Embryology in the Quran: Difference between revisions

From WikiIslam, the online resource on Islam
Jump to navigation Jump to search
[checked revision][checked revision]
No edit summary
 
(100 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
[[File:Fetus.jpg|right|thumb|248px|]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}
This article analyzes the apologetic claim that [[Qur'an|Qur'anic]] [[embryology]] is [[Islam and Science|scientifically]] accurate.
[[File:Human Embryo.jpg|thumb|Photo of Human Embryo (7 weeks)]]
The concept of '''Embryology in the Quran''' claims that a scientifically accurate account of embryological development is available in the [[Qur'an|Quran]]. [[Apologists]], Sheikhs, and the larger Muslim community regard the mention of embryological stages in the Quran to be a [[Islam and Science|scientific miracle]] of Islam and evidence of claims to its divine origin. However, critics claim the [[Ayat|verses]] to be scientifically inaccurate and influenced by Greek theories which had been available at the time.


==Introduction==
The apologetic interpretations of these verses began in earnest when books were published by non-Muslim medical experts Dr. [[Bucailleism|Maurice Bucaille]]<ref>Bucaille, M., ''La Bible, le Coran et la Science : Les Écritures Saintes examinées à la lumière des connaissances modernes'', Paris:Seghers, 1976, (ISBN 978-2221501535)</ref> and later by Dr. [[Dr. Keith Moore|Keith Moore]]<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983</ref><ref>Later, Dr. Moore wrote a similarly popularised article for an Islamic journal: <br>Dr. Moore, K., ''A Scientist's Interpretation of References to Embryology in the Qur'an'', Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 1986, vol.18(Jan-June):15-17</ref> (in a special edition of his book that was subtitled, "[[Dr. Keith Moore|With Islamic Additions]]", alongside his co-author Abdul Majeed al-Zindani, a [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] cleric). However, some critics believe Moore was only paying lip service to his hosts and investors, as he worked with the Embryology Committee of King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah.<ref>Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, ''The Developing Human With Islamic Additions'', 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983, page viii insert c.</ref> Moore's praise of Islamic claims have been repeated in talks by Dr. [[Zakir Naik]], [[Harun Yahya]], and other apologists. Critics, like Dr. P.Z. Myers, believe the Quranic verses that mention embryology are incomparable and unacceptable to scientific standards.<ref>Dr. P.Z. Myers ''[https://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/11/23/islamic-embryology-overblown-b Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash]'', Pharyngula blog - Scienceblogs.com, 2011, accessed 4 Jan 2019</ref>


The propagation of Qur'anic Embryology as a tool of [[w:Dawah|da'wah]] began in earnest when books were published by non-Muslim medical experts [[Dr.]] [[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions|Keith Moore]] (alongside his co-author Abdul Majeed al-Zindani, a "Specially Designated Global Terrorist"<ref name="Loyalist">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20100314033922/http://www.treasury.gov/press/releases/js1190.htm|2=2013-04-10}} United States Designates bin Laden Loyalist], United States Department of the Treasury, JS-1190, February 24, 2004</ref>) and Dr. [[Bucailleism|Maurice Bucaille]]. These claims are repeated by Dr. [[Zakir Naik]], [[Harun Yahya]] and many others. There is good evidence of Dr. Keith Moore's [[Dr. Keith Moore and the Islamic Additions#Moore.27s Current Views|lack of sincerity and competence]] to compare the Qur'an with contemporary science.  
Many have written about the remarkable similarities between Quranic embryology and that taught by [[w:Galen|Galen of Pergamon]]. Galen was a highly influential Greek physician (b. 130 CE), whose works were studied in Syria and Egypt during Muhammad's time<ref>Marshall Clagett, “Greek Science in Antiquity”, pp.180-181, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1955; Dover, 2001</ref>. Some of the most obvious links with Galen (and also with the Talmud) are in statements about the nutfah (نُطْفَةً) stage of embryology in the Quran, and even more so in the hadith. The article [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]] discusses this further. [[History of Embryology|Striking similarities]] exist between the other Quranic embryo stages and Galen too. However, while interesting and very probable, these influences cannot be proven for the Quran, and it is in any case unnecessary when examining the accuracy of the Quranic descriptions. This article will concentrate solely on apologetic claims made by Islamic [[Dawah|du'aah]] regarding the accuracy of Qur'anic embryology vis-a-vis modern embryology, and on criticisms concerning the validity of these claims.


Many have written about the remarkable similarities between Qur'anic embryology and that taught by Galen, the highly influential Greek physician (b. 130 CE), whose works were studied in Syria and Egypt during Muhammad's time<ref>Marshall Clagett, “Greek Science in Antiquity”, pp.180-181, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1955; Dover, 2001</ref>. Some of the most obvious links with Galen (and also with the Talmud) are in statements about the nutfah stage of embryology in the Qur'an, and even more so in the hadith. See the article [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]] for the compelling evidence. Striking similarities exist between the other Qur'anic embryo stages and Galen too. However, while interesting and very probable, these influences cannot be proven for the Qur'an, and it is in any case unnecessary when exposing the weaknesses in the Qur'anic descriptions. Thus this article will concentrate solely on showing that Qur'anic embryology is incorrect, and that Islamic websites and public figures make false, illogical or unproven assertions in its defence.
==Quranic terminology==
The Quran is written in Classical/Quranic [[Arabic]]. As such, not all terms are easily translatable from Modern Standard Arabic.<ref>"Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Arabic Emphatics and Gutturals". University of Wisconsin–Madison.


There are already [[Embryology in the Quran#External Links|many responses]] available. So here we will collate some of the best points, concentrating solely on the Qur'anic verses, because inclusion of the [[hadith]]s would clearly show up the [[Embryology in Islamic Scripture|unscientific nature of Qur'anic embryology]].
Bin-Muqbil, Musaed (2006). </ref> For clarification purposes:


==Summary of the Main Errors in Qur'anic Embryology==
#Nutfah (نُطْفَةً) - drop of semen<ref name="LLnutfah">نُطْفَةً nutfah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000288.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3034</ref>
#Alaqah (عَلَقَةً) - leech and certain creatures that cling and suck blood, or blood, thick blood or clotted blood<ref name="LLalaqah">عَلَقَةً alaqah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref>
#Mudghah (مُضْغَةً) - bite-sized morsel of flesh<ref name="LLmudghah">مُضْغَةً mudghah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000275.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3021</ref>
#'Itham (عِظَٰمًا) - bones, especially of the limbs<ref name="LLitham">عِظَٰمًا 'itham - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000372.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2087</ref>
#Kasawa(كَسَوَ) - clothed<ref name="LLkasawa">كَسَوَ kasawa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000254.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3000</ref>
#Lahm (لَحْمًا) - flesh<ref name="LLlahm">لَحْمًا lahm - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000262.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3008 and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000263.pdf page 3009]</ref>


The main errors can be summarised as follows and are further discussed in the rest of this article.
==Relevant quotations==
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|12|14}}|
وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا ٱلْإِنسَٰنَ مِن سُلَٰلَةٍ مِّن طِينٍ


* A number of verses collectively demonstrate a belief that the earliest, nutfah stage of development is made of semen, perhaps mixed with a female fluid, which is placed in the womb for a known term, and where it undergoes various stages of development (as also taught by Galen and in the Jewish Talmud). See [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|this article]] for the most comprehensive explanation and evidence. Futhermore, there is no sign that the author of the Qur'an was aware of the female egg (ovum).
ثُمَّ جَعَلْنَٰهُ نُطْفَةً فِى قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ


:In reality, a single sperm cell penetrates and fuses with the female ovum. This fertilised egg, called a zygote, is then pushed down the fallopian tube for a few days. On the way, cell division begins, and this multi-celled cluster, now called a blastocyst, implants in the uterus (womb).
ثُمَّ خَلَقْنَا ٱلنُّطْفَةَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقْنَا ٱلْعَلَقَةَ مُضْغَةً فَخَلَقْنَا ٱلْمُضْغَةَ عِظَٰمًا فَكَسَوْنَا ٱلْعِظَٰمَ لَحْمًا ثُمَّ أَنشَأْنَٰهُ خَلْقًا ءَاخَرَ ۚ فَتَبَارَكَ ٱللَّهُ أَحْسَنُ ٱلْخَٰلِقِينَ


* The embryo is then congealed blood. All the classical tafasirs (commentaries) understood the meaning of 'alaqah to be blood or congealed blood, and clotted blood is a definition of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries. Regardless of alternative meanings for this arabic word, it would be very foolish even to use a word whose main definitions include an explicit biological meaning (clotted blood) in a description of a biological process (embryology) if that meaning was not the one you intended. The choice of word now causes a well justified suspicion of inaccuracy, and for centuries misled people into thinking that the embryo is at one stage congealed blood (an actual embryo is at no point blood or a clot of blood). Similarly, for the same reason it would also be foolish to use this word while intending blood clot as a mere visual analogy.
Verily We created man from a product of wet earth [sulalatin min teenin سُلَٰلَةٍ مِّن طِينٍ]; Then placed him as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ]; Then fashioned We the drop a clot ['alaqatan عَلَقَةً], then fashioned We the clot a little lump [mudghatan مُضْغَةً], then fashioned We the little lump bones ['ithaman عِظَٰمًا], then clothed [kasawna كَسَوْنَا] the bones with flesh [lahman لَحْمًا], and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!
}}


* Bones are formed before being clothed with flesh. In fact cartilage models of the bones start to form at the same time as and in parallel with surrounding muscles, and this cartilage is literally replaced with bone.
{{Quote|{{Quran|22|5}}|
يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلنَّاسُ إِن كُنتُمْ فِى رَيْبٍ مِّنَ ٱلْبَعْثِ فَإِنَّا خَلَقْنَٰكُم مِّن تُرَابٍ ثُمَّ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ ثُمَّ مِنْ عَلَقَةٍ ثُمَّ مِن مُّضْغَةٍ مُّخَلَّقَةٍ وَغَيْرِ مُخَلَّقَةٍ لِّنُبَيِّنَ لَكُمْ ۚ وَنُقِرُّ فِى ٱلْأَرْحَامِ مَا نَشَآءُ إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلٍ مُّسَمًّى ثُمَّ نُخْرِجُكُمْ طِفْلًا ثُمَّ لِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَشُدَّكُمْ ۖ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُتَوَفَّىٰ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُرَدُّ إِلَىٰٓ أَرْذَلِ ٱلْعُمُرِ لِكَيْلَا يَعْلَمَ مِنۢ بَعْدِ عِلْمٍ شَيْـًٔا ۚ وَتَرَى ٱلْأَرْضَ هَامِدَةً فَإِذَآ أَنزَلْنَا عَلَيْهَا ٱلْمَآءَ ٱهْتَزَّتْ وَرَبَتْ وَأَنۢبَتَتْ مِن كُلِّ زَوْجٍۭ بَهِيجٍ


==Analysis==


===Debating Technique===
O mankind! if ye are in doubt concerning the Resurrection, then lo! We have created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then from a little lump of flesh [mudghatin مُّضْغَةٍ] shapely and shapeless [mukhallaqatin waghayri mukhallaqatin مُّخَلَّقَةٍ وَغَيْرِ مُخَلَّقَةٍ], that We may make (it) clear for you. And We cause what We will to remain in the wombs for an appointed time, and afterward We bring you forth as infants, then (give you growth) that ye attain your full strength. And among you there is he who dieth (young), and among you there is he who is brought back to the most abject time of life, so that, after knowledge, he knoweth naught. And thou (Muhammad) seest the earth barren, but when We send down water thereon, it doth thrill and swell and put forth every lovely kind (of growth).}}


Proponents of Qur'anic embryology often defend their position by claiming that words like 'alaqah can have several meanings, and that some or all of these meanings apply at the same time. Thus, we hear that the 'alaqah is a leech, or looks like a leech if viewed in a certain angle, or is a leech-like structure, is a clot of blood, or looks like a blood clot, or hangs from or clings to the endometrium. Some of these are genuine definitions of 'alaqah, others are not. Each one is problematic and will be addressed below.
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|67}}|
هُوَ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَكُم مِّن تُرَابٍ ثُمَّ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ ثُمَّ مِنْ عَلَقَةٍ ثُمَّ يُخْرِجُكُمْ طِفْلًا ثُمَّ لِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَشُدَّكُمْ ثُمَّ لِتَكُونُوا۟ شُيُوخًا ۚ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُتَوَفَّىٰ مِن قَبْلُ ۖ وَلِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَجَلًا مُّسَمًّى وَلَعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ


The best method of refuting Qur'anic embryology is by questioning every claim as to its validity, and to make its proponents justify every claim. This would include why they chose to make a choice when there are several other equally valid possibilities, why they chose to ignore clearly nonsensical phrases, and why they assume certain phrases to be metaphorical while others to be literal. Some will also benefit from seeing the definitions of the significant words from Lane's Lexicon of classical arabic, cited and linked throughout this article.
He it is Who created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop (of seed) [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ] then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then bringeth you forth as a child, then (ordaineth) that ye attain full strength and afterward that ye become old men - though some among you die before - and that ye reach an appointed term, that haply ye may understand.}}


If, the reader is so inclined, they can read a good summary of the arbitrary assumptions and heavily selective debating technique used by apologists, with a particular focus on Keith Moore's claims, [{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20060214032231/http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html|2=2011-12-05}} here], and can read the relevant sections [http://embryologyinthequran.blogspot.com here] to see how many of the word definitions used in Islamic apologetics are based on misquotes of Arabic dictionaries and are incompatible with how those same Arabic words were used in the hadith (such as the claims that the word 'alaqah meant a "leech-like substance", that a mudghah is not merely a small piece of meat, but one that has been chewed).
==Scientific criticism of Quranic embryology==
[[File:Empirical Cycle.svg.png|thumb|250x250px|Empirical cycle - A.D. de Groot]]
Embryology in the Quran is often criticised from a modern scientific perspective. More details including references are given throughout this article, but the main criticisms are as follows:


