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Scientific Errors in the Quran: Difference between revisions
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{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One}} | {{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One}} | ||
In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular legend | In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac legend]] from the 6th or early 7th century in which a man called Dhu'l-Qarnayn visits the places where the sun sets and rises. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}| | ||
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Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }} | Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }} | ||
Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" or to | Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" and "the east", or to spots "at the time" when the sun set and rose and not the places where it actually did so. However, these alternative interpretations are severely undermined by the [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One#First_interpretation:_He_reached_the_west_and_east|context and Arabic words used in these verses]], which instead point to physical locations where the sun did its setting and rising. An abundance of evidence from poems, hadiths and Quranic commentaries show that the early Muslims understood the verse in this straightforward way. | ||
===Earth and heavens created in six days=== | ===Earth and heavens created in six days=== | ||
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Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above). | Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above). | ||
Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible (which in the Greek version stated "The heaven was made like smoke [καπνός]") to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref> | |||
===Seven Earths=== | ===Seven Earths=== | ||
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}} | {{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}} | ||
The Quran states that there exist seven earths. Academic scholarship has noted that this concept of seven earths, along with seven heavens, was present in the near east in the first millennia BCE and CE (see [[Cosmology of the Quran]]). | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}| | ||
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Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} and {{Quran|67|5}} state that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]]. | Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} and {{Quran|67|5}} state that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]]. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}} | ||
===Meteors as stars fired at devils=== | ===Meteors as stars fired at devils=== | ||
{{Main|Shooting Stars in the Quran|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}} | {{Main|Shooting Stars in the Quran|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}} | ||
The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ) | The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ), lamps (''masabih'' مَصَٰبِيحَ) and great stars/constellations/zodiac signs (''burūj'' بُرُوجًا) adorn the heavens and guard against devils. | ||
The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky. | The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky. | ||
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The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref> | The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref> | ||
A hadith confirms that the 'pursuant flames / missiles' in the two verses were understood to mean what we now know are visible meteors. {{Muslim|26|5538}} and {{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3224}} recount an occasion when Muhammad and his companions saw a shooting star at night. He explains to his companions that angels throw these at Jinn when they try to steal information about Allah's commands passed down through the heavens. | |||
Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}. | Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}. | ||
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If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling. | If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling. | ||
=== The locations of the stars === | |||
The Quran swears on the places where the stars settings/positions/locations (''mawāqiʿi'')<ref>[https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9/#google_vignette موقع] - Almaany dictionary entry</ref> of the stars in Q56:75. Many pre-modern people believed stars were fixed in place,<ref>Pedersen, Olaf (1974). ''Early physics and astronomy : a historical introduction''. Pihl, Mogens. London: MacDonald and Janes. pp. 65–67. ISBN <bdi>0-356-04122-0</bdi>. OCLC 1094297.</ref> as did ancient Arabs as found in pre-Islamic poetry.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (pp. 166-167). Yale University Press. | |||
''The scattering of the stars alters the ancient Arab cosmic conception, according to which the stars—as perceived by the poet who stays awake at night—appear as if fixed by ropes; see Imruʾ l-Qays, Mu ʿallaqa, v. 47: fa-yā laka min laylin ka-anna nujūmahū / bi-kulli mughāri l-fatli shuddat bi-yadhbulī jandalī (“What a night—as if the stars are held by ropes pulled tight to Mount Yadhbul”; cf. the slightly divergent text in SEAP, 1082).''</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|56|75}}|I swear by the locations of the stars.}} | |||
