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===The Caliphate of Uthman=== | ===The Caliphate of Uthman=== | ||
Uthman ibn Affan, a son-in-law of Muhammad from the aristocratic Umayya clan,<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 254}}.</ref> was elected the third caliph.<ref>{{Tabari|14|p. 95}}</ref> Aisha, who was now 30, had no ties of kinship or friendship with him. He began his reign by increasing the salaries of his officials<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 7}}.</ref> and continued to make extravagant gifts to his personal friends.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> Uthman was well-liked in the early years, for “he treated them with leniency and was attached to them.”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> As Medina prospered under his rule, “the fatness of men reached its height,” and “lax” people could be seen betting on flying pigeons and shooting with crossbows – until Uthman cut the wings of the pigeons and broke the bows.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> In 652 he standardised the Qur’an and burnt variant copies.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170. | Uthman ibn Affan, a son-in-law of Muhammad from the aristocratic Umayya clan,<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 254}}.</ref> was elected the third caliph.<ref>{{Tabari|14|p. 95}}</ref> Aisha, who was now 30, had no ties of kinship or friendship with him. He began his reign by increasing the salaries of his officials<ref>{{Tabari|15|p. 7}}.</ref> and continued to make extravagant gifts to his personal friends.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> Uthman was well-liked in the early years, for “he treated them with leniency and was attached to them.”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 161.</ref> As Medina prospered under his rule, “the fatness of men reached its height,” and “lax” people could be seen betting on flying pigeons and shooting with crossbows – until Uthman cut the wings of the pigeons and broke the bows.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> In 652 he standardised the Qur’an and burnt variant copies.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 170.</ref> Above all, Uthman continued the policy of military conquest, making forays into Cyprus and Spain, and adding the remaining provinces of North Africa, Anatolia (modern Turkey), Persia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, most of modern Afghanistan and parts of western India (modern Pakistan) to the Islamic empire.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-161.</ref> None of this required help from Aisha. | ||
Aisha still needed permission to leave Medina. Uthman eventually agreed to escort Muhammad's widows on a second ''Hajj'', and once again, “we were kept well out of sight.”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:147.</ref> It is not recorded that Aisha left Medina again until 656. Uthman expanded the mosque at Medina to a size of about 67m x 71m by buying up most of the adjoining buildings, though not the houses of Muhammad’s widows. Aisha therefore exchanged her old neighbours for carved stone walls, stone pillars and a teakwood roof.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-160.</ref> | Aisha still needed permission to leave Medina. Uthman eventually agreed to escort Muhammad's widows on a second ''Hajj'', and once again, “we were kept well out of sight.”<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:147.</ref> It is not recorded that Aisha left Medina again until 656. Uthman expanded the mosque at Medina to a size of about 67m x 71m by buying up most of the adjoining buildings, though not the houses of Muhammad’s widows. Aisha therefore exchanged her old neighbours for carved stone walls, stone pillars and a teakwood roof.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 159-160.</ref> | ||
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===The Caliphate of Muaawiya=== | ===The Caliphate of Muaawiya=== | ||
Muaawiya succeeded Ali as caliph in January 661.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 178, 197.</ref> He was criticised for his nepotism and for his toleration of silk, stringed instruments and alcohol.<ref>{{Tabari|18|p. 154}}.</ref> He was not criticised for being “the first who introduced eunuchs into his service,”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 21.</ref> i.e., who ordered the castration of his slaves. He continued the Islamic conquests, consolidating gains in Persia and modern Afghanistan and adding Sudan to the empire.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 198-199.</ref> | Muaawiya succeeded Ali as caliph in January 661.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 178, 197.</ref> He was praised, even by his enemies, for his political acumen, justice and restraint.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 197-198.</ref> He was criticised for his nepotism and for his toleration of silk, stringed instruments and alcohol.<ref>{{Tabari|18|p. 154}}.</ref> He was not criticised for being “the first who introduced eunuchs into his service,”<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti p. 21.</ref> i.e., who ordered the castration of his slaves. He continued the Islamic conquests, consolidating gains in Persia and modern Afghanistan and adding Sudan to the empire.<ref>Jarrett/Suyuti pp. 198-199.</ref> | ||
Muaawiya had no reason to dislike Aisha, who had been his enemy’s enemy. He did not even need to take active steps to “keep her out of politics” by maintaining her house-arrest, for he moved the capital of the Islamic empire to Damascus,<ref>Muir (1924) p. 291.</ref> so the great affairs of state no longer occurred on Aisha’s doorstep in the mosque at Medina. Therefore Muaawiya had nothing to lose by showing Aisha, at least superficially, the deference due to the foremost Mother of the Faithful. He requested her, “Write a letter to advise me, and do not overburden me.” Aisha’s polite reply deliberately avoided all political controversy. | Muaawiya had no reason to dislike Aisha, who had been his enemy’s enemy. He did not even need to take active steps to “keep her out of politics” by maintaining her house-arrest, for he moved the capital of the Islamic empire to Damascus,<ref>Muir (1924) p. 291.</ref> so the great affairs of state no longer occurred on Aisha’s doorstep in the mosque at Medina. Therefore Muaawiya had nothing to lose by showing Aisha, at least superficially, the deference due to the foremost Mother of the Faithful. He requested her, “Write a letter to advise me, and do not overburden me.” Aisha’s polite reply deliberately avoided all political controversy. | ||