===Original Creation from Dust / Clay / Mud===  
#A number of verses<ref>{{Quran|23|13}}, {{Quran-range|70|20|22}}, {{Quran-range|80|18|19}} See discussion in the Nutfah Stage section.</ref> demonstrate a belief that man is created from semen itself, as a fluid which is placed in the womb for a known term, and undergoes various further stages of development (as also taught by Galen and in the Jewish Talmud). See [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|this article]] for the most comprehensive explanation and evidence. Furthermore, there is no sign that the author of the Quran was aware of the female egg (ovum).<p>In reality, a single sperm cell penetrates and fuses with the female ovum. This fertilised egg, called a zygote, is then pushed down the fallopian tube for a few days. On the way, cell division begins, and this multi-celled cluster, now called a blastocyst, implants in the uterus (womb).<ref>{{cite web| url=https://crh.ucsf.edu/fertility/conception | title=Conception: How it Works | publisher=University of California San Francisco - Center for Reproductive Health | accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref></p>
#The embryo is then said to be congealed blood. <ref>{{Quran|23|14}}, {{Quran|22|5}}, {{Quran|40|67}} See discussion in the 'Alaqah Stage section.</ref> All the classical [[Tafsir|tafsirs]] (exegetical commentaries) understood the meaning of 'alaqah to be blood or congealed blood, and clotted blood is a definition of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries. Regardless of alternative meanings for this Arabic word, it does not make sense to use a word whose main definitions include an explicit biological meaning (clotted blood) in a description of a biological process (embryology) if that is not the intended meaning; certainly, from the point of divine authorship of the Qur'an, such imprecise meaning would throw into doubt the Qur'an's claim to be "clear." The choice of word now causes a well justified suspicion of inaccuracy, and for centuries misled people into thinking that the embryo is at one stage congealed blood (in reality an embryo is at no point blood nor a clot of blood<ref>{{cite web| url=https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Timeline_human_development | title=Timeline human development | publisher=University of New South Wales | author=Dr Mark Hill| accessdate=27 January 2019}}</ref>). Similarly, for the same reason it would not make sense to use this word while intending blood clot as a mere visual analogy.
#The Quran claims that bones are formed before being clothed with flesh.<ref>{{Quran|23|14}} See discussion in the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref> In fact cartilage models of the bones start to form at the same time as and in parallel with surrounding muscles, and this cartilage is literally replaced with bone.<ref>See discussion and scientific references in the sub-sections to the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.</ref>


Confusion is sometimes caused by statements about dust (tubarin تُرَابٍ), mud (hamain حَمَإٍ), clay (teenin طِينٍ), or sounding clay (salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ) in the Qur'anic embryology verses. Clarification is provided in {{Quran-range|32|7|8}} that this refers to the creation of Adam only, and that the subsequent statements relate to the development of humans since then. This was also the opinion of classical scholars such as ibn Kathir.
The author of the Quran described a sequence of stages, which when examined without the false definitions and arbitrary assumptions made by apologists, clearly has no resemblance to the actual development process of a child in the womb, according to critics. Someone with a modern, scientific knowledge of embryology can instead marvel at the exquisite complexity that results from a process of co-ordinated cell differentiation and signaling, encoded in our genetic instruction set by millions of years of evolution, and devoid of any apparent divine design.


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|32|7|8}}|'''Pickthall:'''Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay [teenin طِينٍ]; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;}}
==Modern revisionary perspectives==
The word translated “seed” in Pickthall’s translation is nasl, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).<ref>نسل nasl - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane’s Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3032</ref>
===Original Creation from Dust / Clay / Mud===


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|59}}|'''Pickthall:'''Lo! the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him of dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then He said unto him: Be! and he is.}}
Confusion is sometimes caused by statements about dust (tubarin تُرَابٍ), mud (hamain حَمَإٍ), clay (teenin طِينٍ), or sounding clay (salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ) in the Quranic embryology verses quoted above. Clarification is provided in other verses that this refers to the creation of Adam only, and that the subsequent statements about various stages relate to the development of humans since then.<ref>{{Quote-text|{{Quran-range|32|7|8}}|Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay [teenin طِينٍ]; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;}}


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|26}}|'''Yusuf Ali:'''We created man from sounding clay [salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ], from mud [hamain حَمَإٍ] molded into shape;}}
The word translated “seed” in Pickthall’s translation is nasl, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).
نسل nasl - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane’s Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3032</ref><ref>Lo! the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him of dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then He said unto him: Be! and he is.<br>{{Quran|3|59}}</ref><ref>We created man from sounding clay [salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ], from mud [hamain حَمَإٍ] molded into shape;<br>{{Quran|15|26}}</ref> This was also the opinion of classical scholars such as Ibn Kathir.


These verses clearly state that the first [[Creation of Humans from Clay|man was made ''from'' clay]] (min مِّنْ means 'from' or 'of'), and that clay was a building material, that was moulded and shaped, and not a catalytic compound, as some apologetics claim in an attempt to link the Qur'an with one theory about the origin of all life on Earth.
Verses like these refer to Adam specifically, that [[Creation of Humans from Clay|man was made ''from'' clay]] (min مِّنْ means 'from' or 'of'), and that clay was a building material which was moulded and shaped, and not a catalytic compound as some apologetics claim in an attempt to link the Quran with one theory about the origin of all life on Earth. Yet another verse ({{Quran|55|14}}) adds that Allah created man "from clay like [that of] pottery" (min ṣalṣālin kal-fakhāri مِن صَلْصَٰلٍ كَٱلْفَخَّارِ).


While again not strictly related to embryology, another claim on some Islamic websites is that clay and humans have similar compositions. The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology defines clay as, "a fine textured, sedimentary, or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicates of aluminum mixed with various impurities". The essential elements in clay are thus silicon, aluminum, hydrogen and oxygen. Silicon and Aluminum have extremely limited, if any, roles to play in the maintenance of life.<ref>Fenchel, Tom 2003. The origin and Early Evolution of Life. Oxford University Press. Page 27.</ref> Other human-required elements (such as nitrogen, sodium etc) are only found in trace amounts in clay and can be regarded as contaminants. There is no similarity between the compositions of clay and humans.
While again not strictly related to embryology, another claim on some Islamic websites is that clay and humans have similar compositions. The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology defines clay as, "a fine textured, sedimentary, or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicates of aluminum mixed with various impurities". The essential elements in clay are thus silicon, aluminum, hydrogen and oxygen. Silicon and Aluminum have extremely limited, if any, roles to play in the maintenance of life.<ref>Fenchel, Tom 2003. The origin and Early Evolution of Life. Oxford University Press. Page 27.</ref> Other human-required elements (such as nitrogen, sodium etc) are only found in trace amounts in clay and can be regarded as contaminants. There is no similarity between the compositions of clay and humans.


===The Qur'anic Embryology Verses===
===The Nutfah (Semen) Stage===
 
These verses form the basis for Qur'anic embryology. Other verses that relate to individual stages are also quoted throughout this article.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|12|14}}|'''Pickthal:''' Verily We created man from a product of wet earth [sulalatin min teenin سُلَٰلَةٍ مِّن طِينٍ]; Then placed him as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ]; Then fashioned We the drop a clot ['alaqatan عَلَقَةً], then fashioned We the clot a little lump [mudghatan مُضْغَةً], then fashioned We the little lump bones ['ithaman عِظَٰمًا], then clothed [kasawna كَسَوْنَا] the bones with flesh [lahman لَحْمًا], and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!
<BR>'''Transliteration:''' ''Walaqad khalaqna al-insana min sulalatin min teenin Thumma jaAAalnahu nutfatan fee qararin makeenin Thumma khalaqna alnnutfata AAalaqatan fakhalaqna alAAalaqata mudghatan fakhalaqna almudghata AAithaman fakasawna alAAithama lahman thumma ansha/nahu khalqan akhara fatabaraka Allahu ahsanu alkhaliqeena''}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|22|05}}|'''Pickthall:''' O mankind! if ye are in doubt concerning the Resurrection, then lo! We have created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then from a little lump of flesh [mudghatin مُّضْغَةٍ] shapely and shapeless [mukhallaqatin waghayri mukhallaqatin مُّخَلَّقَةٍ وَغَيْرِ مُخَلَّقَةٍ], that We may make (it) clear for you. And We cause what We will to remain in the wombs for an appointed time, and afterward We bring you forth as infants, then (give you growth) that ye attain your full strength. And among you there is he who dieth (young), and among you there is he who is brought back to the most abject time of life, so that, after knowledge, he knoweth naught. And thou (Muhammad) seest the earth barren, but when We send down water thereon, it doth thrill and swell and put forth every lovely kind (of growth).
<BR>'''Transliteration:''' ''Ya ayyuha alnnasu in kuntum fee raybin mina albaAAthi fa-inna khalaqnakum min turabin thumma min nutfatin thumma min AAalaqatin thumma min mudghatin mukhallaqatin waghayri mukhallaqatin linubayyina lakum wanuqirru fee al-arhami ma nashao ila ajalin musamman thumma nukhrijukum tiflan thumma litablughoo ashuddakum waminkum man yutawaffa waminkum man yuraddu ila arthali alAAumuri likayla yaAAlama min baAAdi AAilmin shay-an watara al-arda hamidatan fa-itha anzalna AAalayha almaa ihtazzat warabat waanbatat min kulli zawjin baheejin''}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|67}}|'''Pickthall:''' He it is Who created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop (of seed) [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ] then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then bringeth you forth as a child, then (ordaineth) that ye attain full strength and afterward that ye become old men - though some among you die before - and that ye reach an appointed term, that haply ye may understand.
<BR>'''Transliteration:''' ''Huwa allathee khalaqakum min turabin thumma min nutfatin thumma min AAalaqatin thumma yukhrijukum tiflan thumma litablughoo ashuddakum thumma litakoonoo shuyookhan waminkum man yutawaffa min qablu walitablughoo ajalan musamman walaAAallakum taAAqiloona''}}
 
These verses clearly delineate the stages of Qur'anic embryology thus:
 
(references provide links to Lane's Lexicon of classical Arabic)
 
#Dust/mud/clay (creation of Adam only)
#Nutfah<ref name="LLnutfah">نُطْفَةً nutfah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000288.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3034</ref> (drop of semen)
#Alaqah<ref name="LLalaqah">عَلَقَةً alaqah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref> (leech and certain creatures that cling and suck blood, or blood, thick blood or clotted blood)
#Mudghah<ref name="LLmudghah">مُضْغَةً mudghah - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000275.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3021</ref> (bite-sized morsel of flesh, shaped and without shape)
#'Itham<ref name="LLitham">عِظَٰمًا 'itham - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000372.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2087</ref> (bones, especially of the limbs)
#'Itham covered with Lahm<ref name="LLlahm">لَحْمًا lahm - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000262.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Suppliment, page 3008 and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000263.pdf page 3009]</ref> (flesh)
#Another creation / child
 
===The Nutfah (Semen) Stage and the Missing Female Ovum===
 
The first stage of Qur'anic embryology is the nutfah stage. The word nutfah<ref name="LLnutfah"></ref> literally meant a small amount of liquid, and was a euphemism for semen. The Lisan al Arab dictionary of classical Arabic gives these definitions (translated from the Arabic):
 
{{Quote||A little water; a little water remaining in a waterskin; a little water remaining in a bucket; pure water, a little or a lot<ref>http://www.baheth.info/all.jsp?term=%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%81</ref>}}


A nice example of nutfah usage can be found in a pre-Islamic poem where it is used to mean “the small quantity of wine that remained in a wineskin”.<ref>Irfan Shahid, “Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century. Volume 2, Part 2”, p.145, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2009</ref>
The first stage of Quranic embryology is the nutfah stage. Translations typically use words like "sperm-drop", while apologetics tend to interpret it as the fertilised egg in the early stages of cell division (zygote, blastocyst). The word nutfah<ref name="LLnutfah" /> literally meant a small amount of liquid, and was a euphemism for semen. The Lisan al Arab dictionary of classical Arabic gives the following definitions:


Verses 80:18-19, and 77:20-22 together with 23:13 strongly imply that it is semen that is stored in the womb and developed into the embryo, as the [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Jews and Greeks]] believed.
{{Quote-text|1=نُّطْفَة in Lisan al Arab|2=A little water; a little water remaining in a waterskin; a little water remaining in a bucket; pure water, a little or a lot; the water of the man; semen is called nutfah for its small amount<ref>
[http://www.baheth.info/all.jsp?term=%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%81 Lisan al Arab]</ref>}}


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|'''Pickthall:'''From what thing [shayinشَىْءٍ] doth He create him? From a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ]. He createth him and proportioneth him}}
An example of nutfah usage can be found in a pre-Islamic poem where it is used to mean “the small quantity of wine that remained in a wineskin”.<ref>Irfan Shahid, “Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century. Volume 2, Part 2”, p.145, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2009</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|'''Yusuf Ali:''' Have We not created you from a fluid (held) despicable [ma-in maheenin مَّآءٍ مَّهِينٍ]? The which We placed in a place of rest, firmly fixed [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ], For a period (of gestation), determined (according to need)?}}
Verses 80:18-19, and 77:20-22 together with 23:13 strongly imply that a small amount of semen is stored in the womb and developed into the embryo, as confirmed in the hadiths and [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|previously taught by the Greeks and in the Jewish Talmud]].


Verses 20-21 closely parallel 23:13, which too says "We placed it (jaAAalnahu) in a safe place (qararin makeen)", and uses the word nutfah instead of maa' maheenin ('water despised'; maa' was another euphemism for semen). The 'hu' ending to jaAAalnahu can mean him or it, and probably means the former in 23:13. However, 77:20 uses the 2nd person "you", so the latter meaning, 'it' is clearly intended in the next verse, in reference to the liquid.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|From what thing [shayinشَىْءٍ] doth He create him? From a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ]. He createth him and proportioneth him}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|23|13}}|'''Pickthall:'''Then placed him as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ];}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|Did We not create you from a base fluid [ma-in maheenin مَّآءٍ مَّهِينٍ]? Which We laid up [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] in a safe abode [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ], For a known term?}}


The Qur'an never explicitly explains how and if the female parent contributes genetic material. It is merely the assumption, and an assumption only, of apologists that 'nutfatun amshajin' (amshajin means mixed<ref>أَمْشَاج Amshajan  - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000245.pdf] Volume 7 Page 2717</ref>) in verse 76:2 includes the female gamete (ovum).
{{Quote|{{Quran|23|13}}|Then placed him [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ];}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|76|2}}|'''Yusuf Ali:'''Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.}}
As can be seen in the above quotes, verses 77:20-21 closely parallel 23:13. Both say "We placed it (jaAAalnahu) in a safe abode (qararin makeen)", and one uses the word nutfah while the other uses the words maa' maheenin ('water distained'). Maa' was another common euphemism for semen. The 'hu' ending to jaAAalnahu in both verses can mean him or it, and probably means the former in 23:13 ('We placed him'). However, in 77:21 it must mean the latter ('We placed it') in reference to the liquid because the previous verse uses the 2nd person "you" and then mentions the liquid.