In reality stars don't have fixed settings as they are constantly orbiting e.g. black holes and other stars - they just appear that way from Earth as they are so far away.<ref>''[https://www.wtamu.edu/~cbaird/sq/2013/10/16/why-are-all-the-stars-fixed-in-space/ Why are all the stars fixed in space?]'' Science Questions with Surprising Answers. West Texas A& University Website. Dr Christopher S. Baird. Physics professor at West Texas A&M University. 2013</ref> The verse must be referring to actual stars, as these also 'fall and scatter' ({{Quran|81|2}} and {{Quran|82|2}}) on judgement day, and are thrown at spying jinn; Quran 37:6-10, Quran 67:5, Quran 15:16-18 (''see: [[Shooting Stars in the Quran]])''. However we aren't even seeing the locations of the stars (which the Quran is telling it's audience it is swearing on), but rather light which is centuries to millions of years old<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-as-a-cosmic-time-machine.html#:~:text=The%20Sun%20is%2093%20million,it%20was%208%20minutes%20ago ''Light as a Cosmic Time Machine.''] Andrew Fraknoi. PBS</ref> so the star has since moved away from that 'position', and is constantly orbiting. | |||
Muslims may take a non-literal view of the verse such as arguing it is from a human perspective. But critics argue the Quran could simply have sworn on e.g. the stars (al-nujūm) themselves rather than the literal positions of the stars, to avoid bringing in a concept that would become scientifically outdated as our knowledge of the universe has increased - and adds no value/serves no purpose in the Quran. | |||
===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon=== | ===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon=== | ||
{{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}} | {{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}} | ||
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}}Some modern Islamic scholars and academic scholars interpret the moon splitting verse as an eschatological prophecy. One reason is that the traditional interpretation contradicts the repeated claims that Muhammad was not sent with miracles, but only to warn people with the message (see also {{Quran|6|109}} and {{Quran|11|12}}): | }}Some modern Islamic scholars and academic scholars interpret the moon splitting verse as an eschatological prophecy. One reason is that the traditional interpretation contradicts the repeated claims that Muhammad was not sent with miracles, but only to warn people with the message (see also {{Quran|6|109}} and {{Quran|11|12}}): | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|The unbelievers say, "Why has God not sent him, (Muhammad), some miracles." (Muhammad), you are only a warner. For every nation there is a guide.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|The unbelievers say, "Why has God not sent him, (Muhammad), some miracles." (Muhammad), you are only a warner. For every nation there is a guide.}} | ||
===Nature of the moon's light=== | ===Nature of the moon's light=== | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}| | ||
Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}} | Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}}Furthermore, an almost perfect opportunity to explain that the moons light is not it's own, but rather the sun's shining of it's surface, comes when Muhammad is asked about the phases of the moon. The 'phases/new moons' are caused by the sun only illuminating half of the moon at a time, and as the moon orbits the Earth, at some points the sunlit part of the moon can be seen from the Earth, and at other points, we can only see the parts of the Moon that are in shadow.<ref>See: ''[https://science.nasa.gov/moon/lunar-phases-and-eclipses/ NASA - Lunar Phases and Eclipses]'' for an explanation of the phenomena.</ref> | ||
Muhammad gives a response. Instead of any explanation which could verify itself scientifically, we are told it's for timekeeping and to mark when pilgrimage begins (i.e., something that was already in use)<ref>For example, see discussions on the pre-Islamic calendar, noting use of the moon and it's links to pilgrimage. | |||
Ioh, H. (2014). ''[https://brill.com/view/journals/arab/61/5/article-p471_1.xml The Calendar in Pre-Islamic Mecca]''. ''Arabica'', ''61''(5), 471-513. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341319</nowiki> | |||
[https://www.academia.edu/114436617/The_Arabian_Calendar_and_an_Archeoastronomical_Investigation_of_the_Pre_Islamic_Pilgrimage_Shrines_at_Mecca ''The Arabian Calendar and an Archeoastronomical Investigation of the Pre-Islamic Pilgrimage Shrines at Mecca.''] Hisham Abad. | |||
</ref>. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|189}}|<b>(Muhammad), they ask you about the different phases of the moon. Tell them that they are there to indicate to people the phases of time and the pilgrimage season.</b> It is not a righteous act to enter houses from the back. Righteousness is to be pious and enter the houses from the front door. Have fear of God so that perhaps you will have lasting happiness.}} | |||
===The entire heaven has a night and day=== | ===The entire heaven has a night and day=== | ||
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The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above). | The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above). | ||
This is particularly problematic for apologists that claim the closest sky/heaven is the visible universe (based off those verses that it is adorned with stars). | |||
==== Day and night as veils pulled across the heavens, not from the Sun or the Earths movement ==== | |||
As the above states, night and day are a property of the sky/heavens rather than a specific phenomena only occurring almost entirely on the surface of the Earth; as one side of it moves (both via rotation on it's own axis and via the movement as it orbits the sun) to face away from the sun. The Qur'ans description extends to the night covering/veiling the day ({{Quran|7|54}}) which then follows the night. And god 'strips' the night of the day ({{Quran|36|37}}). | |||
