Scientific Errors in the Quran: Difference between revisions

Thanks for the corrections. Bit of editing as conciseness and hard choices of points/quotes to include are necessary in such an already very long but important article. Citations for the most uncontroversial, easily verifiable things like death dates can be omitted. Couple of removals (adornment point would be countered due to space telescope images admired by many people; final resting place interpretation is first attributed to Qatadah b. Di'amah b. 680 CE).
[unchecked revision][unchecked revision]
m (→‎Meteors as stars fired at devils: I have added the relevant quran quotes for stars/shooting stars thrown at devils/jinns)
(Thanks for the corrections. Bit of editing as conciseness and hard choices of points/quotes to include are necessary in such an already very long but important article. Citations for the most uncontroversial, easily verifiable things like death dates can be omitted. Couple of removals (adornment point would be countered due to space telescope images admired by many people; final resting place interpretation is first attributed to Qatadah b. Di'amah b. 680 CE).)
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{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). There are also [[sahih]] [[hadith]] ({{Muslim|1|297}}) that mention the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).
{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). There are also [[sahih]] [[hadith]] ({{Muslim|1|297}}) that mention the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).


An alternative view among exegetes, favoured by many apologists today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day (presumably after it's joined to the moon<ref>https://quranx.com/75.8-9</ref>), such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE)<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-Kathir</ref> giving a secondary opinion: <blockquote>(The second view) is that this refers to when the sun's appointed time comes to an end, which will be on the Day of Resurrection, when its fixed course will be abolished, it will come to a halt and it will be rolled up. This world will come to an end, and that will be the end of its appointed time. This is the fixed course of its time.<ref>https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/36.40</ref></blockquote>However these appear far after the Greek spherical planetary model contained in Ptolemy's Almagest was translated into Arabic<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almagest</ref> in the late 8th and early 9th centuries, which stated the sun constantly revolved around a fixed (and geocentric Earth)<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest</ref> (and so did not 'rest' or have a 'resting place'). This soon became the general view of astronomers in the Islamic caliphates/empires with improvements being made over time made<ref>https://www.academia.edu/attachments/55944098/download_file?s=portfolio</ref>, and would certainly have been known to a highly educated man like Ibn Kathir (b. 1300)<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-Kathir</ref> and other later educated commentators who had contact with astronomers, or learned about their field, and sought to reconcile science with scripture.
An alternative view cited by classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE), attributed to Qatada ibn Di'amah (d. 117 AH),<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.38 Tafsir ibn Kathir for 36:38]</ref> and which is favoured by many Muslim scholars today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day.


Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (using a different Arabic word). Another version of the above hadith probably supports this view (for details of all these things see footnotes [https://wikiislam.net/wiki/Geocentrism_and_the_Quran#Primary_Evidence in the main article]). Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.
Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (using a different Arabic word). Another version of the above hadith possibly supports this view (for details of all these things, see the footnotes [https://wikiislam.net/wiki/Geocentrism_and_the_Quran in the main article]). Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}


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The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would require the moon to travel tens of millions of miles away from Earth and into the sun, which is over 400 times wider. To describe them as brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.  
The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would require the moon to travel tens of millions of miles away from Earth and into the sun, which is over 400 times wider. To describe them as brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.  