The term ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ could just as easily refer to the sperm-menstrual blood union of Aristotle and the ancient Indian embryologists, or the two semens hypothesis of Hippocrates and Galen, or even the readily observed mingling of semen and vaginal discharge during sexual intercourse. In other words, the fact the Qur'an does not explicitly state that ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ contains the ovum, together with the existence of other possible explanations, means that it is illogical to assume the former and not the latter.  
It is sometimes claimed that safe abode (qararin makeen) in 23:13 refers to the female ovum rather than the womb. However, critics note that this interpretation ignores the same phrase in 77:22 where it would not make sense of the words "For a known term", and that the ovum is penetrated by a single sperm cell and not the "fluid" (maa').


The insistence that it explains the former is pure conjecture devoid of evidence, and constitutes the [[Logical Fallacy|logical fallacy]] of equivocation, and its adoption is merely wishful thinking or 'reinterpretation after the fact.
Indeed, a common criticism is that the Quran makes no mention of the female egg (ovum). In response it is sometimes claimed that 'nutfatun amshajin' (amshajin means mixed<ref>أَمْشَاج Amshajan  - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000245.pdf] Volume 7 Page 2717</ref>) in {{Quran|76|2}} includes the female gamete (ovum).<ref>Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.<br>{{Quran|76|2}}</ref> Critics counter that this is merely an apologetic assumption and that in any case the sperm cell is no longer swimming in male semen at the time when it reaches the ovum (see the [[Embryology_in_the_Quran#Mingled_male_and_female_fluids|Mingled male and female fluids]] section below).


Some critics argue that in fact, the Qur'an itself provides the evidence of its doctrinal omission or rejection of the role of the ovum in procreation, for verse 2:223 states that wives are tilth. This is saying they are like the earth, which contributes nutrients only, receiving the seed from the male.  
The term ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ in verse 76:2 could alternatively refer to the sperm-menstrual blood union of Aristotle and the ancient Indian embryologists, but more likely the two semens hypothesis of Hippocrates and Galen ([[Sources_of_Islamic_Theories_of_Reproduction|also evident in various hadiths]]), which in turn was derived from the readily observed mingling of semen and vaginal discharge during sexual intercourse.


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|223}}|'''Pickthall:''' Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).}}
Some critics argue that in fact, the Quran displays an understanding that is contrary to the role of the ovum in procreation, for verse 2:223 states that wives are tilth. This suggests they are like the earth, which simply provides nutrients and receives the seed from the male.<ref>Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).<br>{{Quran|2|223}}</ref>
 
This one isn't a particularly strong criticism, however, as one could argue that the womb is the tilth for a fertilised seed. Whether by means of some female fluid or otherwise, the resemblance of a child to its mother was a question that interested the early Muslims, as can be seen in the hadith. See the article [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]] regarding this and many other common arguments used by proponents of Qur'anic embryology concerning the nutfah stage.</ref>


===The 'Alaqah Stage===
===The 'Alaqah Stage===


The concensus in the tafsirs for the embryology verses was that 'alaqah meant blood. In numerous tafsirs it is variously described as blood (al dam الدم), congealed blood (al dam al jamid الدم الجامد), or simply, red 'alaqah ('alaqah hamra علقة حمراء). Nevertheless, in modern times some Muslims, especially those who know that this contradicts the biological reality, have tried to reinterpret the word using some of the other dictionary definitions for 'alaqah or 'alaq. Each of these alternatives is problematic, as indeed is the mere fact that 'alaqah has clotted blood as one of its main meanings.
The consensus in the tafsirs for the embryology verses was that 'alaqah meant blood. In numerous tafsirs it is variously described as blood (al dam الدم), congealed blood (al dam al jamid الدم الجامد), or simply, red 'alaqah ('alaqah hamra علقة حمراء). Nevertheless, in modern times some apologists, especially those who know that this contradicts the biological reality, have tried to reinterpret the word using some of the other dictionary definitions for 'alaqah or 'alaq. Each of these alternatives is problematic from a scientific perspective, as indeed is the mere fact that 'alaqah has clotted blood<ref name="LLalaqah" /> as one of its main meanings.


====Clinging Thing====
====Clinging Thing====
Those who claim that 'alaqah is used in the sense of a clinging thing in the Qur'an should consider that the embryo does not cease to be attached to the uterine wall when the musculo-skeletal system begins to develop around the 5<sup>th</sup> week. Yet the Qur'anic stages appear to describe a transition between a succession of states. Moreover it would be self-evident from aborted fetuses that at some stage the embryo becomes attached to something.
One claim is that 'alaqah is used in the sense of a clinging thing in the Quran. However, the embryo does not cease to be attached to the uterine wall when the musculo-skeletal system begins to develop around the 5<sup>th</sup> week. Yet the Quranic stages appear to describe a transition between a succession of states. It would in any case be self-evident from aborted fetuses that at some stage the embryo becomes attached to something.


====Hanging / Suspended====
====Hanging / Suspended====


Also flawed is a related claim, that 'alaqah is used here in its meaning of a suspended, or hanging thing, because the early embryo is attached via a connecting stalk to the uterine wall. The problem is that not all embryos hang downwards below their connecting stalk. Rather it depends where in the uterus implantation occurs. The uterus lies fairly horizontal at this time, so depending on the side of the uterus implantation occurs, the early embryo can also be above its stalk, as this diagram<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.babycenter.com/fetal-development-twins-images-4-weeks|2=2013-06-01}} Fraternal twins in the womb -- 4 weeks] -  BabyCenter Medical Advisory Board, June 1, 2013</ref> of twins at 4 weeks demonstrates :
Also flawed is a related claim, that 'alaqah is used here in its meaning of a suspended, or hanging thing, because the early embryo is floating in amniotic fluid, and is attached via a connecting stalk to the uterine wall in which it is buried. The problem is that not all embryos hang downwards below their connecting stalk. Rather it depends where in the uterus implantation occurs. The uterus lies fairly horizontal at this time, so depending on the side of the uterus implantation occurs, the early embryo can also be above its stalk, as this diagram<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.babycenter.com/fetal-development-twins-images-4-weeks|2=2013-06-01}} Fraternal twins in the womb -- 4 weeks] -  BabyCenter Medical Advisory Board, June 1, 2013</ref> of twins at 4 weeks demonstrates :
 
[[File:Fraternal_twins_in_womb-4_weeks.jpg|right]]
<center>[[File:Fraternal twins in womb-4 weeks.jpg]]</center>
Various studies of placentas and ultrasound scans have found that between 26% and 53% of implantations occur on the anterior (frontal) wall of the uterus (like the lower twin in the diagram).<ref>Benirschke, K. & Kaufmann, B. 2000. Pathology of the Human Placenta. 4th Edition. Springer-Verlag, New York. Page 399 - 400</ref> Clearly apologists should expect better of the Quran's author than to say that as early embryos, humans are "hanging things" when such a description is untrue for a significant percentage of the population, not even a general rule.
 
Various studies of placentas and ultrasound scans have found that between 26% and 53% of implantations occur on the anterior (frontal) wall of the uterus (like the lower twin in the diagram).<ref>Benirschke, K. & Kaufmann, B. 2000. Pathology of the Human Placenta. 4th Edition. Springer-Verlag, New York. Page 399 - 400</ref> Clearly apologists should expect better of the Qur'an's author than to say that as early embryos, humans are "hanging things" when such a description is untrue for a significant percentage of the population, not even a general rule.  


This scientific inaccuracy should be considered before even raising the doubts above concerning the suitability of the word 'alaqah to describe embryos that are on the posterior wall, and thus below their connecting stalks. For it is highly doubtful that 'alaqah in the sense of “hanging” would be a good way to describe the embryo in relation to the connecting stalk. Lane’s lexicon  strongly indicates that 'alaq is not just the thing which is hung, but the entire apparatus or vertical rope by which means it is suspended, or even just the rope itself, giving the example of a suspended bucket in a well.<ref>علق 'alaq - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref> The stalk evidently has a certain amount of stiffness and does not hang vertically under gravity like a bucket in a well.
This scientific inaccuracy should be considered before even raising the doubts above concerning the suitability of the word 'alaqah to describe embryos that are on the posterior wall, and thus below their connecting stalks. It stretches credulity highly to claim that 'alaqah in the sense of “hanging” would be a good way to describe the embryo in relation to the connecting stalk. Lane’s lexicon  strongly indicates that 'alaq is not just the thing which is hung, but the entire apparatus or vertical rope by which means it is suspended, or even just the rope itself, giving the example of a suspended bucket in a well.<ref>علق 'alaq - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000419.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 5, page 2134</ref> The stalk evidently has a certain amount of stiffness and does not hang vertically under gravity like a bucket in a well.


====Leech====     
====Leech====     
      
      
Apologists who are fond of leech metaphors should consider that unlike a leech, which simply sucks blood from its host, the embryo circulates and exchanges blood and waste products with its mother.<ref>Barry Mitchell & Ram Sharma 2009. Embryology: An Illustrated Colour Text. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone ElSevier. Page 10-11</ref> A leech has many characteristics such as size, behaviour, shape, color, appearance. Why would the author use 'alaqah intending such a metaphorical meaning when his listeners could not be expected to know in what respect the analogy applies? It is a typical Texan Sharpshooter fallacy<ref>{{cite web|quote= The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy in which pieces of information that have no relationship to one another are called out for their similarities, and that similarity is used for claiming the existence of a pattern. This fallacy is the philosophical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psychology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret patterns where none actually exist. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter.|url= http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy|title= Texas sharpshooter fallacy|publisher= Wikipedia|author= |date= accessed August 13, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTexas_sharpshooter_fallacy&date=2013-08-13|deadurl=no}}</ref> of apologists to choose one characteristic - shape - then to an arbitrarily very limited degree find a similarity with an embryo, and draw any conclusions, particularly as the early embryo passes through a wide range of shapes and is itself a biological organism. Moreover, such apologetics have to conveniently ignore the embryo's yolk sac when depicting the embryo.
Many apologists claim that 'alaqah in the Quran means a leech (in a metaphorical sense), and that this is similar to an embryo. However, unlike a leech, which simply sucks blood from its host, the embryo circulates and exchanges gases, nutrients and waste products with its mother. Most significantly, the placental membrane or barrier ensures that the embryo does not take from or exchange blood with its mother, who may have a different blood type.<ref>Barry Mitchell & Ram Sharma 2009. Embryology: An Illustrated Colour Text. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone ElSevier. Page 10-12</ref> Furthermore, a leech attaches itself directly to the surface of its host. In contrast, the [[w:Blastocyst|blastocyst]] stage embryo implants into the uterine wall ([[w:Endometrium|endometrium]]) by means of an outer cell layer surrounding it, called the [[w:Syncytiotrophoblast|syncytiotrophoblast]]. It is the syncytiotrophoblast which invades the endometrium, burying the entire embryo within the wall (unlike a leech), establishes a circulatory connection, and will later form the outer layer of the [[w:Placenta#Development|placenta]].


====Congealed Blood====
A leech has many characteristics such as size, behaviour, shape, color, appearance. It makes no sense for the author to have used 'alaqah in a metaphorical sense when his listeners could not be expected to know in what respect the analogy applies. It is no more than a Texan Sharpshooter fallacy<ref>"The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy in which pieces of information that have no relationship to one another are called out for their similarities, and that similarity is used for claiming the existence of a pattern. This fallacy is the philosophical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psychology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret patterns where none actually exist. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter."<br>[[w:Texas sharpshooter fallacy|Texas sharpshooter fallacy]]</ref>, typical of Islamic miracle claims, to choose one characteristic - shape - which to a very and arbitrarily limited degree has similarity with that of an embryo (in their eyes) and to then draw any conclusions. This is particularly so given that the early embryo passes through a wide range of shapes and that both a leech and human embryo are biological organisms. Moreover, when depicting the embryo such apologetics have to conveniently ignore the embryo's yolk sac, which gradually becomes incorporated into its developing gut.
Given that one of the meanings of 'alaqah is congealed blood, which was also the understanding given in numerous tafsirs, it would be most unwise to use such a word with a specific biological meaning to describe a biological process (embryology) if that meaning was not the intention. For the same reason it would be foolish even to use clotted blood merely as a visual metaphor. A perfect author would avoid arousing any such suspicion of inaccurate biology with his choice of words.


The poet al-Nabigha alja'di النابغة الجعدي (died c.670 AD), who was a contemporary of Muhammad, in one of his poems says:
Above and beyond all of this, "leech" is not the most common meaning of this word; clot works much better here, and most translators including Arberry, Pickthall, and Sahih international all translate it this way. The translation of "leech", "leech-like embryo" or "embryo" only appeared in the modern age after the discoveries of embryology, and were not known in pre-modern translations. 


{{Quote||
====Congealed Blood====
الخـالق البـارئ المصـور في الأرحام ماء حتى يصير دما
One of the meanings of 'alaqah is congealed blood, which was also the understanding given in numerous tafsirs, as detailed above. The Arab poet al-Nabigha alja'di النابغة الجعدي (died c.670 AD) was a contemporary of Muhammad and uses the word blood (al dam الدم) in exactly the same context in a poem about Allah.<ref>
The creator, the maker, the fashioner, in the wombs semen until it becomes blood<ref>{{cite web|url= http://poetsgate.com/poem_14021.html|title= الحمد لله لا شريك له|publisher= PoetsGate (Arabic)|author= |date= February 15, 2007|archiveurl= http://archive.is/6XW6e|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}
{{Quote-text|{{cite web|url= http://poetsgate.com/poem_14021.html|title= الحمد لله لا شريك له|publisher= PoetsGate (Arabic)|author= |date= February 15, 2007|archiveurl= http://archive.is/6XW6e|deadurl=no}}|الخـالق البـارئ المصـور في الأرحام ماء حتى يصير دما
 
<br>Translation: The creator, the maker, the fashioner, in the wombs water until it becomes blood}}
This further underlines the suspicion just mentioned, and moreover, suggests some influence in 7<sup>th</sup> century Arabia of the ideas of the Greek physician, Galen, whose works were studied at that time by groups in Alexandria and Syria. Indeed, other similarities between Galenic embryology and that of the Qur'an are well known.
Water (maa') is used here as a euphemism for semen, just as we sometimes find in the Quran and hadiths (see above).</ref>  
 
===The Formation of Bone===
There is a clear mistake in the Qur'anic idea of the formation of bone. Drs Needham and Needbeer of freethoughtmecca explain this well.
 
