History of Islamic Thought: Difference between revisions

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 That early controversy was known as ''al Mihna''. It concerned the ontological status of the Quran. While Allah was eternal (qadim), the world was his temporal creation, and the Quran was indentified with his speech (kalam), one of his divine attributes. The mainstream view was therefore that the Quran was uncreated. However, apparently in agreement with the Mu'tazila view, Caliph al Ma'mun in 833 CE issued an edict that jurists and scholars must testify that the Quran was created, citing {{Quran|4|33}} as evidence. Within a few decades and faced with widespread discontent, Caliph al Mutawakkil revoked the Mihna persecution and so the uncreated argument won the day.<ref>Fitzroy Morrissey, ''A short history of Islamic thought'', pp. 31-32, 50</ref>
-Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', p. 64</ref> Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly by arguing that the Qur'an was uncreated, that Allah would be seen be believers on the day of resurrection (since his attributes were not meant metaphorically, even if we cannot understand how that is so). He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>
+Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate. Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly on three major issues. He argued that the Qur'an was uncreated. He disagreed with their metaphorical interpretation of the divine attributes (God's 'hands' are his blessing, God's 'eyes' are his knowledge etc.<ref>[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052 Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila] - Muslimphilosophy.com</ref>), rather they are real yet unlike a human body and cannot be understood by human reason. He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>
 ===Shi'a Sources of Knowledge===
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 In the Indian sub-continent Mawdudi (d. 1979) too advocated Islamism, drawing on the Khalifat movement and founding his own Jama'at-i Islami movement. He saw the need for divine government with strict rules on gender segregation, limited freedoms for non-Muslims and the death penalty for apostasy. He extended the term ''jahiliyya'' (the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) to the present day, applying it to Sufis, Shi'a and modern secular ideologies. He wanted a total revolutionary break from the medieval Islamic past and its society.
-Meanwhile, in 1940s Egypt Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966), was enraged by Imperialism, Zionism and poverty in Egyptian, and felt repelled after visting America by what he saw as the moral and spiritual bankrupcy of the West. He turned to Islamism, and blamed Imperialism, West-pleasing scholars, Western orientalists, communists, and in his view behind them all, the Jews. Drawn to the Muslim brotherhood as the best defence against "Crusaders", and inspired by Mawdudi, Qutb wrote from prison a commentary on the Quran, interpreting it in a revolutionary and political way. He took up a starkly dualistic vision of Islam and jahiliyya, with even so-called Muslim societies sunk in the latter. Secular slogans must be abandoned and an Islamic vanguard established, a solution that would require violent jihad, including to overthrow the Egyptian state. For this, he was executed by the Egyptian ruler Nasser.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 198-202</ref>
+Meanwhile, in 1940s Egypt Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966), was enraged by Imperialism, Zionism and poverty in Egypt, and felt repelled after visting America by what he saw as the moral and spiritual bankrupcy of the West. He turned to Islamism, and blamed Imperialism, West-pleasing scholars, Western orientalists, communists, and in his view behind them all, the Jews. Drawn to the Muslim brotherhood as the best defence against "Crusaders", and inspired by Mawdudi, Qutb wrote from prison a commentary on the Quran, interpreting it in a revolutionary and political way. He took up a starkly dualistic vision of Islam and jahiliyya, with even so-called Muslim societies sunk in the latter. Secular slogans must be abandoned and an Islamic vanguard established, a solution that would require violent jihad, including to overthrow the Egyptian state. For this, he was executed by the Egyptian ruler Nasser.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 198-202</ref>
 In 1979, Islamism took hold in Shi'a Iran, where the new Republic's constitution proclaimed its basis on the exclusive sovereignty of Allah. From the 1940s Khomeini (d. 1989) wrote on Islamist themes about the overthrow of the government and by the 1960s was known as an ''Ayatollah'' (literally, 'sign of God') and ''Marja' al-Taqlid'' (source of emulation), the top scholarly titles in Twelver Shi'ism. He denounced the Iranian state for its US-inspired reform attempts and favourable treatment of Americans and Israel. Echoing Sunni Islamists, he taught that Jews, Crusaders, Imperialists and Orientalists had distorted Muslims' view of their own religion. Distinctly Shia, however, was his view that until the twelfth Imam returns, political authority had passed to the jurists to lead the people in defeating external enemies, establishing and governing the Islamic state.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 203-205</ref>
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 According to Morrisey (writing in 2022), three broad tendencies define contemporary Islam: Neo-traditionalists represented by the scholars (Ulema) graduating from institutions like the prestigious al-Azhar University in Cairo, the Shi'i seminaries, or the Indonesian Nahdlatul Ulama, seek continuity with the traditional schools of legal thought and theology, and the Sufi orders. For them, Islam is a theological doctrine, a moral code, and spritual source, and is not conditional on establishing political government. Loyalty and patriotism towards the modern nation-state that grants them freedom of worship is advocated and a virtue. They are willing to make common inter-faith cause in their concern about a spiritual crisis of modernity and tend to be socially conservative, while seeing Islam as tolerant and moderate.
-Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. Like some classical scholars (see [[Jihad in Islamic Law]]) these groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran.
+Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. These groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran ([[Jihad in Islamic Law|like some classical scholars]]).
-Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and hadiths which in their view were often unjustified and mistaken). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>
+Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and the authenticity of hadiths). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>
 ==See Also==