religieuse hautement vénérée comme un personnage peu recommandable, mais aussi parce cela suggère qu'Allah n'était pas seul responsable de la formulation de la charia, qui est censée être divinement révélée et immuable.

Dans son livre court mais détaillé, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), le professeur Elizabeth Bucar a écrit sur le rôle et les interprétations du hijab à travers l’histoire et la modernité.[1] Son livre sera mentionné à plusieurs reprises dans cet article.

Dans les temps modernes

Dans la plupart des pays à majorité musulmane, l’application de la loi sur le hijab n’est pas respectée (dans certains anciens états soviétiques, il n’est même pas courant que les femmes le portent). L’observance du hijab a connu un renouveau dans certains pays à majorité musulmane au milieu du 20ème siècle après être tombé en désuétude tandis qu’en Occident, il est porté couramment et de manière volontaire. Cependant, en parallèle à ces normes sociales, il est également fréquent que les femmes et les filles (même en Occident) subissent parfois une pression communautaire ou familiale pour adhérer au hijab contre leur volonté, en particulier pour les adolescentes qui vivent avec leurs parents. Dans un petit nombre de pays à majorité musulmane (comme l’Iran), le hijab, quelle que soit la forme, est légalement imposé. Les manifestations "Femmes, Vie, Liberté" qui ont eu lieu en Iran en 2023 ont souligné que cette imposition est contraire aux souhaits de millions de femmes là-bas. L’Arabie Saoudite a, quant à elle, supprimé ses règles juridiques en matière de couvre-chef en 2018.

Elizabeth Bucar explique que dans les pays occidentaux, les femmes musulmanes qui portent le hijab est souvent un moyen d'exprimer leur identité musulmane, et que des styles spécifiques de hijab peuvent être en outre un moyen de maintenir une identité avec un héritage culturel spécifique.[2] Dans l’Algérie du 20ème siècle, le hijab a servi de symbole de défense culturelle et de résistance contre le colonialisme, alors qu’en Palestine, il est devenu un symbole de l’identité nationale, mais ne pas le porter était associé à la collaboration israélienne.[3]

Dans le Coran

Le Coran contient des versets qui mentionnent le jilbab (un pardessus ou un manteau à capuche), le khimar (un morceau de tissu qui couvre la tête), et le hijab (sorte de paravent pour protéger les épouses de Muhammad du regard des visiteurs de sa maison). Bucar résume que le verset 53 de la sourate 33 était un ordre pour séparer les épouses de Muhammad de l’espace public et privé ; le verset 59 de la même sourate était un ordre pour préserver les femmes croyantes libres de leur intégrité corporelle du harcèlement ; et les versets 30 et 31 de la sourate 24 étaient un commandement pour protéger la pudeur de toutes les femmes musulmanes.[4]

Coran 33:53

Dans le Coran (33:53), il est fait mention d’un hijab, un écran (ou une barrière) derrière lequel les visiteurs qui se rendent chez Muhammad peuvent demander des choses à ses épouses sans les voir. Bucar constate qu’en plus de ce verset, le mot hijab est utilisé ailleurs dans le Coran pour désigner un voile, un mur ou une cloison (voir 42:51, 7:46, 41:5 et 17:45). Le seul autre verset où le hijab est utilisé par rapport aux femmes se trouve dans le Coran (19:17). Enfin, dans 33:53, il est difficile de savoir sur qui repose la responsabilité de l’observance du commandement, est-ce les hommes ou les épouses de Muhammad ?[5]

Ô vous qui croyez ! N'entrez pas dans les demeures du Prophète, à moins qu'invitation ne vous soit faite à un repas, sans être là à attendre sa cuisson. Mais lorsqu'on vous appelle, alors, entrez. Puis, quand vous aurez mangé, dispersez-vous, sans chercher à vous rendre familiers pour causer. Cela faisait de la peine au Prophète, mais il se gênait de vous (congédier), alors qu'Allah ne se gêne pas de la vérité. Et si vous leur demandez (à ses femmes) quelque objet, demandez-le leur derrière un rideau: c'est plus pur pour vos cœurs et leurs cœurs; vous ne devez pas faire de la peine au Messager d'Allah, ni jamais vous marier avec ses épouses après lui; ce serait, auprès d'Allah, un énorme péché. (Traduction Hamidullah)

[---] Ô vous qui avez cru ! N’entrez pas dans les maisons du Prophète, à moins qu’on ne vous autorise pour la nourriture, sans attendre son moment. Mais lorsqu’on vous appelle, entrez alors. Et lorsque vous vous êtes nourris, dispersez-vous sans vous complaire dans un récit. Cela faisait du mal au Prophète et il se gênait de vous, mais Dieu ne se gêne pas de la vérité. Si vous demandez à [ses femmes] quelque bien, demandez-le-leur de derrière un voile. Cela est plus pur pour vos cœurs et leurs cœurs. Il n’était pas à vous de faire du mal à l’envoyé de Dieu, ni d’épouser ses épouses après lui. ~ Voilà ce qui serait, auprès de Dieu, un grand [péché]. (Traduction Sami Aldeeb)