{{Quote||While we will return to the issue of mudgha below, we should now move on to the issue of izhaam (bones). As was noted above, after the alaqa is turned into a mudgha, the Qur'an states fa-khalaqnaa al-mudghata izhaaman, or "then we formed the morsel, bones." Moore and his cohort try to change the translation to "out of the mudgha we formed bones," so as to give the impression that the bones are forming inside the embryo, rather than the entire object becoming bones. This brings to light the duplicitous nature that these people are taking to the text.
 
Consider that word khalaqnaa ("we created/formed") appears in three times in Soorat al-Moominoon 23:14: (1) khalaqnaa al-nutfata alaqatan - "we formed the nutfa into an alaqa"; (2) khalaqnaa al-alaqata mudghatan - "we formed the alaqa into a mudgha"; (3) khalaqnaa al-mudghata izhaaman - "we formed the mudgha into bones." So the question that needs to be asked is how one properly interprets the logical structure khalaqnaa X,Y.
 
As will be noted below, proponents of this polemic want izhaam to not actually be a reference to bone, but rather cartilaginous precursors to bone, thus we see that there are two possible (and rather different) usages of the logical structure khalaqnaa X,Y being employed. Does the logical structure mean "we formed the X into a Y," or does it mean "we caused a precursor to Y to form inside the X"? No person to put forth the polemic has ever explained which is the correct interpretation, or if both are possible how they know to use one and not the other. The reality is that khalaqnaa X,Y means "we formed the X into a Y," and there is no implication that the Y (much less something other than Y!) is only forming inside the X.
 
When we reach izhaam we find another problematic part of the verse. Consider that the text reads: khalaqnaa al-mudghata izhaaman, fa-kasawnaa al-izhaaman laHman. First note that ''khalaqnaa'' (We made) is past tense, and the prefix ''fa'' means "then". So the verse reads: "we formed the morsel into bones, then we clothed the bones with flesh." Thus, it implies bone forms before soft tissue, which is a blatant error, not to mention one that parallels Galen.
 
As was alluded to above, there is an argument put forth by those who push this polemic that the "bones" are actually a reference to cartilaginous models that will later ossify. Of course, the text has izhaam, which only means bone - there is no reference to cartilage (Arabic: ghudhroof), so we see that the champions of this deceptive polemic are importing things. Furthermore, as was noted in the previous paragraph, the text has a past tense conjugation followed by the word "then" (fa), thus the logic of the text is that the bones were completed, finished, and then they were clothed with flesh. This does not square with the actual process that some wish to correlate the text with, where cartilaginous skeletal models ossify while muscle forms around them simultaneously.}}
 
Unless and until a proponent of Qur'anic embryology can adequately explain why the syntax of stage transformation is somehow different in the 'itham stage compared to all the other stages, one can logically conclude that the Qur'an is in error in believing that the mudgha turned totally into 'itham.
 
Some may simply say that the syntax allows both interpretations, i.e. khalaqna might mean made into or made within. However, no proof has been provided for this assertion. It is easy to make assertions. Supporting them up with evidence is another matter. Therefore, in the failure of evidence otherwise, the conclusion must be that the syntax of verse 23:12-14 must reveal the Qur'an to be in error. Verse 2:259 (quoted below) lends further support to this interpretation. Even if it means that bones formed within the mudghah, it would be no different to the embryology of Galen, in which the basic outlines of the organs are present before the bones are clothed in flesh.
 
Secondly, they have to explain why the author of the Qur'an was incorrect in their description and mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)<ref name="LLghudtroof">غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000032.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2248</ref>) but only bone ('itham).<ref name="LLitham"></ref> Cartilage models of the bone are literally replaced with actual bone (ossification).
 
Thirdly, muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although muscle begins developing before cartilage and bone. Therefore, there is no scientific basis for the Qur'anic claim of a stage in which bone is later covered with flesh after its own formation. The prefix fa before khalaqna means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.<ref>فَ fa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2322</ref> Muscles begin developing in week four. There are 40 pairs of developing muscles in the five-week embryo, and they begin to move by week six when the skeletal system is still totally cartilage which forms in week five or six. By week seven, the muscles and nerves begin work together, when ossification (i.e. bone formation) begins.
 
It can be argued that since cartilage does not begin forming until week five or six and muscles begin forming in the fourth week, the Qur'anic verse 23:14 got the embryology completely reversed, and therefore, incorrect.
 
Here is the scientific evidence for the contemporaneous development of cartilage/bone and muscles:
 
Ossification (in upper limb) occurs at the end of the 7th week. - The Developing Human, 6th Edition Clinically Oriented Embryology Keith L. Moore, Ph..D., FIAC, FRSM T.V.N. Persaud, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., FRCPath W.B. Saunders Company (Philadelphia), 1998 p. 96
 
According to Rugh in Conception to Birth Roberts Rugh, Ph.D., Landrum B. Shettles, Ph.D., M.D. Harper & Row, (New York), 1971, muscles appear in pelvis by 6th week (p 43). Movement of the muscles is being controlled by the nervous system by the 6th week (p 34). All of the muscle blocks have appeared by day 36 after conception (p 46).
 
Thus bone appears after muscles have formed.
 
Even if we were to accept that the Qur'an was only referring to precursors of bone and not bone itself, even though it used the Arabic word for bone, 'itham, the embryology is still wrong.
 
Muscle precursors begin developing into muscle soon after mesenchymal (skeletal) condensation.<ref>Dr. Tim Ballard, Department of Biological Sciences - [http://web.archive.org/web/20050311090047/http://people.uncw.edu/ballardt/bio316/limb.pdf Biology 316/Limb Development] -  University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 2005</ref>  


Muscle forms contemporaneously with cartilage formation and is not delayed until bone has formed. Muscle development starts on Day 28.<ref>[http://www.choosethechild.org/pages/fetal.htm fetal Development] - Choosethechild</ref>
Critics argue that for the author to use 'alaqah in any sense other than its clear biological meaning (clotted blood) in a passage about a biological process (pregnancy) would be very unlikely from the perspective of seeing the Qur'an as a divine text illuminating the knowledge of mankind, especially considering that 'alaqah was consistently understood in this way by exegetes. The usage of the 'alaqah would then be seen as a failure to "clearly" convey the actual knowledge the author allegedly possessed if this was not the intended meaning.  


Building blocks are present for 40 pairs of muscles, which are located from the base of the skull to the bottom of the spinal column. Day 28 after conception (Rugh, p 35)
===='Alaqah in pre-Islamic poetry====
Muscles appear in the pelvic region. Day 31 after conception (Rugh, p 43)
Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma, one of the greatest pre-Islamic poets, used 'alaq in the context of pregnancy, showing that such usage, regardless of its intended meaning, pre-dates the Qur'an. His poem Mu'allaqa has a line describing how al 'alaq discharged from his she-camels as they were having miscarriages on a long journey.<ref>In Arabic, the relevant line of Zuhayr's poem regarding a journey to see his patron, Harim ibn Sinan, reads:<BR>
All of the muscle blocks have appeared. Day 36 after conception (Rugh, p 46)  
إليك أعملتها فتلا مرافقها، شهرين يجهض من أرحامها العلق
Muscular layers of the stomach, esophagus, and intestines begin to proliferate. Day 56 after conception (Rugh, p 53)
<BR>It appears on p.245 of volume 1 of the anthology by Muhammad Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940), [https://waqfeya.net/book.php?bid=1120 al-ʿIqd al-Farīd] (The Unique Necklace), 9 vols, eds. Mufid Muhammad Qumayha et al, Beirut, 1983.
The first indication of limb musculature is observed. 7th week of development (Sadler, 7th edition, p 168)
<BR>The English translation of this volume by Boullata is very non-literal, glossing the last words as "productive wombs": Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, The Unique Necklace: Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd, trans. by Issa J. Boullata, Great Books of Islamic Civilization, 3 vols, first edition, Reading, UK: Garnet, 2006, p.200
</ref>


Cartilage first appears in week 5.<ref>South Australian Orthopaedic Registrar's Notbook - [http://web.archive.org/web/20050413162333/http://som.flinders.edu.au/FUSA/ORTHOWEB/notebook/disease/embriology.html Embriology] - Flinders University School of Medicine</ref>
The relevant words read: yajhudu (يَجْهُضُ) min (مِنْ) arhaamiha (أَرْحَامِهَا) al 'alaq (الْعَلَقُ). Word for word, that is "miscarriaging from their wombs al 'alaq".
But the cartilage skeleton begins forming by week 6.<ref name="Pennsylvania State University">Monaco Education Service - [http://web.archive.org/web/20040419042201/http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/x/wxm15/Online/Human+Biology/Skeletal+System/Study+Guides/growth_sg10a.htm Study Guide 10a/Bone Development and Growth] - The Pennsylvania State University, May 1, 2003</ref>


Thus, when the bone precursors were developing, muscles were also developing at the same time. The cartilage model of the skeleton begins developing by week 6<ref name="Pennsylvania State University"></ref> and is only developed by the 7th week.<ref>Executive Director, Pregnancy Center & Clinic of the Low County, Vera L. Bailey, Ph.D. - [http://web.archive.org/web/20050208155630/http://www.aclife.org/education/development.html Fetal Development: The Story of a Baby (with photos)] - American Collegians for Life, November 3, 2003</ref>
Zuhayr died in 609 CE, before Islam, or according to one account, at the age of 100 in 627 CE, with Muhammad meeting him on the day he died.<ref>Clouston, W. A., [https://archive.org/details/arabianpoetryfo00clougoog/page/n55/mode/2up Arabian Poetry for English Readers] Glasgow (private publication), 1881, Introduction p. xliii</ref>


Mesenchymal models of the bones in the limbs undergo chondrification to form hyaline cartilage. Week 6 (Moore: The Developing Human, 6th ed., p. 420, fig. 15-15D)
===The Mudghah Stage===


At this time, all the muscle blocks have already appeared. (Rugh p 46)
The word mudghah meant a bite sized morsel of meat suitable for chewing<ref name="LLmudghah" />. Islamic websites frequently claim, without citing any evidence, that it means a piece of meat that has actually been chewed, or even that has teeth marks on it. Readers of such websites are invited to admire the supposed similarities between an image of the somites of an embryo next to a piece of chewing gum with a row or two of teeth marks from a single bite. The problems with this argument include:


Thus, Keith Moore and his co-author are wrong. Muscles do not take their positions around the bone forms at the end of the seventh week and during the eighth week. All the muscle blocks have already appeared around the developing skeleton by day 36 – i.e. early week 5. Bone and Muscle develop contemporaneously. In fact, muscle appears ''before'' bone and around the same time as the cartilage precursor.  
#They are using a false definition of the word mudghah, as mentioned above.
#It is a lot easier to leave neat teeth marks in chewing gum than on a piece of meat.
#Somites (bilateral rows of blocks of cells that will migrate and develop into segments of the body) are protrusions, but teeth marks are indentations.


A week 6 embryo (Carnegie Stage 16) already has musculature when the cartilage is forming.
Verse 22:5<ref name="22-5">O People, if you should be in doubt about the Resurrection, then [consider that] indeed, We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and then from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed - that We may show you. And We settle in the wombs whom We will for a specified term, then We bring you out as a child, and then [We develop you] that you may reach your [time of] maturity. And among you is he who is taken in [early] death, and among you is he who is returned to the most decrepit [old] age so that he knows, after [once having] knowledge, nothing. And you see the earth barren, but when We send down upon it rain, it quivers and swells and grows [something] of every beautiful kind<br>{{Quran|22|5}}</ref> mentions that the mudghah is formed and without form. Given that this stage appears before the 'itham (bones) stage, such a 'clarification' gives no additional information whatsoever. Such vagueness of description is typical of premodern understanding of biology and embryology.  


A very detailed account of musculo-skeletal development in the human limb by clinical-geneticist Robert Jan Galjaard can be read online.<ref>Galjaard, R.J.H 2003. [http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf Mapping Studies of Congenital Limb Anomalies]. Page 16</ref><ref> This diagram (strictly speaking for mice, but considered a good analog for humans in this respect) also helps us appreciate the complexity of the process:
===The Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages===


[http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Musculoskeletal_System_-_Muscle_Development#Mouse_Limb_Muscle Musculoskeletal System - Muscle Development]</ref>It details that muscle precursor cells migrate from the somites into the limb buds (ca. day 26), well before the condensing core of mesenchyme has started to chondrify into cartilage bone models in the upper part of the limb (ca. day 37), followed by the lower part (ca. day 41). The muscle precursor cells aggregate around these cores and have grouped into distinct muscle masses by day 41.
====Bone and Muscle Formation According to Medical Science====


Furthermore, Lane's Lexicon gives no indication that lahm means muscles specifically rather than flesh in general.<ref>Lane’s Lexicon - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000262.pdf Volume 8/ 262] - StudyQuran.org</ref><ref>Lane’s Lexicon - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000263.pdf Volume 8/ 263] - StudyQuran.org</ref> Thus Qur'an embryology is even more inaccurate as it suggests that there is a stage when the bones are unclothed without any kind of flesh. We have more evidence supporting this interpretation elsewhere in the Qur'an. Verse 2:259 uses the same Arabic words as does 23:14 for 'bones', 'clothed' and 'flesh' to describe the resurrection of a donkey which had been dead for 100 years. Verse 22:5 (see quote in next section) suggests that embryological development has similarities with resurrection.
In order to compare with science the Quranic statement that Allah makes the lump of flesh bones ('ithaman<ref name="LLitham" />) and then clothes (fa-kasawna<ref name="LLkasawa" />) the bones with flesh (lahman<ref name="LLlahm" />), it is necessary to see what science has discovered about the process of bone and muscle formation. Here is a brief description for both of them, without any detail on the relative timing of parallel processes. The section that follows afterwards contains numerous cited scientific sources stating the timing of these processes. Finally, a third section will compare this with the Quran.