The Earth's<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1164/how-big-is-the-solar-system/#:~:text=As%20noted%20earlier%2C%20Earth's%20average,million%20kilometers)%20from%20the%20Sun. https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1164/how-big-is-the-solar-system/#:~:text=As%20noted%20earlier%2C%20Earth's%20average,million%20kilometers)%20from%20the%20Sun.]</ref> and moon's<ref>[https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/how-far-away-moon#:~:text=Since%20the%20Moon%20orbits%20the,million%20miles)%20from%20the%20Sun! https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/how-far-away-moon#:~:text=Since%20the%20Moon%20orbits%20the,million%20miles)%20from%20the%20Sun!]</ref> average distance to the Sun is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). Should the sun move just 1.5 million km closer to Earth, it would become uninhabitable.<ref>https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/how-much-closer-to-the-sun-could-earths-orbit-get-and-still-be-habitable</ref> Moving an approximately midway distance would scorch and destroy the Earth (and the moon) along with all humans in such a way that all other apocalyptic 'doom' events (such as removing mountains<ref>https://quranx.com/77.10</ref>, splitting the sky<ref>https://quranx.com/84.1</ref> and stars falling<ref>https://quranx.com/81.2</ref>) would be rendered pointless.  
The Earth and moon's average distance to the Sun is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). The narrowest estimate for the habitable zone of our solar system implies that if the sun was on average as little as 1.5 million km closer to Earth, it would become uninhabitable.<ref>[https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/how-much-closer-to-the-sun-could-earths-orbit-get-and-still-be-habitable How much closer to the Sun could Earth’s orbit get and still be habitable?] - BBC Science Focus website</ref> If the sun even started to come much closer than that to be joined with the moon, the immediate, worldwide heat death of all life on Earth would render pointless such other apocalyptic events as removing mountains ({{Quran|77|10}}), splitting the heaven ({{Quran|84|1}}), and stars falling ({{Quran|81|2}}), some of which are discussed in the sections below.  


It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "joined". Nor does "joined" in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.
It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "joined". Nor does "joined" in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.
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Other relevant verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context) and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.
Other relevant verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context) and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.


{{Quote|{{Quran|55|33-35}}|O ye assembly of Jinns and men! if it be ye can pass beyond the zones of the heavens and the earth pass ye! not without authority shall ye be able to pass!  
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|33|35}}|O ye assembly of Jinns and men! if it be ye can pass beyond the zones of the heavens and the earth pass ye! not without authority shall ye be able to pass!  
Then which of the favors of your Lord will ye deny? On you will be sent (O ye evil ones twain!) a flame of fire (to burn) and a smoke (to choke): No defence will ye have.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|72|8-9}}|And we pried into the secrets of heaven; but we found it filled with stern guards and flaming fires. We used, indeed, to sit there in (hidden) stations, to (steal) a hearing; but any who listen now will find a flaming fire watching him in ambush.}}
Then which of the favors of your Lord will ye deny? On you will be sent (O ye evil ones twain!) a flame of fire (to burn) and a smoke (to choke): No defence will ye have.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|72|8|9}}|And we pried into the secrets of heaven; but we found it filled with stern guards and flaming fires. We used, indeed, to sit there in (hidden) stations, to (steal) a hearing; but any who listen now will find a flaming fire watching him in ambush.}}


Stars are also an average 5 light years away from each other in our universe<ref>https://public.nrao.edu/ask/what-is-the-average-distance-between-stars-in-our-galaxy/</ref>. For context, light years are the distance travels in one year, which is 186,000 miles/300,000 kilometres per second, at 5.88 trillion miles/9.46 trillion kilometres per year<ref>https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/faq/26/what-is-a-light-year/</ref>, making them an odd choice for a protection/guard, with trillions of miles/kilometers of mostly empty space between them.
Stars are also an average 5 light years away from each other in our galaxy<ref>[https://public.nrao.edu/ask/what-is-the-average-distance-between-stars-in-our-galaxy/ What is the Average Distance Between Stars in our Galaxy?] - US National Radio Astronomy Observatory website</ref>. For context, a light year is the distance light travels in one year, which at 186,000 miles/300,000 kilometres per second equals 5.88 trillion miles/9.46 trillion kilometres.<ref>https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/faq/26/what-is-a-light-year/</ref> This makes them an odd choice for a protection/guard, with trillions of miles/kilometers of mostly empty space between them.
 
On a separate note, though stars are being described as an 'ornament' or 'beauty' for the sky in [https://quran.com/en/as-saffat/6-10 Quran 37:6-10 ,] [https://quran.com/67/5?translations=17,18,19,20,22,85,95,84,101,102 67:5], there are an estimated minimum c.100 septillion stars in the known universe<ref>https://universe.nasa.gov/stars/basics/</ref>, but only a few thousand are actually visible to us<ref>https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe</ref>.