Ô vous qui croyez !, n’entrez dans les appartements du Prophète que [quand] il vous ai donné permission pour un repas ! [N’entrez point alors] sans attendre le moment de [ce repas] ! Quand toutefois vous êtes invités, entrez ! Dès que vous avez pris le repas, retirez-vous sans vous abandonner, familiers, à un discours. Cela offense le Prophète et il a honte de vous. Mais Allah n’a pas honte de la vérité. Quand vous demandez un objet aux [épouses du Prophète], demandez-le de derrière un voile ! Cela est plus décent pour vos cœurs et leurs cœurs. Il n’est pas [licite] à vous d’offenser l’Apôtre d’Allah, ni d’épouser jamais ses épouses, après lui. C’est, au regard d’Allah, [péché] immense. (Traduction Régis Blachère)

Les traditions au sujet des circonstances de la révélation de ce verset sont mentionnées dans un certain nombre de hadiths, et sont abordées plus loin dans cet article. Dans les versets 32-33 de la sourate 33, il y a un autre commandement spécifiquement adressé aux femmes de Muhammad ("Ô femmes du Prophète ! Vous n'êtes comparables à aucune autre femme. [...]").

Coran 33:59

Au verset 59 de la sourate 33, le Coran stipule que le but de rabattre le jilbab (un pardessus ou un manteau à capuche) est de distinguer les femmes musulmanes libres (probablement des femmes non musulmanes ou des esclaves, qui n’ont pas à l’observer) afin de les empêcher d’être molestées/harcelées.

Bucar explique que les commentateurs du Coran ont convenu que la révélation de ce verset fait référence aux hypocrites (al-munafiqun) à Médine (qui sont mentionnés dans le verset suivant, Coran 33:60) qui harcelaient physiquement les femmes esclaves dans les espaces publics. Le contexte de ce verset est mentionné par exemple dans le tafsir d’al-Jalalayn. Le jilbab a ainsi permis aux femmes croyantes libres de se distinguer visuellement. Le Coran a placé sur elles cette responsabilité afin d’atténuer le comportement immoral de certains hommes. Bucar dit que la signification du jilbab n’est pas claire, mais que la plupart des savants ont cru qu’il s’agissait d’un type de parement extérieur.[6]

Ô Prophète ! Dis à tes épouses, à tes filles, et aux femmes des croyants, de ramener sur elles leurs grands voiles [jalābībihinna جَلَٰبِيبِهِنَّ]: elles en seront plus vite reconnues et éviteront d'être offensées. Allah est Pardonneur et Miséricordieux. (Traduction Hamidullah)

Ô Prophète ! Dis à tes épouses, à tes filles et aux femmes des croyants, de ramener sur elles leurs mantes [jalābībihinna جَلَٰبِيبِهِنَّ]. Cela est le moindre pour qu’elles soient reconnues, et ainsi elles ne subiront pas de mal. ~ Dieu était pardonneur, très miséricordieux.(Traduction Sami Aldeeb)

Ô Prophète !, dis à tes épouses, à tes filles et aux femmes des Croyants de serrer sur elles leurs voiles [jalābībihinna جَلَٰبِيبِهِنَّ]. Cela sera le plus simple moyen qu'elles soient reconnues et qu'elles ne soient point offensées. Allah est absoluteur et miséricordieux. (Traduction Régis Blachère)

Coran 24:31

Le verset 31 de la sourate 24 du Coran demande aux femmes croyantes de rabattre le khimar (un morceau de tissu qui couvre la tête) sur leur poitrine et de cacher leur parure ou leur beauté aux hommes.

Et dis aux croyantes de baisser leurs regards, de garder leur chasteté, et de ne montrer de leurs atours [zīnatahunna إِخْوَٰنِهِنَّ] que ce qui en paraît et qu'elles rabattent leur voile [bikhumurihinna بِخُمُرِهِنَّ] sur leurs poitrines [juyūbihinna جُيُوبِهِنَّ]; et qu'elles ne montrent leurs atours qu'à leurs maris, ou à leurs pères, ou aux pères de leurs maris, ou à leurs fils, ou aux fils de leurs maris, ou à leurs frères, ou aux fils de leurs frères, ou aux fils de leurs sœurs, ou aux femmes Musulmanes, ou aux esclaves qu'elles possèdent, ou aux domestiques mâles impuissants, ou aux garçons impubères qui ignorent tout des parties cachées [ʿawrāti عَوْرَٰتِ] des femmes. Et qu'elles ne frappent pas avec leurs pieds de façon que l'on sache ce qu'elles cachent de leurs parures. Et repentez-vous tous devant Allah, Ô croyants, afin que vous récoltiez le succès. (Traduction Hamidullah)