In Q6:96 and Q10:5, we are told that the sun and moon are lights created for timekeeping, with both being mentioned in the same way - but not once is the main function of the sun for humans listed; i.e. as the actual source of daylight. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|[He is] the cleaver of daybreak and has made the night for rest and the sun and moon for calculation. That is the determination of the Exalted in Might, the Knowing.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|It is He who made the sun a radiance and the moon a light, and ordained its phases that you might know the number of years and the calculation [of time]. Allah did not create all that except with justice. He elaborates the signs for a people who have knowledge.}} | |||
On top of this the day and night are swimming in orbit themselves, along with the sun and the moon in Q21:33 and Q36:40, where they are mentioned as distinct entities. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He who created the night and the day, the sun and the moon, each swimming in an orbit.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|Neither can the sun overtake the moon, nor the night outpace the day: Each of them keeps coursing in its orbit.}} | |||
And finally that the daylight actually 'reveals' the sun, and the night 'enshrouds' it, which makes no sense as daylight is solely from the sun, and night is simply a result of it's absence on one side of the Earths surface. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|91|1-4}}|By the sun and its brightness, | |||
And [by] the moon when it follows it, by the day when it reveals it, | |||
And [by] the night when it covers it | |||
Which the day reveals the sun, and the night enshrouds it}} | |||
This clear separation of the sun (and moon) as a light for timekeeping that is separate from the 'veils/covers' of day and night 'swimming in orbit' has lead to some classical commentators to believe that the day is not caused by the sun at all, but is rather a totally separate event in the sky.<ref>For example, the famous tafsir '''al-Tafsir al-Kabi''r ' of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1209) (often referred to as Al-Razi), he explains on his [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=7&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&Page=22&Size=1&LanguageId=1 ''commentary on Verse 7:54''], that the sun has two types of movements; one in a day, and one in a year. ''He says that night and day, however, are not due to the movement of the sun, but rather to the movement of the great orb/sky which is also Allah's throne''. Angels are said to separately move the heavenly bodies.</ref> | |||
===The sky/heaven as a ceiling=== | ===The sky/heaven as a ceiling=== | ||
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The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. That is, even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth. | The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. That is, even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth. | ||
Similarly the stars are said to disperse/scatter (intatharat انْتَثَرَتْ) on judgement day, which classical commentaries have also linked to dispersing/falling on Earth,<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/82.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 82.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/82.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 82.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce). | |||
</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/82.1 Tafsir ibn Kathir Verse 82.2.]'' Ibn Kathir <abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 – 1373.</ref> along with the above verse 81:2.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/81.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 81.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/81.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 81.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|82|2}}|when the stars are scattered,}} | |||
===The cause of shadows changing length=== | ===The cause of shadows changing length=== | ||
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Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]]. | Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]]. | ||
Those who are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex intersex] (including those people with both male and female sexual organs and body types) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite hermaphrodites] of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy. | Those who are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex intersex] (including those people with both male and female sexual organs and body types) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite hermaphrodites] of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy. This has led to discriminatory rulings from Islamic scholars, not allowing those with ambiguous sexes to get married for example, due to the unknowingness of breaking a gender-based rule.<ref>See for example rulings from sheiks and scholars listed on IslamQA in response to the question: ''[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/114670/ruling-on-marrying-a-man-who-is-intersex-or-impotent-and-the-difference-between-them Ruling on marrying a man who is intersex or impotent, and the difference between them]'' </ref> | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}| | ||
And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }} | And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }} | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}| | ||
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }} | Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }}{{Quote|{{Quran|92|3}}|by Him who created the male and the female:}}{{Quote|{{Quran|75|39}}|Then He made of him two kinds, the male and the female.}} | ||
===Fetus in three layers of darkness=== | ===Fetus in three layers of darkness=== | ||
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He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?}} | He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?}} | ||
===Functions of the heart=== | ===Functions of the heart (cardiocentrism)=== | ||