===The entire heaven has a night and day===
===The entire heaven has a night and day===
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{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}


A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} further emphasizes this image by pointing out that, unlike what one would expect with an Arabian tent, the roof that is the sky is without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity). Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} further emphasizes this image by pointing out that, unlike what one would expect with an Arabian tent, the roof that is the sky is without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity). Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}; the same Arabic noun is used in {{Quran|50|6}} where the listeners are expected to notice that the heaven has no slits, reinforcing the canopy metaphor), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).


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Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.  
Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.  


And more recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground (For context, Earth’s atmosphere stretches from the surface of the planet up to as far as 10,000 kilometers (6,214 miles) above. After that, the atmosphere blends into space<ref>https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/atmosphere/</ref>). The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/</ref>  
More recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground, having penetrated the Earth's atmosphere. The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/ Meteors & Meteorites] - NASA website</ref>  


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
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...Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall...}}
...Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall...}}


A similar issue emerges for the five daily prayers. Persons living in the polar region would not be able to make a sunset or sunrise prayer for much of the year. Even in less extreme contextxs, for cities further south like Aberdeen in Scotland, the gap between the night prayer (Isha) and the dawn prayer (Fajr) is still around 4 and a half hours in June, so a person praying five times a day is required to interrupt their sleep around 3.20am, then go back to sleep before getting up for the day. These challenges would likely not have been on the mind of the author of the Quran during the 7th century in Arabia.
A similar issue emerges for the five daily prayers. Persons living in the polar region would not be able to make a sunset or sunrise prayer for much of the year. Even in less extreme contexts, for cities further south like Aberdeen in Scotland, the gap between the night prayer (Isha) and the dawn prayer (Fajr) is still around 4 and a half hours in June, so a person praying five times a day is required to interrupt their sleep around 3.20am, then go back to sleep before getting up for the day. These challenges would likely not have been on the mind of the author of the Quran during the 7th century in Arabia.


{{Quote|{{Quran|17|78}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|78}}|
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{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}


Even far beyond the 8th/9th century when the Abbasid Caliph's translated Ptolemy's Almagest (a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths - stating the Earth is a sphere)<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almagest</ref> from Greek at least five times,<ref>https://www.academia.edu/attachments/55944098/download_file?s=portfolio</ref> once into Syriac, and the others into Arabic, the issue was far from settled.  
Even far beyond the 8th/9th century CE when the Abbasid Caliphs translated Ptolemy's Almagest (a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths - stating the Earth is a sphere)<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almagest Almagest] - Encyclopedia Britannica website</ref> from Greek at least five times, once into Syriac, and the others into Arabic,<ref>{{citation| chapter=Islamic Astronomy| title=Astronomy before the Telescope| first=David A.| last=King| pages=143-174| location=London| publisher=British Museum Press| year=1996| url=https://www.academia.edu/attachments/55944098/download_file?s=portfolio| editor-last=Walker| editor-first=Christopher| ISBN=978-0714127330}}</ref> the issue was far from settled.  


For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century),<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140316181958/http://main.altafsir.com/Al-Jalalayn.asp</ref> agrees with this understanding of the verse saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.
For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century) agrees with this understanding of the verse, saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.