{{Quote|{{Qtt|2|259}}|'''Pickthal:''' ...and look at your ass; and that We may make you a sign to men, and look at the bones, how We set them together, then clothed them with flesh...
[[w:Mesoderm|Mesoderm]] is the middle of the three layers of the early embryo. Some of the mesoderm cells ([[w:Paraxial_mesoderm|paraxial mesoderm]]) form a series of blocks called [[w:Somite|somites]] either side of the neural tube (this tube will eventually form the spinal cord and brain). These somites will differentiate into sclerotome and myotome, which form the cartilage 'models' (or 'templates') and become connective tissues (including muscles) respectively of the future [[w:Axial_skeleton|axial skeleton]] (i.e. everything except the limbs, shoulders and pelvis). The myotome differentiates and migrates as the sclerotome is condensing into mesenchyme, which will produce cartilage. Each process occurs segmentally down the somites in a cranio-caudal sequence (head to tail).
<BR>'''Transliteration:''' ''waonthur ila himarika walinajAAalaka ayatan lilnnasi waonthur ila alAAithami kayfa nunshizuha thumma naksooha lahman''}}


The resurrected donkey's bones clearly had no flesh on them (were unclothed), and then Allah clothed them. This rather suggests that when the same words are used in 23:14 to describe the developing fetus, the author had in mind a small bare skeleton (or perhaps that the bones are within what was the mudghah, but with no muscles), which is then clothed with flesh.
Another area of mesoderm (lateral plate mesoderm) proliferates especially quickly in certain positions to form the limb buds. There, mesenchyme cells condense into distinct masses within the limb buds. These mesenchyme cells differentiate into chondrocytes, which secrete the cartilage matrix and are embedded in it. Thus cartilage models of the future limb bones gradually form ([[w:Chondrogenesis|chondrification]]). Once the cartilage models have formed and while they are still growing, the cartilage is literally replaced with actual bone by osteoblasts ([[w:Endochondral_ossification|ossification]]) working outwards from centres of the cartilage models. Osteoclasts remove the remnants of the mineralized cartilage. Ossification also starts in the axial skeleton some time after it has begun in the limbs, except for the upper and lower jaw, which start to ossify slightly earlier.


===The End of Cell Differentiation===
Meanwhile, the process of limb muscle formation begins as soon as the limb buds appear. Myoblast cells migrate from somites to populate the limb buds. They aggregate into distinct masses as the condensing mesenchyme starts to chondrify, and before the resulting cartilage models begin to ossify. Over time the myoblasts in these masses differentiate into fused myotubes which form muscle fibres.
Some proponents of Qur'anic embryology state that mudghah stage in which the phrase “partly formed and partly unformed” or “shaped and shapeless” refers to the incomplete cell differentiation observed in this stage.  


{{Quote|{{Quran|22|05}}|'''Pickthal:''' O mankind! if ye are in doubt concerning the Resurrection, then lo! We have created you from dust, then from a drop of seed, then from a clot, then from a little lump of flesh shapely and shapeless, …}}
====The Timing of These Processes====


This claim is not backed by the scientific evidence.  
The scientific evidence shows that the development of cartilage/bone and muscles is contemporaneous.  


Remembering that this mudghah stage occurs before the 'itham stage, it must occur before week six, when the progeny is still in the “embryo” stage. However, modern embryologists know that cell differentiation occurs well before the ‘mudghah’ stage and well into the “fetal” stage. Hence the Qur'anic embryology claim must be incorrect.
A very detailed account of musculo-skeletal development in the human limb by clinical-geneticist Robert Jan Galjaard covers this subject.<ref>Galjaard, R.J.H. [http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf Mapping Studies of Congenital Limb Anomalies]. Ablasserdam: Haveka, B.V., 2003, page 16 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220409030333/https://repub.eur.nl/pub/10474/030924_Galjaard,%20Robert-Jan%20Harmen.pdf archive])</ref> It details that muscle precursor cells migrate from the somites into the limb buds (ca. day 26). This is well before the condensing core of mesenchyme has started to chondrify into cartilage bone models in the upper part of the upper limb (ca. day 37), followed by the lower part (ca. day 41). The myoblasts have grouped into distinct dorsal and ventral masses by that stage (they do so in the upper limb by day 36 and the start of chondrification according to Sivakumar et. al<ref>Sivakumar, B. et. al. ''Congenital Hand Differences'' in Farhadieh, R. et. al. (ed.) Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: Approaches and Techniques, Chichester: Wiley, 2015, p.660 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tCq9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA660#v=onepage&q&f=false Google books preview]</ref>). The upper limbs later start to ossify (ca. day 54). Chondrification of mesenchyme, the grouping of myogenic masses, and ossification all occur in a proximal-distal order (upper to lower part of each limb). The digits of the hands only start to chondrify ca. day 51.


===The Beginning of the Fetal Stage===
Professor Peter Law concurs that myoblasts are found in the limb buds day 26.<ref>Law, Peter et al., ''Pioneering Human Myoblast Genome Therapy as a Platform Technology of Regenerative Medicine.'' In: Stem Cell Therapy. Erik Greer (Editor). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2006. Page 3.</ref>
Proponents also claim that the Qur'an correctly denotes the start of the Fetal stage by referring to the creation of ‘another creation’ after the 'itham/lahm stage (bone clothed with flesh), which supposedly occurs at week eight.  


{{Quote|{{cite Quran|23|12|end=14|style=ref}}|'''Pickthal:''' …We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as another creation.}}
A detailed account by Walker and Miranda confirms that after day 35, the premuscle regions of the limb containing myoblasts and fibroblasts become distinct, by day 45 the myoblasts have started to fuse together to form the first myotubes (which continues for some weeks, forming the muscle fibres), and by day 50 the dorsal and ventral masses have been compartmentalized into the major anatomical muscles.<ref>Walker, U. A., and Miranda, A. F. ''Muscle Metabolism in the Fetus and Neonate'' in Cowett, R. M. (ed.) Principles of Perinatal-Neonatal Metabolism, 2nd Edition, Volume 1, New York: Springer, 1998, pp.642-643 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eoy-BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA642#v=onepage&q&f=false Google Books preview][BR /]"The first multinucleated myotubes in limbs have been observed at day 45. By day 50, all bone rudiments have formed and the major anatomical muscles are compartmentalized into their definitive anatomical muscles by segregation from two premuscle masses that are located ventrally and dorsally from the prospective bone structures."</ref>


An experienced embryologist would know that the delineation of the embryo and fetal stages is arbitrary.  
In the 10th edition (2016) of the Developing Human, Keith Moore says that ossification of the long bones begins in the 8th week, starting with the upper limbs, followed by the lower limbs and pelvis<ref>Keith L. Moore, Ph..D., FIAC, FRSM T.V.N. Persaud, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., FRCPath W.B., The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, 10th Edition, Philadelphia: Elseiver, 2016, p. p.349 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pmKGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA349#v=onepage&q&f=false Google Books preview]</ref> (which concurs with Galjaard cited above).


{{Quote||However, the 8-week dividing line is still arbitrary, since a firm scientific basis for the transition to the fetal stage is lacking.<ref>Network for European CNS Transplantation and Restoration (NECTAR) - [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/embryos1994.html Ethical Guidelines for the Use of Human Embryonic or Fetal Tissue for Experimental and Clinical Neurotransplantation and Research (1994)] - Human Rights Library, University of Minnesota</ref>}}
With axial musculo-skeletal development, Walker and Miranda explain that myotomes have migrated (these form axial muscle) and sclerotomes have started to condense into mesenchyme (which will form cartilage) in the 5th week.<ref>Ibid.</ref> According to Rugh, Building blocks are present for 40 pairs of muscles, which are located from the base of the skull to the bottom of the spinal column by day 28<ref>Conception to Birth Roberts Rugh, Ph.D., Landrum B. Shettles, Ph.D., M.D. Harper & Row, (New York), 1971, p.35</ref> (these are the myotomes of the somites). Muscles appear in the pelvis day 31<ref>ibid. p.43</ref>. Movement of the muscles is being controlled by the nervous system by the 6th week <ref>ibid. p.34</ref>. All of the muscle blocks have appeared by day 36 after conception<ref>ibid. p.46</ref>


==Other Apologetic Claims==
It is apparent from the above that muscle masses have started to form around the mesenchyme condensations around the same time as they begin to chondrify into cartilage models of the limb bones, and long before they have even begun to ossify. Similarly, the process of muscle and cartilage formation begins at the same time for the axoskeleton. Muscles and cartilage, and bone that replaces it, continue their formation in parallel with each other.


===The Least Period of Conception===
====Problems With The Quranic Description====
The prefix fa before kasawna (we clothed) means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.<ref>فَ fa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2322</ref> Further emphasising this, each stage is mentioned twice ("''nutfah''...''nutfah''...''alaqah'''...''alaqah''...''lump'', then we made the ''lump'' ''bones'', then we clothed the ''bones'' with flesh"). The whole verse conveys a sequential process.  
Another claim is that the Qur'an correctly states that the least period of conception is 6 months. They base this claim on two verses.  


{{Quote| {{Quran|46|15}}|'''Pickthal:''' And We have commended unto man kindness toward parents. His mother beareth him with reluctance, and bringeth him forth with reluctance, and the bearing of him and the weaning of him is thirty months, till, when he attaineth full strength and reacheth forty years, he saith: My Lord! Arouse me that I may give thanks for the favour wherewith Thou hast favoured me and my parents, and that I may do right acceptable unto Thee. And be gracious unto me In the matter of my seed. Lo! I have turned unto Thee repentant, and lo! I am of those who surrender (unto Thee).}}
In reality, the verse is not compatible with, let alone a good description of musculoskeletal development. There is no scientific basis for a two-stage process by which bones have in any sense been created before the process of muscle formation is underway.  


{{Quote| {{Quran|31|14}}|'''Pickthal:''' And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents. His mother beareth him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto Me is the journeying.}}
Firstly, it is clear from the above sections that actual bone formation (ossification) begins long after the process of muscle formation has begun to develop around its precursors. Since the myoblasts have already migrated and aggregated into distinct masses, nor can their subsequent fusing into myotubes and muscle fibres be described as "clothing" the bones (which in any case ossify and continue to grow in parallel with muscle development) - the masses were already there.


Dr. Omar Abdul Rehman claims that ‘the two texts taken together leave only six months (22 weeks i.e., five and half Gregorian months are equal to about six [[Islamic Lunar Calendar|lunar months]]. of pregnancy).’ Here, Dr. Abdul Rehman’s sleight of hand to fit 22 weeks into six lunar months is ludicrous as each lunar month consists of four weeks, while five and a half Gregorian months consist of about 23.8 weeks.  
It is sometimes claimed that the Quran was only referring to precursor cartilage models of the bones and not bone itself. However, this does not explain why the author of the Quran mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)<ref name="LLghudtroof">غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000032.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 6, page 2248</ref>) but only bone ('itham)<ref name="LLitham"></ref>, which literally replaces the cartilage and starts to form well after muscle building blocks are in place.


Dr. Al-Ghazal also claims that according to ‘scientific facts’ the least period of conception is 22 weeks.  
In any case its description would still be incompatible with scientific reality. The evidence set out above shows that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when myoblasts migrate and form distinct masses around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above.


Even assuming the arbitrary claim by Drs Al-Ghazal and Abdul Rehman of 22 weeks, being the ‘most cases’ scenario (which is false according to medical statistics – see below), one is left with the conclusion that the Qur'an is still in error as six lunar months is 24 weeks, not 22 weeks.  
For the same reason the Quran would still be wrong even to suppose, with a further stretch, that it means only the very beginning of the formation of the cartilage (chondrification) before they are in any sense complete shapes. Going back earlier still, it can even be pointed out that the precursors of muscles (myoblasts) and precursors to the cartilage (mesenchyme) are present in the limb bud as soon as it arises.  


This two-week difference is very important to the development and survivability of the fetus. Hence, it should not be summarily dismissed and rounded to the nearest month. If anything, it should be rounded to five lunar months, not six.  
However, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that the bones have some sort of meaningful shape, and can meaningfully be called bones. This is certainly not the case when the condensed mesenchyme has merely started to produce cartilage. Furthermore, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that all the bones have some meaningful presence worthy of the label 'bones' before Allah clothes them with flesh. As noted in the evidence above, fingers only start to even chondrify after muscle formation is already well underway in the upper part of the limbs.


Regardless, the claim of six lunar months or 22 weeks as the least period of conception or ‘minimum period for fetal viability’ is unsupported by modern medical science.  
There is more evidence that 23:14 refers to things already recognizable as bones then being clothed with muscles or flesh elsewhere in the Quran. Verse 2:259 uses the same Arabic words as does 23:14 for 'bones', 'clothed' and 'flesh' to describe the resurrection of a donkey which had been dead for 100 years.<ref>[...]and look at your ass; and that We may make you a sign to men, and look at the bones, how We set them together, then clothed them with flesh[...]
<BR>Transliteration: ''waonthur ila himarika walinajAAalaka ayatan lilnnasi waonthur ila alAAithami kayfa nunshizuha thumma naksooha lahman''<nowiki>}}</nowiki><br>{{Quran|2|259}}</ref> The main embryology passages such as verse 22:5 suggest that embryological development has similarities with resurrection.<ref name="22-5" />


{{Quote||A fetus is defined as being viable if it has the ability to "potentially able to live outside the mother's womb [that is, can survive], albeit with artificial help." In the fifties viability was reached about 30 weeks after conception. Modern medical technology changed that to 25 weeks in the seventies. Now viability continues to be pushed further and further back in the pregnancy and is now as early as 19 weeks.  
===The New Creation Stage===
After the bones were clothed with flesh, the Quran finally says that Allah "produced it as another creation".<ref><nowiki>Then fashioned We the drop a clot, then fashioned We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!}}</nowiki><br>{{Quran|23|14}}</ref> Some apologists identify this with the fetal period of pregnancy, which begins at week nine.  


21 and 22 week premature babies are now supported routinely, and have a good chance of survival. By 24 weeks after conception, premature babies have a 40% chance of reaching adulthood without any major complications. By 28 weeks, the chance is 90%. By 29 weeks, survival is almost definite. (Note: These percentages are from reports written during the late 1980s. Current survival rates are most likely much higher.)<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050205142039/http://www.abortioninfo.net/facts/development4.shtml Fetal Development/Viability] - Abortioninfo</ref>}}
===Related claims===


Thus, it can be seen that the minimum period of fetal viability has changed, at least in recent history. It was never 22 weeks or 6 lunar months prior to the era of modern medicine, being likely to have been at least 30 weeks. Now, it has shrunk to only 19 weeks in countries with advanced pediatric medicine. We would suggest the minimum period of fetal viability in many third-world countries would still be around 30 weeks. Thus, Qur'anic embryology's proposition of the least period of conception is false.
Aside from the various stages described in the main Quranic embryology verses, some apologists claim to have found additional examples of miraculous knowledge relating to this topic.


===Gender determination===
====Gender Determination====
Some claim that 35:11 and 53:45-46 shows knowledge that gender is determined by sperm cells (which contain either an x or y chromosome to go with the x chromosome of the female ovum).
Some claim that verses 35:11 and 53:45-46 indicate that gender is determined at the nutfah stage, and specifically by sperm cells (which contain either an x or y chromosome to go with the x chromosome of the female ovum).