Dis aux croyantes de baisser leurs regards, de protéger leur sexe, et de ne faire apparaître de leur ornement [zīnatahunna إِخْوَٰنِهِنَّ] que ce qui en est apparent. Qu’elles rabattent leurs voiles [bikhumurihinna بِخُمُرِهِنَّ] sur leurs fentes [juyūbihinna جُيُوبِهِنَّ]. Qu’elles ne fassent apparaître leur ornement qu’à leurs maris, à leurs pères, aux pères de leurs maris, à leurs fils, aux fils de leurs maris, à leurs frères, aux fils de leurs frères, aux fils de leurs sœurs, à leurs femmes, à ce que leurs mains droites possédèrent, à ceux faisant partie de la suite sans besoin sexuel parmi les hommes, ou aux enfants qui ne sont pas informés des intimités [ʿawrāti عَوْرَٰتِ] des femmes. Qu’elles ne frappent pas avec leurs pieds pour que l’on sache ce qu’elles cachent de leur ornement. Revenez tous à Dieu, ô croyants! ~ Peut-être réussirez-vous ! (Traduction Sami Aldeeb)

Dis aux Croyantes de baisser leurs regards, d'être chastes, de ne montrer de leurs atours [zīnatahunna إِخْوَٰنِهِنَّ] que ce qui en paraît. Qu'elles rabattent leurs voiles [bikhumurihinna بِخُمُرِهِنَّ] sur leurs gorges [juyūbihinna جُيُوبِهِنَّ] ! Qu'elles montrent seulement leurs atours à leurs époux, ou à leurs pères, ou aux pères de leurs époux, ou à leurs fils, ou aux fils de leurs époux, ou à leurs frères, ou aux fils de leurs frères, ou aux fils de leurs sœurs, ou à leurs femmes, ou à leurs esclaves, ou à leurs serviteurs mâles que n'habite pas le désir [charnel], ou aux garçons qui ne sont pas [encore] au fait de la conformation [ʿawrāti عَوْرَٰتِ] des femmes. Que [les Croyantes] ne frappent point [le sol] de leurs pieds pour montrer les atours qu'elles cachent ! Revenez tous à Allah, ô Croyants ! Peut-être serez-vous bienheu­reux. (Traduction Régis Blachère)

Bucar note que contrairement aux deux versets ci-dessus, seules les traditions tardives fournissent un évènement de révélation pour les versets 30-31 de la sourate 24. Il est demandé aux femmes croyantes de rabattre leurs Khumur (singulier : Khimar) sur leur poitrine (juyub). Bucar commente que le mot khimar, que certains commentateurs du Coran ont glosé comme un voile, signifiait principalement un foulard porté sur la tête, et que la racine du mot juyub signifiait un espace entre les deux, donc probablement un décolleté. Elle soutient ainsi que le but de cette partie du verset est que le décolleté doit être couvert.[7] La même année (en 2012), une thèse de doctorat de Cheikh Mustapha Mohamed Rashed à l’Université al-Azhar a également conclu que le verset ordonne seulement que la poitrine soit couverte.[8]

Excepté certaine compagnie comme cela est spécifiquement définie, le verset mentionne également que les femmes ne doivent pas révéler leur parure (zina qui, en plus de faire référence à une activité sexuelle illicite, est un mot utilisé dans quelques versets pour les étoiles ornant les cieux). Cela semble signifier essentiellement l’attrait d’une femme, bien que les commentateurs du Coran aient toujours été en désaccord sur le sens caché de zina dans ce verset. Certains ont suggéré qu’il s’agissait de bracelets de cheville en raison de la dernière partie du verset demandant aux femmes de ne pas taper des pieds. Un peu plus loin dans le Coran (24:60), on peut lire que les femmes âgées sont exemptées de porter des vêtements cachant leur parure. Certains commentateurs du Coran comme al-Tabari pensaient qu’il était permis à une femme de montrer son visage, en se basant sur un hadith dans lequel Muhammad définit ce qu’une femme peut révéler d’elle-même lorsqu’elle atteint l’âge de la menstruation (Sunan Abu Dawud 33:4092, cité dans la section suivante ci-dessous). Pour al-Zamakhshari, la parure dans ce contexte signifiait bijoux et maquillage. Ibn Taymiyya et al-Baidawi ont dit que même le visage et les mains d’une femme doivent être couverts en public, sauf pendant la prière.[7]

Bucar note qu’il n’y avait pas non plus de consensus sur la signification du mot 'awra dans le verset. Pour les hommes, les hadiths indiquaient clairement que la awra d’un homme allait de son nombril à ses genoux. Quant à l’awra d’une femme, il y a un hadith isolé recueilli par al-Tirmidhi cité dans la section suivante. Pour certains savants, ce terme faisait référence à la poitrine, au cou et à la tête d’une femme, pour d’autres, tout sauf son visage et ses mains, et enfin pour d’autres, seulement la région génitale (comme pour les hommes).[7]