The Quran describes the literal heart as a locus of contemplation and thought, an ancient concept known as [[w:Cardiocentric hypothesis|cardiocentrism]]. The concept of the heart as the seat of the intellect, spiritual contemplation, and the eye of the heart/mind/soul was a common one in East-Syriac Christianity in the centuries before Islam, seen in the writings for example of Pseudo-Macarius and Ephrem, in contrast to scholars more closely influenced by Greek philosophy which associated the mind with the brain. | The Quran describes the literal heart as a locus of contemplation and thought, an ancient concept known as [[w:Cardiocentric hypothesis|cardiocentrism]], as opposed to the modern scientific understanding of our brain controlling thought, memory and emotion (alongside other physical processes).<ref>''[https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works.]'' Brain, Nerves and Spine. Home. Health. Conditions and Diseases. Johns Hopkins Medicine.</ref> | ||
The concept of the heart as the seat of the intellect, spiritual contemplation, and the eye of the heart/mind/soul was a common one in East-Syriac Christianity in the centuries before Islam, seen in the writings for example of Pseudo-Macarius, Issac of Nineveh, and Ephrem,<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), ''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110794083/html?lang=en Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background]'', Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 95 -102</ref> in contrast to certain scholars more closely influenced by Greek philosophy which associated the mind with the brain (encephalocentrism).<ref>Enrico Crivellato, Domenico Ribatti, ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036192300600298X Soul, mind, brain: Greek philosophy and the birth of neuroscience]'', Brain Research Bulletin, Volume 71, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 327-336, ISSN 0361-9230, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.09.020.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036192300600298X)</nowiki></ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}} | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place upon their hearts veils lest they should understand it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }} | {{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place upon their hearts veils lest they should <b>understand</b> it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }} | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their breasts that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the breasts (of men). }} | {{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their <b>breasts</b> that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the <b>breasts</b> (of men). }}''See also the below: [[Scientific Errors in the Quran#The soul in the literal heart]]'' | ||
===Characteristics of Milk=== | ===Characteristics of Milk=== | ||
The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are, however, not located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Sometimes cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before it can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans [[w:Lactose_intolerance|lactose intolerant]], especially in some regions of the world, and are unable to digest much milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, | The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are, however, not located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Sometimes cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before it can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans [[w:Lactose_intolerance|lactose intolerant]], especially in some regions of the world, and are unable to digest much milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhoea, nausea, or vomiting. This occurs in adults who lack genes for lactase enzyme persistance which maintains lactose tolerance beyond childhood and is a relatively recent evolutionary development. These realities appear to challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable' to anyone who drinks it. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}| | ||
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The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]. | The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}} | {{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}} | ||
Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]]. | Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]]. | ||
===Massive wall of iron built to trap Gog and Magog until judgement day=== | |||
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}} | |||
The Qur'an states that two dangerous tribes, Gog and Magog, were trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhu'l-Qarnayn and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|96-101}}|Bring me pieces of iron!’ When he had levelled up between the flanks, he said, ‘Blow!’ When he had turned it into fire, he said, ‘Bring me molten copper to pour over it.’ | |||
So they could neither scale it, nor could they make a hole in it. He said, ‘This is a mercy from my Lord. But when the promise of my Lord is fulfilled, He will level it; and my Lord’s promise is true.’ | |||
That day We shall let them surge over one another, the Trumpet will be blown, and We shall gather them all, and on that day We shall bring hell into view visibly for the faithless. | |||
Those whose eyes were blind to My remembrance and who could not hear.}} | |||
The trumpet blowing in {{Quran|18|99}} is referred to many other times in the Qur'an as happening on judgement day (see {{Quran|27|87}}, {{Quran|69|13}} and {{Quran|39|68}}), with the word 'yawm' يوم being used in Q18:99 and 18:100, meaning on that ''day''<ref>[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85?cat=50 Lane's Lexicon dictionary - يوم]</ref> specifically. Another passage confirms that this wall was supposedly still intact and that its future opening will be associated with other apocalyptic events. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|95-97}}|But there is a ban on any population which We have destroyed: that they shall not return, | |||