{{Quote|{{Quran|35|11}}|Allah created you from dust [tubarin تُرَابٍ], then from a little fluid [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then He made you pairs [azwajan أَزْوَٰجًا](the male and female). No female beareth or bringeth forth save with His knowledge. And no-one groweth old who groweth old, nor is aught lessened of his life, but it is recorded in a Book, Lo! that is easy for Allah.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|35|11}}|Allah created you from dust [tubarin تُرَابٍ], then from a little fluid [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then He made you pairs [azwajan أَزْوَٰجًا](the male and female). No female beareth or bringeth forth save with His knowledge. And no-one groweth old who groweth old, nor is aught lessened of his life, but it is recorded in a Book, Lo! that is easy for Allah.}}
Line 257: Line 202:
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|53|45|46}}|And that He createth the two spouses, the male and the female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ], From a drop (of seed) when it is poured forth [nutfatin itha tumna نُّطْفَةٍ إِذَا تُمْنَىٰ];}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|53|45|46}}|And that He createth the two spouses, the male and the female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ], From a drop (of seed) when it is poured forth [nutfatin itha tumna نُّطْفَةٍ إِذَا تُمْنَىٰ];}}


This does not hold water for three reasons:
If 35:11 and 53:45 are taken literally as indicating 'when' gender is determined, it would be inaccurate, because millions of sperm are emitted, some with an x chromosome, some with a y chromosome. Gender is determined not when the semen is emitted (as the next verse 46 indicates), but rather when the egg is fertilized by one of the sperm cells, which can take anything from half an hour to 12 hours for the first of them to reach the egg, and then more time for one of the many that arrive to successfully penetrate it. The point from 35:11 and 53:45-46 seems to be rather that Allah simply created human beings as men and women; no inference can reasonably be made about sexual development from sperm based on these verses.


1. Verses 75:37-39 show that the author believed that gender was determined after the 'alaqah stage. Both 53:45 and 75:39 use the exact same phrase, "alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha" 'of the two spouses, the male and the female', and 35:11 too uses the word for male / female pair (azwajan).
Moreover, verses 75:37-39 use the same language about gender, but after the 'alaqah stage. 75:39 uses the exact same phrase as in 53:45, "وَأَنَّهُۥ خَلَقَ ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ" "wa innahu khalaqa alzzawjayni aldhdhakara waaluntha" ("verily he created the two spouses, the male and the female"}, which is also similar to the word used in 35:11, azwajan (male / female pair).  


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|37|36}}|Was he not a drop [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] of fluid [manayin مَّنِىٍّ] which gushed forth [yumna يُمْنَىٰ]? Then he became a clot [alaqatan عَلَقَةً]; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ].}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|37|39}}|Was he not a drop [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] of fluid [manayin مَّنِىٍّ] which gushed forth [yumna يُمْنَىٰ]? Then he became a clot [alaqatan عَلَقَةً]; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ].}}


2. If apologists want to take 53:45 literally as indicating 'when' gender is determined, then the Qur'an would still be wrong, because millions of sperm are emitted, some with an x chromosome, some with a y chromosome. Gender is determined not when the semen is emitted, but when the egg is fertilised by one of the sperm cells, which can take anything from half an hour to 12 hours for the first of them to reach the egg, and then more time for one of the many that arrive to successfully penetrate it.
It should also be remembered, as noted above, that the evidence is unanimous that nutfah means a small quantity of fluid, a euphemism for semen – there is no indication of sperm cells within the fluid.


3. Again, it should be noted that the evidence is unanimous that nutfah means a small quantity of fluid, a euphemism for semen – there is no indication of sperm cells within the fluid.
In an alternative approach, apologists interpret 75:39 to mean that the external genitalia and gonads are formed after the 'alaqah stage, knowing that the gender of the child has already been determined genetically at the moment of conception as stated above. However, this approach not only ignores the other two verses already mentioned, but there are hadith even more explicit than Quran 75:37-39 which say that gender is decided after the mudghah stage.<ref>Narrated Anas bin Malik:<br>
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."<br>{{Bukhari|1|6|315}}</ref>


Furthermore, there are hadith even more explicit than Qur'an 75:37-39 which say that gender is decided after the 'mudghah stage:
=====Intersex People=====


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|6|315}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:
Furthermore, not everyone is simply a male with XY sex chromosomes, or a female with XX sex chromosomes. A small minority are called [[w:intersex|intersex]] due to certain types of genetic or phenotypic sex variations, including:<ref>[https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001669.htm Medline plus - Intersex]</ref>
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."}}


Others interpret 75:39 to mean that the external genitalia and gonads are formed after the 'alaqah stage. This is a more plausible interpretation, but is still problematic. For the gender of the child has already been determined genetically at the moment of conception as stated above.
*Those who are 46, XY intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or clearly female.


====Intersex People====
*Those who are 46, XX intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a woman, the ovaries of a woman, but external (outside) genitals that appear male.


Furthermore, not everyone is simply a male with XY sex chromosomes, or a female with XX sex chromosomes. A small minority are called [[w:intersex]] due to certain types of genetic or phenotypic sex variations, including:<ref>[https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001669.htm| Medline plus - Intersex]</ref>
*True Gonadal intersex (formerly called True Hermaphroditism). Such people have both male and female gonads (ovaries and testes), and may have ambiguous external genitalia.


* Those who are 46, XY intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or clearly female.
*Other genetic configurations include XXX, and XXY (1 in 1000 people)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency |title=How common is intersex? &#124; Intersex Society of North America |publisher=Isna.org |accessdate=10 October 2016}}</ref>. These people have no discrepancy between their gonads and external genitalia, but there may be problems with sex hormone levels, and overall sexual development.


* Those who are 46, XX intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a woman, the ovaries of a woman, but external (outside) genitals that appear male.
According to Leonard Sax, when the term intersex is "restricted to those conditions in which chromosomal sex is inconsistent with phenotypic sex, or in which the phenotype is not classifiable as either male or female", around 0.018% of the population are intersex. This definition excludes Klinefelter syndrome and many other variations.<ref>Sax, L., ''How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling'' Journal of Sex Research, volume 39, issue 3, pp.174–178 (2002) doi 10.1080/00224490209552139 pmid 12476264</ref> There is no mention of these conditions in any conceivable interpretation of the Qur'an.  


* True Gonadal intersex. Such people have both male and female gonads (ovaries and testes), and may have ambiguous external genitalia.
====Sperm within Semen====


* Other genetic configurations include XXX, and XXY (1 in 1000 people)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency |title=How common is intersex? &#124; Intersex Society of North America |publisher=Isna.org |accessdate=10 October 2016}}</ref>. These people have no discrepancy between their gonads and external genitalia, but there may be problems with sex hormone levels, and overall sexual development.
Others claim that verses 75:37<ref>Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth?<br>{{Quran|75|37}}</ref> and 32:7-8<ref>Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;<br>{{Quran-range|32|7|8}}</ref> hint at sperm within the semen. These claims are discussed in the context of very similar verses at the end of the article [http://wikiislam.net/wiki/Greek_and_Jewish_Ideas_about_Reproduction_in_the_Quran_and_Hadith#Other_apologetic_claims Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]


According to Leonard Sax, when the term intersex is "restricted to those conditions in which chromosomal sex is inconsistent with phenotypic sex, or in which the phenotype is not classifiable as either male or female", around 0.018% of the population are intersex. This definition excludes Klinefelter syndrome and many other variations.<ref>Sax, L., ''How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling'' Journal of Sex Research, volume 39, issue 3, pp.174–178 (2002) doi 10.1080/00224490209552139 pmid 12476264</ref>
====Mingled male and female fluids====
{{Quran|76|2}} states that "Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight." Some claim that this is a reference to male semen and follicular fluid. There are two problems with this claim:


===Sperm within Semen===
1) By the time a sperm cell reaches a woman's fallopian tube where fertilisation occurs, it is no longer swimming in male semen, but has instead swam through cervical mucus, then binded to epithelium of the uterine tube where it undergoes capacitation and detaches again, then through a combination of muscular movements of the tube and some swimming movements makes its way up the tube.<ref>[https://clinicalgate.com/transport-of-gametes-and-fertilization/ Clinicalgate.com - Transport of gametes and fertilization]</ref>; and


Others claim that verses 35:37 and 32:7-8 hint at sperm within the semen. These claims are debunked by means of very similar verses and other reasons at the end of the article [http://wikiislam.net/wiki/Greek_and_Jewish_Ideas_about_Reproduction_in_the_Quran_and_Hadith#Other_apologetic_claims Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith]
2) Follicular fluid is part of the developmental environment of the female ovum (oocyte, egg cell) before the egg is released from the egg follicle. While some fluid is released at the same time into the fallopian tube, the ovum is pushed along the fallopian tube by fallopian cilia (microscopic hairs) and is bathed in another type of tubal fluid secretion.<ref>[https://britannica.com/science/ovulation Britannica.com - Ovulation]</ref>


===Womb has Three Layers===
For these reasons, fertilization cannot reasonably be described as a mingling of semen and follicular fluid. Rather, the Qur'anic statement corresponds with the Galenic theory of two semens, male and female, which was widespread in the region and time. [[Sources_of_Islamic_Theories_of_Reproduction|Galen's influence]] is also apparent in numerous hadiths relating to this notion and other issues relating to human reproduction.


The word butun (بطن)<ref>بطن butun - [[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000257.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 1, page 220</ref> means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators like to use the more specific word "womb". There are many more layers in the human body such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers). The idea of three membranes around the fetus (chorion, allantois, and amnion) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen. It is likely that the Qur'anic author is simply repeating this erroneous idea.
====Fetus is in Three Layers of darkness====


{{Quote|{{Quran|39|6}}|
Some apologetics claim that Quran 39:6 accurately describes 3 dark layers around the fetus.<ref>He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?<br>{{Quran|39|6}}</ref> A common apologetic interpretation is that the "three darknesses" are the abdominal wall, the uterine wall, and the amniotic sac.
He created you (all) from a single person: then created, of like nature, his mate; and he sent down for you eight head of cattle in pairs: He makes you, in the wombs of your mothers, in stages, one after another, in '''three veils of darkness'''. such is Allah, your Lord and Cherisher: to Him belongs (all) dominion. There is no god but He: then how are ye turned away (from your true Centre)? }}


==Conclusion==
The word butun (بطن)<ref>بطن butun - [[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000257.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Volume 1, page 220</ref> means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators like to use the more specific word "womb". Tafsirs interpreted the "three darknesses" as the placenta, womb (uterus) and belly. There are in fact many more layers in the human body such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers).


Qur'anic Embryology can be seen to be false due to the following points:  
The idea of three membranes around the fetus - ([[w:Chorion|chorion]], [[w:Allantois|allantois]], and [[w:Amnion|amnion]]) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen. Some critics suggest that the Quranic author is simply repeating this idea, which applies only to the embryonic membranes. The allantois is a sac-like structure which becomes part of the umbilical cord, and thus cannot be described as 'a darkness' for the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the [[w:Amniotic_sac|amniotic sac]], which is quite thin and transparent.


1. The Qur'an itself omits mention of the ovum in human reproduction, with doctrinal evidence that it regards the progeny to be the resulting union between the seed from the male parent and the female parent as tilth. As tilth do not provide genetic material to the seed, it is clear that the Qur'an regards the nutfah (semen) as the diploid seed. Moreover, the choice of the words nutfah (small amount of liquid) and maa' maheenin (water/liquid disdained) in key passages indicate a belief that the embryo is formed out of semen, with no knowledge of the sperm cell.
====The Minimum Period of Fetal Viability====
Another claim is that the Qur'an correctly states that the minimum period for gestation of a viable baby is 6 months. This claim is based on two Quranic verses, the first of which states that a child is weaned for two years (24 lunar months), and the other that the bearing and weaning of a child lasts for 30 lunar months.<ref>And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents. His mother beareth him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto Me is the journeying.<br>{{Quran|31|14}}</ref><ref>And We have commended unto man kindness toward parents. His mother beareth him with reluctance, and bringeth him forth with reluctance, and the bearing of him and the weaning of him is thirty months, till, when he attaineth full strength and reacheth forty years, he saith: My Lord! Arouse me that I may give thanks for the favour wherewith Thou hast favoured me and my parents, and that I may do right acceptable unto Thee. And be gracious unto me In the matter of my seed. Lo! I have turned unto Thee repentant, and lo! I am of those who surrender (unto Thee).<br>{{Quran|46|15}}</ref> Yusuf Ali makes this claim in the notes of his translation for verse 46:15, presumably having noticed that the two verses in combination do not equate to a 9 month pregnancy.


2. The Qur'an includes an initial dust stage that cannot be reconciled with modern embryology.  
Six lunar months equates to 22 weeks. The claim that this is the minimum period for fetal viability is unsupported by modern medical science. It has changed, at least in recent history, and was never 22 weeks or 6 lunar months prior to the era of modern medicine, being likely to have been at least 30 weeks. Now, it has shrunk to only 19 weeks in countries with advanced pediatric medicine.<ref>"A fetus is defined as being viable if it has the ability to 'potentially able to live outside the mother's womb [that is, can survive], albeit with artificial help.' In the fifties viability was reached about 30 weeks after conception. Modern medical technology changed that to 25 weeks in the seventies. Now viability continues to be pushed further and further back in the pregnancy and is now as early as 19 weeks.
21 and 22 week premature babies are now supported routinely, and have a good chance of survival. By 24 weeks after conception, premature babies have a 40% chance of reaching adulthood without any major complications. By 28 weeks, the chance is 90%. By 29 weeks, survival is almost definite. (Note: These percentages are from reports written during the late 1980s. Current survival rates are most likely much higher.)"<br>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050205142039/http://www.abortioninfo.net/facts/development4.shtml Fetal Development/Viability] - Abortioninfo</ref> The minimum period of fetal viability in many less-developed countries would still be around 30 weeks.


3. The missing stages of verse 40:67 contradict the other embryology verses.  
====The End of Cell Differentiation====
Some proponents of Quranic embryology state that the mudghah stage, which is described in one verse as "partly formed and partly unformed" or "shaped and shapeless", refers to the incomplete cell differentiation observed in this stage.<ref name="22-5" />


4. The stages of bone formation then clothing with flesh is in error, even assuming that izhaam means both bone and cartilage.  
However, cell differentiation occurs throughout the embryonic stage, and even into the fetal period, for example as discussed above regarding bone and muscle development.