Hadiths

Bucar constate qu’il n’y a pas de références explicites dans les hadiths qui obligent les femmes à se couvrir le visage ou les cheveux (un récit dans le Sahih Bukhari 6:60:282 fait mention de femmes se couvrant leurs visages, mais ce n’est pas clair dans le texte arabe et une autre version de ce récit dans Sunan Abu Dawud 32:4089 se réfère seulement à elles se confectionnant des khimars). Bucar fait remarquer que les hadiths distinguent une période avant et après la révélation du verset du hijab concernant les épouses de Muhammad, en particulier les récits sur l’événement de la calomnie (al-ifk) dans lequel Aicha a été accusée d’adultère. Au moment de ces récits, le hijab était passé d’un véritable écran dans la maison des épouses de Muhammad à une idéologie complexe de ségrégation, de la vie privée et du statut social, reflétant peut-être les pratiques culturelles post-Muhammad de communautés musulmanes spécifiques.[9]

Rapporté par Safiya bint Shaiba : Aicha avait l'habitude de dire : "Quand (le verset) : « qu’elles rabattent leur voile sur leurs poitrines », a été révélé, (les dames) coupèrent sur les bords leurs draps qui faisaient office de ceinture et se couvraient la tête et le visage avec ces morceaux de tissu coupés."
Safiya, la fille de Shaiba, a dit qu’Aicha a mentionné les femmes des Ansar, les a louées et a dit de bonnes paroles à leur sujet, puis elle déclara : "Quand la sourate an-Nur est descendue, elles ont pris les rideaux, les ont déchirés et en ont fait des couvre-chef (voiles)."

Quelques hadiths se réfèrent précisément aux épouses de Muhammad couvrant leurs têtes et leurs visages avec un jilbab en public comme on le trouve dans Sahih Bukhari 5:59:462, qui se rapporte à l’évènement de la calomnie cité plus haut. Il mentionne qu’Aicha a rabaissé son jilbab sur son visage, mais il dit aussi que c’était après que le verset du hijab soit descendu, qui était une exigence spécifiquement réservée aux épouses de Muhammad.

Bucar dit que les quelques hadiths pertinents détaillant les exigences pour les femmes croyantes concernent en général l’évitement de vêtements minces ou d’ourlets courts, tandis qu’un hadith isolé recueilli par al-Tirmidhi est l’exception, décrivant une femme dans son intégralité comme 'awra.[10]

Rapporté par Aicha, la Ummul Mu’minin : Asma, la fille d’Abu Bakr, est entrée chez le Messager d’Allah (ﷺ) en portant des vêtements fins. Le Messager d’Allah (ﷺ) a détourné son attention et a dit : "Ô Asma, quand une femme atteint l’âge de la menstruation, il ne lui convient pas qu’elle montre ses parties du corps sauf ceci et cela", et il a pointé son visage et ses mains. Abu Dawud a déclaré qu’il s’agissait d’une tradition mursal (c.-à-d. que le narrateur qui a transmis ce récit d’Aicha est manquant) Khalid b. Duraik n’a pas vu Aicha.
Narrated Ibn 'Umar: That the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Whoever arrogantly drags his garment, Allah will not look at him on the Day of Judgement." So Umm Salamah said: "What should the women do with their hems?" He said: "Slacken them a handspan." So she said: "Then their feet will be uncovered." He said: "Then slacken them a forearm's length and do not add to that." He said: This Hadith is Hasan Sahih. In the Hadith there is a concession for women to drag their Izar because it covers them better.
Abdullah narrated that The Prophet said: “The woman is Awrah, so when she goes out, the Shaitan seeks to tempt her.”

A narration mentioned by some Quran commentators such as Ibn Kathir attributes to Ibn Abbas a view that a woman should be entirely covered by her jilbab except for a single eye.

Here Allah tells His Messenger to command the believing women -- especially his wives and daughters, because of their position of honor -- to draw their Jilbabs over their bodies, so that they will be distinct in their appearance from the women of the Jahiliyyah and from slave women. The Jilbab is a Rida', worn over the Khimar. This was the view of Ibn Mas`ud, `Ubaydah, Qatadah, Al-Hasan Al-Basri, Sa`id bin Jubayr, Ibrahim An-Nakha`i, `Ata' Al-Khurasani and others. It is like the Izar used today. Al-Jawhari said: "The Jilbab is the outer wrapper. `Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn `Abbas said that Allah commanded the believing women, when they went out of their houses for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with the Jilbab, leaving only one eye showing. Muhammad bin Sirin said, "I asked `Ubaydah As-Salmani about the Ayah:

يُدْنِينَ عَلَيْهِنَّ مِن جَلَـبِيبِهِنَّ (to draw their Jalabib over their bodies.) He covered his face and head, with just his left eye showing.
ذلِكَ أَدْنَى أَن يُعْرَفْنَ فَلاَ يُؤْذَيْنَ

(That will be better that they should be known so as not to be annoyed. ) means, if they do that, it will be known that they are free, and that they are not servants or whores.
Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Q. 33:59

Some other relevant hadiths were collected by Abu Dawud (all graded Sahih by al-Albani):

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Allah does not accept the prayer of a woman who has reached puberty unless she wears a veil [Khimar بِخِمَارٍ]. Abu Dawud said: This tradition has been narrated by Sa;id b. Abi 'Arubah from Qatadah on the authority of al-Hasan from the Prophet (ﷺ).
Narrated Anas ibn Malik: The Prophet (ﷺ) brought Fatimah a slave which he donated to her. Fatimah wore a garment which, when she covered her head, did not reach her feet, and when she covered her feet by it, that garment did not reach her head. When the Prophet (ﷺ) saw her struggle, he said: There is no harm to you: Here is only your father and slave.
Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin: When the verse "That they should cast their outer garments over their persons" was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows over their heads by wearing outer garments.