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill. | |||
Then will the true promise draw nigh (of fulfilment): then behold! the eyes of the Unbelievers will fixedly stare in horror: "Ah! Woe to us! we were indeed heedless of this; nay, we truly did wrong!"}} | |||
===Mary as part of the Trinity=== | ===Mary as part of the Trinity=== | ||
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Geographically, the Coptic land of Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus, most Arabs were aware of the preservation method applied by the ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs. Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence, salt in the body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in the dead sea). There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved in this way. The Qur'an, by contrast, only speaks of "Pharaoh" (''Firaun'') singularly, as a proper noun without the definite article, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs. | Geographically, the Coptic land of Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus, most Arabs were aware of the preservation method applied by the ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs. Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence, salt in the body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in the dead sea). There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved in this way. The Qur'an, by contrast, only speaks of "Pharaoh" (''Firaun'') singularly, as a proper noun without the definite article, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|10| | {{Quote|{{Quran|10|90}}|We took the Children of Israel across the sea: Pharaoh and his hosts followed them in insolence and spite. At length, when overwhelmed with the flood, he said: "I believe that there is no god except Him Whom the Children of Israel believe in: I am of those who submit (to Allah in Islam)."}} | ||
===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh=== | ===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh=== | ||
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===Noah's worldwide flood=== | ===Noah's worldwide flood=== | ||
''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's worldwide flood|Historical Errors in the Quran - Noah's worldwide flood]]'' | |||
The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark. | The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark. | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}} | {{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}} | ||
=== The testimony of a woman is worth half of a man's === | |||
''Main Articles: [[Islam and Women|Islam and Women - WikiIslam]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]'' | |||
There is no proof that women lie more than men, in fact to the contrary there is research showing that while dishonesty or intelligence is not caused by the sex of a person, certain studies suggest that men tend to lie more on average as a group than women.<ref>''[https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923 Frontiers | Face-to-Face Lying: Gender and Motivation to Deceive (frontiersin.org)]''. Pekka Santtila. Judee K Burgoon. Norah E. Dunbar. 2022. Front. Psychol., 22 March 2022 Sec. Forensic and Legal Psychology Volume 13 - 2022 | <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923</nowiki> | |||
This research article written and reviewed by three university professors covers previous academic studies on this topic, they quote e.g. a meta-analysis on honesty where men were 4% more dishonest than women (Gerlach et al., 2019), and see the General Discussion section for an overview of their findings (confirming men lie more on average) on this topic and it's nuances. </ref> Men also commit crime in much higher rates than women across the world,<ref>''[https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/gender-and-crime Gender and Crime | Encyclopedia.com].'' Gender and Crime. Law. Legal and political magazines. | |||
Article written by Professors Darrell Steffensmeier and Emilie Allan.</ref> and this is not just limited to violent crime.<ref>E.g. Fraud: [https://www.statista.com/statistics/461354/distribution-of-perpetrators-of-fraud-cases-by-gender/ ''Distribution of perpetrators of fraud cases worldwide in 2020 and 2021, by gender'']. Statica. Einar H. Dyvik, Aug 5, 2022. | |||
And white collar crime inc. corporate fraud: [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-do-men-commit-more-crimes-than-women-prof-k-jaishankar-ps45c ''Why do men commit more crimes than women?''] Prof (Dr.) K Jaishankar. Principal Director & Professor of Criminology - IIJPS. Jan 13 2024.</ref> Women are also not less intelligent than men.<ref>E.g. There is no difference between men and women in general intelligence: Hunt, Earl B. (2010). [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Human_Intelligence/DwO4TtKAiCoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA389&printsec=frontcover ''Human Intelligence''.] Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN <bdi>978-1139495110</bdi>. | |||
Similarly ''<nowiki/>'"there are both differences and similarities in the cognitive abilities of women and men, but there is no data-based rationale to support the idea that either is the smarter or superior sex."''' Halpern, Diane F. (2001). "[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Women_and_Gender_Two_Vol/guzbKF8vTVcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA964&printsec=frontcover ''Sex Difference Research – Cognitive Abilities'']". In Worell, Judith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Women and Gender. Elsevier Science. p. 964. <nowiki>ISBN 0080548490</nowiki>. ''For a summary see pp 963 - 967.'' | |||