5. The Qur'anic view of cell differentiation at the Mudgha stage is incorrect, as modern embryology has discovered cell differentiation occurring before and after the putative ‘Mudgha’ stage.  
==Classical Commentaries==
As mentioned in the opening section, classical commentators understood the verses in accordance with incorrect scientific theories at the time. Critics note how naturally they did so, and that the commentaries have value as linguistic evidence for the relevant Arabic words. Two of the major [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 tafsirs] translated into English (on Islamic websites) state the following regarding {{Quran|23|14}}:


6. The claim that the Qur'an correctly predicted the beginning of the fetal stage is shown to be in error because the transition between the embryo and the fetus is arbitrary.  
{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 | name=Ibn Kathir| title=Tafsir Ibn Kathir 23:14}}|...(Then We made the Nutfah into a clot,) meaning, `then We made the Nutfah, which is the water gushing forth that comes from the loins of man, i.e., his back, and the ribs of woman, i.e., the bones of her chest, between the clavicle and the breast. Then it becomes a red clot, like an elongated clot.' `Ikrimah said, "This is blood.''
(then We made the clot into a little lump of flesh,) which is like a piece of flesh with no shape or features.
(then We made out of that little lump of flesh bones,) meaning, `We gave it shape, with a head, two arms and two legs, with its bones, nerves and veins.'
(then We clothed the bones with flesh,) meaning, `We gave it something to cover it and strengthen it.'
(and then We brought it forth as another creation.) means, `then We breathed the soul into it, and it moved and became a new creature, one that could hear, see, understand and move.}}{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/23.14 | name=Al-Jalalayn | title=Tafsir Al-Jalalayn 23:14}}|Then We transformed the drop [of semen] into a clot, congealed blood. Then We transformed the clot into a [little] lump of flesh (mudgha), a piece of flesh, about the size of what one would be able to chew (mā yumdagh). Then We transformed the lump of flesh into bones. Then We clothed the bones with flesh (a variant reading in both instances [instead of the plurals ‘izāman and al-‘izāma, ‘the bones’] is [singular] ‘azman [and ‘al-‘azma], ‘the bone’; and in all three instances above khalaqnā, means ‘We made it become’ [as opposed to ‘We created’]). Then We produced him as [yet] another creature, by breathing into him [Our] Spirit. So blessed be God, the best of creators!, that is, [the best of] determiners (the specificier noun for ahsana, ‘the best’, has been omitted because it is obvious: khalqan, ‘in terms of creation’).}}


7. The claim that the Qur'an correctly states the least period of conception at 24 weeks is in error, as according to modern medical knowledge this period is closer to 21-22 weeks or even less with advanced medical science, and at least 30 weeks without modern medical assistance.
==See also==


{{Core Science}}
*[[Sources of Islamic Theories of Reproduction]]
*[[Semen Production in the Quran]]
*[[Embryology in Islamic Scripture]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]


==See Also==
==External Links==


{{Hub4|Embryology|Embryology}}
*[https://embryologyinthequran.blogspot.com Embryology in the Quran: Much Ado about Nothing] ''- Captain Disguise and Martin Taverille''
*[[Quran Describes Gender Determination By Sperm|Qur'an Describes Gender Determination By Sperm]]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4EIapJ7Ivk Greco-Roman Embryology in the Quran Part I], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaYpxz63E8Y Part II], and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dUhNSFmBQM Part III] - The Urdu Free Thinker - Youtube.com (videos)
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20060214032231/http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html Quranic Embryology (archive)] ''- Dr. Yusuf Needham and Dr. Butrus Needbeer, FreeThought Mecca''
*[http://answering-islam.org/Quran/Science/embryo.html Embryology in the Quran] ''- Dr. Lactantius, Answering Islam''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040710/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/11/23/islamic-embryology-overblown-b/ Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash (archive)] ''- Dr. PZ Myers' response to Hamza Andreas Tzortzis’ paper, Embryology in the Quran''


==External Links==
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20060214032231/http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html|2=2012-06-11}} Qur'anic Embryology] ''- Dr. Yusuf Needham and Dr. Butrus Needbeer, FreeThought Mecca''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://answering-islam.org/Quran/Science/embryo.html|2=2012-06-11}} Embryology in the Qur'an] ''- Dr. Lactantius, Answering Islam''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://mukto-mona.com/wordpress/?p=1166|2=2012-06-11}} Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash] ''- Dr. PZ Myers' response to Hamza Andreas Tzortzis’ paper, Embryology in the Qur’an''
*[http://embryologyinthequran.blogspot.com Embryology in the Qur'an: Much Ado About Nothing] ''- Captain Disguise and Martin Taverille's response to Hamza Andreas Tzortzis’ paper, Embryology in the Qur’an''


==References==  
==References==  
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Harun Yahya]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Hector]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]
{{page_title|Embryology in the Qur'an}}
[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[ar:علم_الأجنّة_في_القرآن]]

Latest revision as of 23:52, 4 October 2023

Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination

This article or section is being renovated.

Lead = 4 / 4
Structure = 4 / 4
Content = 4 / 4
Language = 4 / 4
References = 4 / 4
Lead
4 / 4
Structure
4 / 4
Content
4 / 4
Language
4 / 4
References
4 / 4


Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination
Photo of Human Embryo (7 weeks)

The concept of Embryology in the Quran claims that a scientifically accurate account of embryological development is available in the Quran. Apologists, Sheikhs, and the larger Muslim community regard the mention of embryological stages in the Quran to be a scientific miracle of Islam and evidence of claims to its divine origin. However, critics claim the verses to be scientifically inaccurate and influenced by Greek theories which had been available at the time.

The apologetic interpretations of these verses began in earnest when books were published by non-Muslim medical experts Dr. Maurice Bucaille[1] and later by Dr. Keith Moore[2][3] (in a special edition of his book that was subtitled, "With Islamic Additions", alongside his co-author Abdul Majeed al-Zindani, a Wahhabi cleric). However, some critics believe Moore was only paying lip service to his hosts and investors, as he worked with the Embryology Committee of King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah.[4] Moore's praise of Islamic claims have been repeated in talks by Dr. Zakir Naik, Harun Yahya, and other apologists. Critics, like Dr. P.Z. Myers, believe the Quranic verses that mention embryology are incomparable and unacceptable to scientific standards.[5]

Many have written about the remarkable similarities between Quranic embryology and that taught by Galen of Pergamon. Galen was a highly influential Greek physician (b. 130 CE), whose works were studied in Syria and Egypt during Muhammad's time[6]. Some of the most obvious links with Galen (and also with the Talmud) are in statements about the nutfah (نُطْفَةً) stage of embryology in the Quran, and even more so in the hadith. The article Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith discusses this further. Striking similarities exist between the other Quranic embryo stages and Galen too. However, while interesting and very probable, these influences cannot be proven for the Quran, and it is in any case unnecessary when examining the accuracy of the Quranic descriptions. This article will concentrate solely on apologetic claims made by Islamic du'aah regarding the accuracy of Qur'anic embryology vis-a-vis modern embryology, and on criticisms concerning the validity of these claims.

Quranic terminology

The Quran is written in Classical/Quranic Arabic. As such, not all terms are easily translatable from Modern Standard Arabic.[7] For clarification purposes:

  1. Nutfah (نُطْفَةً) - drop of semen[8]
  2. Alaqah (عَلَقَةً) - leech and certain creatures that cling and suck blood, or blood, thick blood or clotted blood[9]
  3. Mudghah (مُضْغَةً) - bite-sized morsel of flesh[10]
  4. 'Itham (عِظَٰمًا) - bones, especially of the limbs[11]
  5. Kasawa(كَسَوَ) - clothed[12]
  6. Lahm (لَحْمًا) - flesh[13]

Relevant quotations

وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا ٱلْإِنسَٰنَ مِن سُلَٰلَةٍ مِّن طِينٍ

ثُمَّ جَعَلْنَٰهُ نُطْفَةً فِى قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ

ثُمَّ خَلَقْنَا ٱلنُّطْفَةَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقْنَا ٱلْعَلَقَةَ مُضْغَةً فَخَلَقْنَا ٱلْمُضْغَةَ عِظَٰمًا فَكَسَوْنَا ٱلْعِظَٰمَ لَحْمًا ثُمَّ أَنشَأْنَٰهُ خَلْقًا ءَاخَرَ ۚ فَتَبَارَكَ ٱللَّهُ أَحْسَنُ ٱلْخَٰلِقِينَ

Verily We created man from a product of wet earth [sulalatin min teenin سُلَٰلَةٍ مِّن طِينٍ]; Then placed him as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ]; Then fashioned We the drop a clot ['alaqatan عَلَقَةً], then fashioned We the clot a little lump [mudghatan مُضْغَةً], then fashioned We the little lump bones ['ithaman عِظَٰمًا], then clothed [kasawna كَسَوْنَا] the bones with flesh [lahman لَحْمًا], and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!


يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلنَّاسُ إِن كُنتُمْ فِى رَيْبٍ مِّنَ ٱلْبَعْثِ فَإِنَّا خَلَقْنَٰكُم مِّن تُرَابٍ ثُمَّ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ ثُمَّ مِنْ عَلَقَةٍ ثُمَّ مِن مُّضْغَةٍ مُّخَلَّقَةٍ وَغَيْرِ مُخَلَّقَةٍ لِّنُبَيِّنَ لَكُمْ ۚ وَنُقِرُّ فِى ٱلْأَرْحَامِ مَا نَشَآءُ إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلٍ مُّسَمًّى ثُمَّ نُخْرِجُكُمْ طِفْلًا ثُمَّ لِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَشُدَّكُمْ ۖ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُتَوَفَّىٰ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُرَدُّ إِلَىٰٓ أَرْذَلِ ٱلْعُمُرِ لِكَيْلَا يَعْلَمَ مِنۢ بَعْدِ عِلْمٍ شَيْـًٔا ۚ وَتَرَى ٱلْأَرْضَ هَامِدَةً فَإِذَآ أَنزَلْنَا عَلَيْهَا ٱلْمَآءَ ٱهْتَزَّتْ وَرَبَتْ وَأَنۢبَتَتْ مِن كُلِّ زَوْجٍۭ بَهِيجٍ


O mankind! if ye are in doubt concerning the Resurrection, then lo! We have created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then from a little lump of flesh [mudghatin مُّضْغَةٍ] shapely and shapeless [mukhallaqatin waghayri mukhallaqatin مُّخَلَّقَةٍ وَغَيْرِ مُخَلَّقَةٍ], that We may make (it) clear for you. And We cause what We will to remain in the wombs for an appointed time, and afterward We bring you forth as infants, then (give you growth) that ye attain your full strength. And among you there is he who dieth (young), and among you there is he who is brought back to the most abject time of life, so that, after knowledge, he knoweth naught. And thou (Muhammad) seest the earth barren, but when We send down water thereon, it doth thrill and swell and put forth every lovely kind (of growth).

هُوَ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَكُم مِّن تُرَابٍ ثُمَّ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ ثُمَّ مِنْ عَلَقَةٍ ثُمَّ يُخْرِجُكُمْ طِفْلًا ثُمَّ لِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَشُدَّكُمْ ثُمَّ لِتَكُونُوا۟ شُيُوخًا ۚ وَمِنكُم مَّن يُتَوَفَّىٰ مِن قَبْلُ ۖ وَلِتَبْلُغُوٓا۟ أَجَلًا مُّسَمًّى وَلَعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ

He it is Who created you from dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then from a drop (of seed) [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ] then from a clot [alaqatin عَلَقَةٍ], then bringeth you forth as a child, then (ordaineth) that ye attain full strength and afterward that ye become old men - though some among you die before - and that ye reach an appointed term, that haply ye may understand.

Scientific criticism of Quranic embryology

Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination
Empirical cycle - A.D. de Groot

Embryology in the Quran is often criticised from a modern scientific perspective. More details including references are given throughout this article, but the main criticisms are as follows:

  1. A number of verses[14] demonstrate a belief that man is created from semen itself, as a fluid which is placed in the womb for a known term, and undergoes various further stages of development (as also taught by Galen and in the Jewish Talmud). See this article for the most comprehensive explanation and evidence. Furthermore, there is no sign that the author of the Quran was aware of the female egg (ovum).

    In reality, a single sperm cell penetrates and fuses with the female ovum. This fertilised egg, called a zygote, is then pushed down the fallopian tube for a few days. On the way, cell division begins, and this multi-celled cluster, now called a blastocyst, implants in the uterus (womb).[15]

  2. The embryo is then said to be congealed blood. [16] All the classical tafsirs (exegetical commentaries) understood the meaning of 'alaqah to be blood or congealed blood, and clotted blood is a definition of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries. Regardless of alternative meanings for this Arabic word, it does not make sense to use a word whose main definitions include an explicit biological meaning (clotted blood) in a description of a biological process (embryology) if that is not the intended meaning; certainly, from the point of divine authorship of the Qur'an, such imprecise meaning would throw into doubt the Qur'an's claim to be "clear." The choice of word now causes a well justified suspicion of inaccuracy, and for centuries misled people into thinking that the embryo is at one stage congealed blood (in reality an embryo is at no point blood nor a clot of blood[17]). Similarly, for the same reason it would not make sense to use this word while intending blood clot as a mere visual analogy.
  3. The Quran claims that bones are formed before being clothed with flesh.[18] In fact cartilage models of the bones start to form at the same time as and in parallel with surrounding muscles, and this cartilage is literally replaced with bone.[19]

The author of the Quran described a sequence of stages, which when examined without the false definitions and arbitrary assumptions made by apologists, clearly has no resemblance to the actual development process of a child in the womb, according to critics. Someone with a modern, scientific knowledge of embryology can instead marvel at the exquisite complexity that results from a process of co-ordinated cell differentiation and signaling, encoded in our genetic instruction set by millions of years of evolution, and devoid of any apparent divine design.

Modern revisionary perspectives

Original Creation from Dust / Clay / Mud

Confusion is sometimes caused by statements about dust (tubarin تُرَابٍ), mud (hamain حَمَإٍ), clay (teenin طِينٍ), or sounding clay (salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ) in the Quranic embryology verses quoted above. Clarification is provided in other verses that this refers to the creation of Adam only, and that the subsequent statements about various stages relate to the development of humans since then.[20][21][22] This was also the opinion of classical scholars such as Ibn Kathir.

Verses like these refer to Adam specifically, that man was made from clay (min مِّنْ means 'from' or 'of'), and that clay was a building material which was moulded and shaped, and not a catalytic compound as some apologetics claim in an attempt to link the Quran with one theory about the origin of all life on Earth. Yet another verse (Quran 55:14) adds that Allah created man "from clay like [that of] pottery" (min ṣalṣālin kal-fakhāri مِن صَلْصَٰلٍ كَٱلْفَخَّارِ).