The following hadith account mentions the use of hijab (screen) to conceal Muhammad's wives from a eunuch, or effeminate man in other translations (similarly see Sunan Abu Dawud 32:4095).

'A'isha reported that a eunuch used to come to the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) and they did not And anything objectionable in his visit considering him to be a male without any sexual desire. Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) one day came as he was sitting with some of his wives and he was busy in describing the bodily characteristics of a lady and saying: As she comes in front four folds appear on her front side and as she turns her back eight folds appear on the back side. Thereupon Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) said: I see that he knows these things; do not, therefore, allow him to cater. She (" A'isha) said: Then they began to observe veil from him.

Some observe that a eunuch could not pose any threat to the chastity or safety of Muhammad's wives, which distinguishes the purpose of hijab in Q. 33:53 from that of jilbab or khimar for protection or modesty in the other verses discussed above.

In Islamic Law

Bucar details how different opinions on the veil existed between and within the schools of Islamic jurisprudence over time, probably influenced by the differing cultural contexts (she uses the term "veil" to mean the relevant Islamic concepts in a general sense).[11]

She writes that "Early fiqh discussed veiling in the context of prayer, and in general saw veiling as an issue of social status and physical safety". Later, it was not a central concern of medieval legal scholars, though their reasoning remains relevant to modern discussions about veiling. Regarding the concept of 'awra mentioned in Q. 24:31 and discussed above, the majority view was that it excluded a woman's hands and face (the main Maliki and Hanafi view), though a minority view was that everything should be covered except her eyes despite no mention of this in the Quran, while hadiths indicate this was not common practice for early Muslim communities. Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 CE) who inspired modern day Salafism said that her face should be covered in public, which became the standard Shafi'i and Hanbali legal position. Legal scholars also commonly linked 'awra with the concept of fitnah mentioned separately in the Quran. Bucar quotes the prominent jurist al-Nawawi (d. 1278) as an exemplar of this view, which is a motivation argued by some emerging Islamic governments in modern times:

Since God made men desire women, and desire looking at them and enjoying them, women are like the devil in that they seduce men towards the commission of evil, while making evil look attractive [to men]. We deduct from this that women should not go out in the midst of men except for a necessity.
al-Nawawi quoted by Elizabeth Bucar (transl. El Fadl)[12]

Some modern Islamic jurists such as Khaled Abou El Fadl (d. 1963) have criticised this linking of a woman's 'awra with the concept of fitna and preventing illicit intercourse. He argues that modesty is a Quranic ethical command in and of itself and the relevant verses do not link it to fitna. The medieval jurists invocation of fitna in addition thereby shifted the blame for potential sin from men to women (whereas the hypocrites are blamed in Q. 33:59-60 for violating women's modesty). Thirdly, since even medieval jurists allowed exemptions (for example slaves labouring in fields), he argued that the rules must be "contigent and contextual in nature". In the late 19th and early 20th century a renewed juridical interest in veiling led to a wide range of debates and opinions.[11]

Saudi Arabia (until it revoked its legal head covering requirement in 2018), Afghanistan, and Iran base their laws on veiling on the Hanbali, Hanafi, and Shi'a Jafari schools of jurisprudence, respectively.[13]

Proposed benefits of hijab and modern criticisms thereof

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Billboard in Tehran reading "hijab is security"

Bucar categorises three types of traditional and modern purposes for hijab that have been articulated. Firstly, it was seen as a means of building moral character (modesty, shyness) and a path to piety because it is not an easy thing to start wearing it. With repetition, over time a woman would feel uncomfortable at the thought of not wearing it. Indeed, one could add that ex-Muslim women commonly describe how leaving home without hijab for the first time takes some courage. Secondly, it has been said to have the benefit of preventing inapproprate desires, which could end in zina (illicit sexual activity), and strengthens the marital bond since a woman's sensuality was reserved for her husband. Finally, it is seen as having a social purpose, to regulate and prevent sexual urges in society running out of control. Arguments in this last category are of four types: 1) that it prevents constant male arousal, protects social dignity and a tranquil society; 2) that it supports educational and economic productivity due to reduced male distraction; 3) that it allows women to participate more fully in society as every public space is a morally safe zone; and 4) that it serves as a guard against westernizing influence.[14]

Bucar gives examples of Muslim figures who have criticised such arguments for hijab. Some reformists and progressives interpreted hijab metaphorically in terms of a principle of modest behaviour and controlling one's desires. Other Muslim critics have noted that veiling is not sufficient to suppress desire, and in a modern context can even stimulate desire for that which is "forbidden". Others criticise mandatory veiling for removing moral choice.[15] Secular observers might add that most of the arguments for hijab pre-suppose a conservative moral order in which sexual activity outside the bounds of marriage (or in the past, slavery) must be forbidden, and the risk of such, mitigated.