{{Quote|1=[http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn for verse 88:20]|2=And the earth, how it was laid out flat?, and thus infer from this the power of God, exalted be He, and His Oneness? The commencing with the [mention of] camels is because they are closer in contact with it [the earth] than any other [animal]. As for His words sutihat, 'laid out flat', this on a literal reading suggests '''that the earth is flat, which is the opinion of most of the scholars''' of the [revealed] Law, and '''not a sphere as astronomers (ahl al-hay'a) have it''', even if this [latter] does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}
{{Quote|1=[http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn for verse 88:20]|2=And the earth, how it was laid out flat?, and thus infer from this the power of God, exalted be He, and His Oneness? The commencing with the [mention of] camels is because they are closer in contact with it [the earth] than any other [animal]. As for His words sutihat, 'laid out flat', this on a literal reading suggests '''that the earth is flat, which is the opinion of most of the scholars''' of the [revealed] Law, and '''not a sphere as astronomers (ahl al-hay'a) have it''', even if this [latter] does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}
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===Mountains as pegs which prevent the earth from shifting===
===Mountains as pegs which prevent the earth from shifting===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
Modern geology has discovered that large plates in the crust of the earth are responsible for the formation of mountains. Called plate tectonics, the slow movement of these massive plates meet and the pressure between them pushes up the crust, forming mountains while also causing earthquakes and faults in the Earth's surface. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other. The Qur'an, by contrast, holds that mountains are like pegs in the ground, stabilizing the Earth which would shake without them. Moreover, there are various ways in which mountains can form, not all of which involve a thickening of the continental crust beneath them which some attempt to compare as peg-like (see main article).
Modern geology has discovered that large plates in the crust of the earth are responsible for the formation of mountains. Called plate tectonics, the slow movement of these massive plates meet and the pressure between them pushes up the crust, forming mountains while also causing earthquakes and faults in the Earth's surface. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other. The Qur'an, by contrast, holds that mountains are like pegs in the ground, stabilizing the Earth which would shift without them (interpreted by modern Islamic scholars as a reference to earthquakes). Moreover, there are various ways in which mountains can form, not all of which involve a thickening of the continental crust beneath them, which some attempt to compare as peg-like (see main article for details).


In early or pre-Islamic poetry mountains are mentioned in terms of the earth as a whole shifting/convulsing (see main article). This seems to support the more straightforward reading of the verses - that Allah's creation of mountains to prevent the earth shifting/convulsing (tamīda<ref>تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref>) does not refer to earthquakes, which have occured throughout history including in Muhammad's era, but to a movement of the entire earth.
In early or pre-Islamic poetry mountains are mentioned in terms of the earth as a whole shifting/convulsing. This seems to support a more straightforward reading of the verses, backed also by a hadith - that Allah's creation of mountains to prevent the earth shifting/convulsing (tamīda<ref>تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref>) does not refer to earthquakes, which have occured throughout history including in Muhammad's era, but to a movement of the entire earth (see main article for details).


{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
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===Massive wall of iron===
===Massive wall of iron===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
The Qur'an presents a version of the Syrian legend of Alexander the Great as a great king who helps a tribe of people build a massive wall of iron between two mountains. The Quran then states, along with the hadith, that this wall and the tribes it traps will remain in place until the Day of Judgement.  Modern satellites and near comprehensive exploration of the Earth's surface, however, have yet to reveal any trace of such massive structure.
The Qur'an presents a version of the Syrian legend of Alexander the Great as a great king who helps a tribe of people build a massive wall of iron between two mountains. The Quran then states, along with the hadith, that this wall and the tribes it traps will remain in place until the Day of Judgement.  Modern satellites and near comprehensive exploration of the Earth's surface, however, have yet to reveal any trace of such massive structure.


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===Noah's ark holding every species===
===Noah's ark holding every species===


Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Modern science has revealed, however, that there are over 2.1 million types of species identified including penguins, polar bears, koala bears, and kangaroos discovered and named,<ref>[https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there#:~:text=Species%20that%20we%20have%20identified,million%20species%20on%20the%20planet. https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there#:~:text=Species%20that%20we%20have%20identified,million%20species%20on%20the%20planet.]</ref> and there are an estimated 8.7 million in total<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110823180459.htm#:~:text=Summary%3A,on%20a%20new%20analytical%20technique. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110823180459.htm#:~:text=Summary%3A,on%20a%20new%20analytical%20technique.]</ref> with many not yet discovered, that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets. This includes over a million identified insects, 110,000 arachnids, 11,000 birds, 11,000 reptiles and 6,500 mammals.<ref>https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there</ref>
Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Modern science has, however, revealed over 2.1 million species identified so far across all taxonomic groups. This includes over a million identified insect species, 110,000 arachnids, 11,000 birds, 11,000 reptiles and 6,500 mammals that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets, while a widely cited estimate for the total number of terrestrial species including those as yet undiscovered is 6.5 million.<ref>[https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there#:~:text=Species%20that%20we%20have%20identified,million%20species%20on%20the%20planet How many species are there?] - Our World in Data website</ref>


These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.
These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.
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