Women consistently beat men on average in grades at school: [https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/09/why-girls-get-better-grades-than-boys-do/380318/ ''Why Girls Tend to Get Better Grades Than Boys Do''] - The Atlantic. Education. Enrico Gnaulati. 2014 | |||
</ref> Yet the Quran tells us the testimony of a women is worth half of a man's in a legal context (and one can easily take other non-legal inferences from this verse). | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|282}}|O you who have faith! When you contract a loan for a specified term, write it down. Let a writer write with honesty between you, and let not the writer refuse to write as Allah has taught him. So let him write, and let the one who incurs the debt dictate, and let him be wary of Allah, his Lord, and not diminish anything from it. But if the debtor be feeble-minded, or weak, or incapable of dictating himself, then let his guardian dictate with honesty,<b> and take as witness two witnesses from your men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women—from those whom you approve as witnesses—so that if one of the two defaults the other will remind her.</b> The witnesses must not refuse when they are called, and do not consider it wearisome to write it down, whether it be a big or small sum, [as a loan lent] until its term. That is more just with Allah and more upright in respect to testimony, and the likeliest way to avoid doubt, unless it is an on-the-spot deal you transact between yourselves, in which case there is no sin upon you not to write it. Take witnesses when you make a deal, and let no harm be done to the writer or witness, and if you did that, it would be sinful of you. Be wary of Allah and Allah will teach you, and Allah has knowledge of all things.}} | |||
While apologists may argue this shows that this is a command from God, and so human ideas of logic or fairness may not apply, making it not an 'error', critics content that this misogynistic view of women is evidence of it's human authorship (the reason for this is further provided by Muhammad in {{Bukhari|1|6|301}}, in that women are deficient in intelligence and religion, and can lead even cautious men astray (which is also why the majority of inhabitants of hell are women)), from a highly patriarchal society of 7th century Arabia, rather than all-knowing and just God. | |||
==Miracles and myths== | ==Miracles and myths== | ||
While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section | While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Quran was composed. | ||
===Humans turned apes=== | ===Humans turned apes=== | ||
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The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing. | The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing. | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}} | ||
===Supernatural food=== | ===Supernatural food=== | ||
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Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }} | Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }} | ||
===The existence of Jinn=== | ===The existence and attributes of Jinn=== | ||
{{Main|Jinn}} | {{Main|Jinn}} | ||
The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us and | The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us. In the [[Qur'an]], satan/devil(s) are also jinn ({{Quran|18|50}}), which like humans are sent prophets and have (at least some: ''see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination]]'') free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind ({{Quran|6|130}}). They can interact with us ({{Quran|6|128}}) and even possess humans ({{Quran|2|275}}) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things ({{Quran|18|63}}). As well as create buildings/structures ({{Quran|34|12-13}}). There is no evidence that these exist. | ||
{{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}} | {{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}} | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}| | ||
And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him}} | And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him}} | ||
=== The soul in the literal heart === | |||
Alongside the outdated idea of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiocentric_hypothesis cardiocentrism] (''see the above: [[Scientific Errors in the Quran#Functions of the heart]]''), where the heart was believed to be responsible for thought as opposed to the brain, we see this imagery furthered as the heart being the literal seat of the mythical soul in the body, that rises to the throat at death. | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|75|26}}|Yes, when the soul reaches to the clavicles}}{{Quote|{{Quran|56|83}}|Then why not when it reaches the throat,}} | |||
As Islamic scholar Angelika Neuwirth notes: | |||
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (p. 257). Yale University Press.|The conception that the soul rises up to the clavicle bone—see the related image in the somewhat later sura 56:83: idhā balaghati l-ḥulqūm (“when it reaches up to the throat”)—presupposes an analogy between soul (nafs) and heart (qalb). In Q 33:10 there is mention of the rising up of the heart into the throat in a situation of fear (see also Q 40:18, cf. on this Seidensticker 1992: 41).}}{{Quote|{{Quran|40|18}}|Warn them of the Approaching Day, when the hearts will be at the throats, choking with suppressed agony, [and] the wrongdoers will have no sympathizer, nor any intercessor who might be heard.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|33|10}}|[Remember] when they came at you from above you and from below you, and when eyes shifted [in fear], and hearts reached the throats and you assumed about Allah [various] assumptions.}} | |||
One has to wonder how [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/heart-transplant/ heart transplants] work in this situation. | |||
==Other== | ==Other== | ||