Some critics argue that if the hijab is intended to protect women from sexual assault, it wholly fails to serve this purpose. Islamic countries where the overwhelming majorities of women observe the hijab have been found to have some of the highest rates of women experiencing all manner of sexual harassment, notably in the case of Egypt.[16][17] In Saudi Arabia, where the observance of hijab is strictly enforced throughout the country, women experience one of the highest rates of rape in the world.[18]

'Umar and the revelation of the hijab verse (Quran 33:53)

A hadith narrated from Anas bin Malik describes how he witnessed the revelation of the hijab verse. See also Sahih Muslim 8:3328.

Narrated Anas bin Malik: I of all the people know best this verse of Al-Hijab. When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) married Zainab bint Jahsh she was with him in the house and he prepared a meal and invited the people (to it). They sat down (after finishing their meal) and started chatting. So the Prophet (ﷺ) went out and then returned several times while they were still sitting and talking. So Allah revealed the Verse: 'O you who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses until leave is given to you for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation.....ask them from behind a screen.' (33.53) So the screen was set up and the people went away.

A somewhat different account, or background leading up to the revelation of the verse is reported regarding pressure exerted on Muhammad regarding his wives by 'Umar, as detailed below.

Umar bin Al-Khattab's spies on Sauda

According to hadiths found in Sahih al-Bukhari, the most authoritative hadith collection, the series of events leading up to the revelation of the verse of the hijab (Quran 33:53) was as follows. First, Umar repeatedly asked Muhammad that Allah should reveal verses of the Qur'an pertaining to the veiling of women. Next, when no such revelation was forthcoming from Muhammad, Umar went out one night and stalked one of Muhammad's wives when she went out to relieve herself. Identifying the wife as Sauda bint Zam'a, he called out to her by name, noting that he had succeeded in recognizing her in her compromised circumstance. After this, Sauda presumably returned home embarrassed by the incident and reported what occurred to Muhammad, finally resulting in the revelation of the verses pertaining to the hijab.

Note that the Sahih al-Bukhari translator's comment attempting to define hijab as "a complete body covering excluding the eyes" at the end of the hadiths is not present in the Arabic. Moreover, in the Arabic these hadiths do not mention "verses" of the hijab plural, but at most mention the "verse" singular. This is in reference to Q. 33:53 which concerns concealing Muhammad's wives from public view (this is even clearer with the related hadiths in the section after this below).

Narrated 'Aisha: The wives of the Prophet used to go to Al-Manasi, a vast open place (near Baqia at Medina) to answer the call of nature at night. 'Umar used to say to the Prophet "Let your wives be veiled," but Allah's Apostle did not do so. One night Sauda bint Zam'a the wife of the Prophet went out at 'Isha' time and she was a tall lady. 'Umar addressed her and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda." He said so, as he desired eagerly that the verses of Al-Hijab (the observing of veils by the Muslim women) may be revealed. So Allah revealed the verses of "Al-Hijab" (A complete body cover excluding the eyes).
Narrated 'Aisha: (the wife of the Prophet) 'Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say to Allah's Apostle "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' Once Sauda, the daughter of Zam'a went out and she was a tall woman. 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He ('Umar) said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil (the veiling of women.) So Allah revealed the Verse of veiling. (Al-Hijab; a complete body cover excluding the eyes). (See Hadith No. 148, Vol. 1)
'A'isha reported that the wives of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) used to go out in the cover of night when they went to open fields (in the outskirts of Medina) for easing themselves. 'Umar b Khattab used to say: Allah's Messenger, ask your ladies to observe veil, but Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) did not do that. So there went out Sauda, daughter of Zarn'a, the wife of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), during one of the nights when it was dark. She was a tall statured lady. 'Umar called her saying: Sauda, we recognise you. (He did this with the hope that the verses pertaining to veil would be revealed.) 'A'isha said: Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, then revealed the verses pertaining to veil.

Allah agrees with Umar

Following the incident with Sauda and a number of other incidents where Umar had directly preceded revelation in his recommendations to Muhammad, Muhammad proclaimed that Allah had come, on multiple occasions, to agree with Umar.

Note that the translation of the hadiths below are incorrect. The Arabic text of these hadiths refers to "the veil" (hijab) singular, and "verse" singular, not plural i.e. the various versions of this hadith refer to the revelation of Quran 33:53 concerning the screen (al hijab) between visitors and Muhammad's wives.

Narrated Anas:

Umar said, "I agreed with Allah in three things," or said, "My Lord agreed with me in three things. I said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Would that you took the station of Abraham as a place of prayer.' I also said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons visit you! Would that you ordered the Mothers of the believers to cover themselves with veils.' So the Divine Verses of Al-Hijab (i.e. veiling of the women) were revealed. I came to know that the Prophet had blamed some of his wives so I entered upon them and said, 'You should either stop (troubling the Prophet ) or else Allah will give His Apostle better wives than you.' When I came to one of his wives, she said to me, 'O 'Umar! Does Allah's Apostle haven't what he could advise his wives with, that you try to advise them?' " Thereupon Allah revealed:--

"It may be, if he divorced you (all) his Lord will give him instead of you, wives better than you Muslims (who submit to Allah).." (66.5)
Narrated Umar: I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons enter upon you, so I suggest that you order the mothers of the Believers (i.e. your wives) to observe veils." Then Allah revealed the Verses of Al-Hijab.
Ibn Umar reported Umar as saying: My lord concorded with (my judgments) on three occasions. In case of the Station of Ibrahim, in case of the observance of veil and in case of the prisoners of Badr.

Umar ups the ante

After Umar's wish of having Muhammad's wives veiled was fulfilled, he set his sights on having the clothing requirements increased to the point of making the women completely unrecognizable. To this end, he again spied on Sauda as she had gone out to relieve herself, this time notifying her that because she was a distinctively "fat huge lady", the newly-obligated veil did not suffice in obscuring her identity. Embarrassed yet again, Sauda returned home to inform Muhammad. Then feasting on a piece of meat and apparently disturbed by the interruption, Muhammad immediately received revelation from God alerting Sauda that Umar's demands would not this time be met. Accordingly, Sauda was informed that she would be allowed to relieve herself outdoors in spite of Umar's harassment.

Narrated Aisha: Sauda (the wife of the Prophet) went out to answer the call of nature after it was made obligatory (for all the Muslims ladies) to observe the veil. She was a fat huge lady, and everybody who knew her before could recognize her. So 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her and said, "O Sauda! By Allah, you cannot hide yourself from us, so think of a way by which you should not be recognized on going out. Sauda returned while Allah's Apostle was in my house taking his supper and a bone covered with meat was in his hand. She entered and said, "O Allah's Apostle! I went out to answer the call of nature and 'Umar said to me so-and-so." Then Allah inspired him (the Prophet) and when the state of inspiration was over and the bone was still in his hand as he had not put in down, he said (to Sauda), "You (women) have been allowed to go out for your needs."
A'isha reported that Sauda (Allah be pleased with her) went out (in the fields) in order to answer the call of nature even after the time when veil had been prescribed for women. She had been a bulky lady, significant in height amongst the women, and she could not conceal herself from him who had known her. 'Umar b. Khattab saw her and said: Sauda, by Allah, you cannot conceal from us. Therefore, be careful when you go out. She ('A'isha) said: She turned back. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was at that time in my house having his evening meal and there was a bone in his hand. She (Sauda) cline and said: Allah's Messenger. I went out and 'Umar said to me so and so. She ('A'isha) reported: There came the revelation to him and then it was over; the bone was then in his hand and he had not thrown it and he said: "Permission has been granted to you that you may go out for your needs."

Another hadith records how Umar attempted to apply the ruling of hijab (curtain) to other women in Muhammad's house besides his wives (the same account is in Sahih Bukhari 8:73:108).

Sa'd b. Waqqas reported that Umar sought permission from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) to visit him when some women of the Quraish were busy in talking with him and raising their voices above his voice. When 'Umar sought permission they stood up and went hurriedly behind the curtain. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) gave him permission smilingly. Thereupon 'Umar said: Allah's Messenger, may Allah keep you happy all your life. Then Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: I wonder at these women who were with me and no sooner did they hear your voice, they immediately went behind the curtain. Thereupon 'Umar said: Allah's Messenger, you have more right that they should fear you. Then Umar (addressing the women) said: O ye enemies of yourselves, do you fear me and fear not the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ)? They said: Yes, you are harsh and strict as compared to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Thereupon, Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: By Him in Whose Hand is my life, if satan would encounter you in the way he would certainly take a different way from that of yours.

Umar struck a slave girl for wearing jilbab like free women

One tradition relates Umar's strident views also to the theme of Quran 3:59, the verse in which believing women in general are instructed to wear the jilbab to distinguish themselves and to avoid harrasment.

Narrated Anas ibn Malik:

Umar saw a slave-girl wearing a veil, so he struck her. He said, "Do not emulate free women."

Narrated Anas ibn Malik:

A female slave came to Umar ibn al Khattab. He knew her through some of the emigrants, or the Ansar. She was wearing a jilbab (cloak) which veiled her. He asked her: "Have you been freed?" She said: "No." He said: "What about the jilbab? Pull it down off your head. The jilbab is only for free women from among the believing women." She hesitated. So he came at her with a whip and struck her on the head, until she cast it off her head.

Hijab as a screen or physical barrier

Another type of veiling, also referred to in Arabic as hijab, is that effected through physical barriers. This was the original meaning of the term as discussed above regarding Quran 33:53. While Islamic legal schools disagree about the requirement and use of physical barriers in addition to hijab as matter of personal clothing, the use of physical barriers is the rule rather than the exception in much of the Islamic world and even make frequent appearance in Western diasporic settings.

In addition to the generic employment of physical barriers wherever both men and women are present, there is the more specific practice of the "household hijab". The idea of separating male and female visitors at one's home is inspired by hadith accounts which describe this practice in Muhammad's household as well as a Quranic allusion thereto in Quran 33:53. According to the hadiths, the separate revelation regarding the household hijab was also situationally inspired. Here, the story is that Muhammad had visitors and was bothered to find them lingering to chat with his wives after they had dinner.

Narrated Anas bin Malik:

When Allah's Apostle married Zainab bint Jahsh, he invited the people to a meal. They took the meal and remained sitting and talking. Then the Prophet (showed them) as if he is ready to get up, yet they did not get up. When he noticed that (there was no response to his movement), he got up, and the others too, got up except three persons who kept on sitting. The Prophet came back in order to enter his house, but he went away again. Then they left, whereupon I set out and went to the Prophet to tell him that they had departed, so he came and entered his house. I wanted to enter along with him, but he put a screen between me and him. Then Allah revealed:

'O you who believe! Do not enter the houses of the Prophet...' (33.53)
Narrated Anas: A banquet of bread and meat was held on the occasion of the marriage of the Prophet to Zainab bint Jahsh. I was sent to invite the people (to the banquet), and so the people started coming (in groups); They would eat and then leave. Another batch would come, eat and leave. So I kept on inviting the people till I found nobody to invite. Then I said, "O Allah's Prophet! I do not find anybody to invite." He said, "Carry away the remaining food." Then a batch of three persons stayed in the house chatting. The Prophet left and went towards the dwelling place of Aisha and said, "Peace and Allah's Mercy be on you, O the people of the house!" She replied, "Peace and the mercy of Allah be on you too. How did you find your wife? May Allah bless you. Then he went to the dwelling places of all his other wives and said to them the same as he said to Aisha and they said to him the same as Aisha had said to him. Then the Prophet returned and found a group of three persons still in the house chatting. The Prophet was a very shy person, so he went out (for the second time) and went towards the dwelling place of 'Aisha. I do not remember whether I informed him that the people have gone away. So he returned and as soon as he entered the gate, he drew the curtain between me and him, and then the Verse of Al-Hijab was revealed.
Narrated Anas bin Malik: that he was a boy of ten at the time when the Prophet emigrated to Medina. He added: I served Allah's Apostle for ten years (the last part of his life time) and I know more than the people about the occasion whereupon the order of Al-Hijab was revealed (to the Prophet). Ubai b n Ka'b used to ask me about it. It was revealed (for the first time) during the marriage of Allah's Apostle with Zainab bint Jahsh. In the morning, the Prophet was a bride-groom of her and he Invited the people, who took their meals and went away, but a group of them remained with Allah's Apostle and they prolonged their stay. Allah's Apostle got up and went out, and I too, went out along with him till he came to the lintel of 'Aisha's dwelling place. Allah's Apostle thought that those people had left by then, so he returned, and I too, returned with him till he entered upon Zainab and found that they were still sitting there and had not yet gone. The Prophet went out again, and so did I with him till he reached the lintel of 'Aisha's dwelling place, and then he thought that those people must have left by then, so he returned, and so did I with him, and found those people had gone. At that time the Divine Verse of Al-Hijab was revealed, and the Prophet set a screen between me and him (his family).

See also

External links

References

  1. Elizabeth Bucar (2012) The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), Oxford: Oneworld Publications
  2. Elizabeth Bucar (2012) The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 119-122
  3. Elizabeth Bucar (2012) The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 77-83
  4. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), p. 45
  5. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique, p. 35
  6. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), pp. 38-40
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), pp. 40-45
  8. Hijab is Not an Islamic Duty: Muslim Scholar (Le hijab n'est pas un devoir islamique: savant musulman) - en anglais - Morocco World News, 24 Juin 2012
  9. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), pp. 47-48
  10. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique), p. 34
  11. 11.0 11.1 Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil, pp. 49-58
  12. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil, pp. 56
  13. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil, pp. 65-66
  14. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil, pp. 19-23
  15. Elizabeth Bucar, The Islamic Veil, p. 24
  16. See Sexual Harassment Laws in Egypt: Does Stricter Mean More Effective? by Habiba Abdelaal, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy - December 2021
  17. Manar Ammar - Sexual harassment awaits Egyptian girls outside schools - Bikya Masr, September 10, 2012
  18. "The High Rape-Scale in Saudi Arabia", WomanStats Project (blog), January 16, 2013 (archived), http://womanstats.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/the-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia/.