While again not strictly related to embryology, another claim on some Islamic websites is that clay and humans have similar compositions. The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology defines clay as, "a fine textured, sedimentary, or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicates of aluminum mixed with various impurities". The essential elements in clay are thus silicon, aluminum, hydrogen and oxygen. Silicon and Aluminum have extremely limited, if any, roles to play in the maintenance of life.[23] Other human-required elements (such as nitrogen, sodium etc) are only found in trace amounts in clay and can be regarded as contaminants. There is no similarity between the compositions of clay and humans.

The Nutfah (Semen) Stage

The first stage of Quranic embryology is the nutfah stage. Translations typically use words like "sperm-drop", while apologetics tend to interpret it as the fertilised egg in the early stages of cell division (zygote, blastocyst). The word nutfah[8] literally meant a small amount of liquid, and was a euphemism for semen. The Lisan al Arab dictionary of classical Arabic gives the following definitions:

A little water; a little water remaining in a waterskin; a little water remaining in a bucket; pure water, a little or a lot; the water of the man; semen is called nutfah for its small amount[24]
نُّطْفَة in Lisan al Arab

An example of nutfah usage can be found in a pre-Islamic poem where it is used to mean “the small quantity of wine that remained in a wineskin”.[25]

Verses 80:18-19, and 77:20-22 together with 23:13 strongly imply that a small amount of semen is stored in the womb and developed into the embryo, as confirmed in the hadiths and previously taught by the Greeks and in the Jewish Talmud.

From what thing [shayinشَىْءٍ] doth He create him? From a drop of seed [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ]. He createth him and proportioneth him
Did We not create you from a base fluid [ma-in maheenin مَّآءٍ مَّهِينٍ]? Which We laid up [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] in a safe abode [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ], For a known term?
Then placed him [jaAAalnahu جَعَلْنَٰهُ] as a drop (of seed) [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] in a safe lodging [qararin makeenin قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ];

As can be seen in the above quotes, verses 77:20-21 closely parallel 23:13. Both say "We placed it (jaAAalnahu) in a safe abode (qararin makeen)", and one uses the word nutfah while the other uses the words maa' maheenin ('water distained'). Maa' was another common euphemism for semen. The 'hu' ending to jaAAalnahu in both verses can mean him or it, and probably means the former in 23:13 ('We placed him'). However, in 77:21 it must mean the latter ('We placed it') in reference to the liquid because the previous verse uses the 2nd person "you" and then mentions the liquid.

It is sometimes claimed that safe abode (qararin makeen) in 23:13 refers to the female ovum rather than the womb. However, critics note that this interpretation ignores the same phrase in 77:22 where it would not make sense of the words "For a known term", and that the ovum is penetrated by a single sperm cell and not the "fluid" (maa').

Indeed, a common criticism is that the Quran makes no mention of the female egg (ovum). In response it is sometimes claimed that 'nutfatun amshajin' (amshajin means mixed[26]) in Quran 76:2 includes the female gamete (ovum).[27] Critics counter that this is merely an apologetic assumption and that in any case the sperm cell is no longer swimming in male semen at the time when it reaches the ovum (see the Mingled male and female fluids section below).

The term ‘nutfatun amshaajin’ in verse 76:2 could alternatively refer to the sperm-menstrual blood union of Aristotle and the ancient Indian embryologists, but more likely the two semens hypothesis of Hippocrates and Galen (also evident in various hadiths), which in turn was derived from the readily observed mingling of semen and vaginal discharge during sexual intercourse.

Some critics argue that in fact, the Quran displays an understanding that is contrary to the role of the ovum in procreation, for verse 2:223 states that wives are tilth. This suggests they are like the earth, which simply provides nutrients and receives the seed from the male.[28]

The 'Alaqah Stage

The consensus in the tafsirs for the embryology verses was that 'alaqah meant blood. In numerous tafsirs it is variously described as blood (al dam الدم), congealed blood (al dam al jamid الدم الجامد), or simply, red 'alaqah ('alaqah hamra علقة حمراء). Nevertheless, in modern times some apologists, especially those who know that this contradicts the biological reality, have tried to reinterpret the word using some of the other dictionary definitions for 'alaqah or 'alaq. Each of these alternatives is problematic from a scientific perspective, as indeed is the mere fact that 'alaqah has clotted blood[9] as one of its main meanings.

Clinging Thing

One claim is that 'alaqah is used in the sense of a clinging thing in the Quran. However, the embryo does not cease to be attached to the uterine wall when the musculo-skeletal system begins to develop around the 5th week. Yet the Quranic stages appear to describe a transition between a succession of states. It would in any case be self-evident from aborted fetuses that at some stage the embryo becomes attached to something.

Hanging / Suspended

Also flawed is a related claim, that 'alaqah is used here in its meaning of a suspended, or hanging thing, because the early embryo is floating in amniotic fluid, and is attached via a connecting stalk to the uterine wall in which it is buried. The problem is that not all embryos hang downwards below their connecting stalk. Rather it depends where in the uterus implantation occurs. The uterus lies fairly horizontal at this time, so depending on the side of the uterus implantation occurs, the early embryo can also be above its stalk, as this diagram[29] of twins at 4 weeks demonstrates :

Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination

Various studies of placentas and ultrasound scans have found that between 26% and 53% of implantations occur on the anterior (frontal) wall of the uterus (like the lower twin in the diagram).[30] Clearly apologists should expect better of the Quran's author than to say that as early embryos, humans are "hanging things" when such a description is untrue for a significant percentage of the population, not even a general rule.

This scientific inaccuracy should be considered before even raising the doubts above concerning the suitability of the word 'alaqah to describe embryos that are on the posterior wall, and thus below their connecting stalks. It stretches credulity highly to claim that 'alaqah in the sense of “hanging” would be a good way to describe the embryo in relation to the connecting stalk. Lane’s lexicon strongly indicates that 'alaq is not just the thing which is hung, but the entire apparatus or vertical rope by which means it is suspended, or even just the rope itself, giving the example of a suspended bucket in a well.[31] The stalk evidently has a certain amount of stiffness and does not hang vertically under gravity like a bucket in a well.

Leech

Many apologists claim that 'alaqah in the Quran means a leech (in a metaphorical sense), and that this is similar to an embryo. However, unlike a leech, which simply sucks blood from its host, the embryo circulates and exchanges gases, nutrients and waste products with its mother. Most significantly, the placental membrane or barrier ensures that the embryo does not take from or exchange blood with its mother, who may have a different blood type.[32] Furthermore, a leech attaches itself directly to the surface of its host. In contrast, the blastocyst stage embryo implants into the uterine wall (endometrium) by means of an outer cell layer surrounding it, called the syncytiotrophoblast. It is the syncytiotrophoblast which invades the endometrium, burying the entire embryo within the wall (unlike a leech), establishes a circulatory connection, and will later form the outer layer of the placenta.

A leech has many characteristics such as size, behaviour, shape, color, appearance. It makes no sense for the author to have used 'alaqah in a metaphorical sense when his listeners could not be expected to know in what respect the analogy applies. It is no more than a Texan Sharpshooter fallacy[33], typical of Islamic miracle claims, to choose one characteristic - shape - which to a very and arbitrarily limited degree has similarity with that of an embryo (in their eyes) and to then draw any conclusions. This is particularly so given that the early embryo passes through a wide range of shapes and that both a leech and human embryo are biological organisms. Moreover, when depicting the embryo such apologetics have to conveniently ignore the embryo's yolk sac, which gradually becomes incorporated into its developing gut.

Above and beyond all of this, "leech" is not the most common meaning of this word; clot works much better here, and most translators including Arberry, Pickthall, and Sahih international all translate it this way. The translation of "leech", "leech-like embryo" or "embryo" only appeared in the modern age after the discoveries of embryology, and were not known in pre-modern translations.

Congealed Blood

One of the meanings of 'alaqah is congealed blood, which was also the understanding given in numerous tafsirs, as detailed above. The Arab poet al-Nabigha alja'di النابغة الجعدي (died c.670 AD) was a contemporary of Muhammad and uses the word blood (al dam الدم) in exactly the same context in a poem about Allah.[34]

Critics argue that for the author to use 'alaqah in any sense other than its clear biological meaning (clotted blood) in a passage about a biological process (pregnancy) would be very unlikely from the perspective of seeing the Qur'an as a divine text illuminating the knowledge of mankind, especially considering that 'alaqah was consistently understood in this way by exegetes. The usage of the 'alaqah would then be seen as a failure to "clearly" convey the actual knowledge the author allegedly possessed if this was not the intended meaning.

'Alaqah in pre-Islamic poetry

Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma, one of the greatest pre-Islamic poets, used 'alaq in the context of pregnancy, showing that such usage, regardless of its intended meaning, pre-dates the Qur'an. His poem Mu'allaqa has a line describing how al 'alaq discharged from his she-camels as they were having miscarriages on a long journey.[35]

The relevant words read: yajhudu (يَجْهُضُ) min (مِنْ) arhaamiha (أَرْحَامِهَا) al 'alaq (الْعَلَقُ). Word for word, that is "miscarriaging from their wombs al 'alaq".

Zuhayr died in 609 CE, before Islam, or according to one account, at the age of 100 in 627 CE, with Muhammad meeting him on the day he died.[36]

The Mudghah Stage

The word mudghah meant a bite sized morsel of meat suitable for chewing[10]. Islamic websites frequently claim, without citing any evidence, that it means a piece of meat that has actually been chewed, or even that has teeth marks on it. Readers of such websites are invited to admire the supposed similarities between an image of the somites of an embryo next to a piece of chewing gum with a row or two of teeth marks from a single bite. The problems with this argument include:

  1. They are using a false definition of the word mudghah, as mentioned above.
  2. It is a lot easier to leave neat teeth marks in chewing gum than on a piece of meat.
  3. Somites (bilateral rows of blocks of cells that will migrate and develop into segments of the body) are protrusions, but teeth marks are indentations.

Verse 22:5[37] mentions that the mudghah is formed and without form. Given that this stage appears before the 'itham (bones) stage, such a 'clarification' gives no additional information whatsoever. Such vagueness of description is typical of premodern understanding of biology and embryology.

The Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages

Bone and Muscle Formation According to Medical Science

In order to compare with science the Quranic statement that Allah makes the lump of flesh bones ('ithaman[11]) and then clothes (fa-kasawna[12]) the bones with flesh (lahman[13]), it is necessary to see what science has discovered about the process of bone and muscle formation. Here is a brief description for both of them, without any detail on the relative timing of parallel processes. The section that follows afterwards contains numerous cited scientific sources stating the timing of these processes. Finally, a third section will compare this with the Quran.

Mesoderm is the middle of the three layers of the early embryo. Some of the mesoderm cells (paraxial mesoderm) form a series of blocks called somites either side of the neural tube (this tube will eventually form the spinal cord and brain). These somites will differentiate into sclerotome and myotome, which form the cartilage 'models' (or 'templates') and become connective tissues (including muscles) respectively of the future axial skeleton (i.e. everything except the limbs, shoulders and pelvis). The myotome differentiates and migrates as the sclerotome is condensing into mesenchyme, which will produce cartilage. Each process occurs segmentally down the somites in a cranio-caudal sequence (head to tail).

Another area of mesoderm (lateral plate mesoderm) proliferates especially quickly in certain positions to form the limb buds. There, mesenchyme cells condense into distinct masses within the limb buds. These mesenchyme cells differentiate into chondrocytes, which secrete the cartilage matrix and are embedded in it. Thus cartilage models of the future limb bones gradually form (chondrification). Once the cartilage models have formed and while they are still growing, the cartilage is literally replaced with actual bone by osteoblasts (ossification) working outwards from centres of the cartilage models. Osteoclasts remove the remnants of the mineralized cartilage. Ossification also starts in the axial skeleton some time after it has begun in the limbs, except for the upper and lower jaw, which start to ossify slightly earlier.

Meanwhile, the process of limb muscle formation begins as soon as the limb buds appear. Myoblast cells migrate from somites to populate the limb buds. They aggregate into distinct masses as the condensing mesenchyme starts to chondrify, and before the resulting cartilage models begin to ossify. Over time the myoblasts in these masses differentiate into fused myotubes which form muscle fibres.

The Timing of These Processes

The scientific evidence shows that the development of cartilage/bone and muscles is contemporaneous.

A very detailed account of musculo-skeletal development in the human limb by clinical-geneticist Robert Jan Galjaard covers this subject.[38] It details that muscle precursor cells migrate from the somites into the limb buds (ca. day 26). This is well before the condensing core of mesenchyme has started to chondrify into cartilage bone models in the upper part of the upper limb (ca. day 37), followed by the lower part (ca. day 41). The myoblasts have grouped into distinct dorsal and ventral masses by that stage (they do so in the upper limb by day 36 and the start of chondrification according to Sivakumar et. al[39]). The upper limbs later start to ossify (ca. day 54). Chondrification of mesenchyme, the grouping of myogenic masses, and ossification all occur in a proximal-distal order (upper to lower part of each limb). The digits of the hands only start to chondrify ca. day 51.

Professor Peter Law concurs that myoblasts are found in the limb buds day 26.[40]

A detailed account by Walker and Miranda confirms that after day 35, the premuscle regions of the limb containing myoblasts and fibroblasts become distinct, by day 45 the myoblasts have started to fuse together to form the first myotubes (which continues for some weeks, forming the muscle fibres), and by day 50 the dorsal and ventral masses have been compartmentalized into the major anatomical muscles.[41]

In the 10th edition (2016) of the Developing Human, Keith Moore says that ossification of the long bones begins in the 8th week, starting with the upper limbs, followed by the lower limbs and pelvis[42] (which concurs with Galjaard cited above).

With axial musculo-skeletal development, Walker and Miranda explain that myotomes have migrated (these form axial muscle) and sclerotomes have started to condense into mesenchyme (which will form cartilage) in the 5th week.[43] According to Rugh, Building blocks are present for 40 pairs of muscles, which are located from the base of the skull to the bottom of the spinal column by day 28[44] (these are the myotomes of the somites). Muscles appear in the pelvis day 31[45]. Movement of the muscles is being controlled by the nervous system by the 6th week [46]. All of the muscle blocks have appeared by day 36 after conception[47].

It is apparent from the above that muscle masses have started to form around the mesenchyme condensations around the same time as they begin to chondrify into cartilage models of the limb bones, and long before they have even begun to ossify. Similarly, the process of muscle and cartilage formation begins at the same time for the axoskeleton. Muscles and cartilage, and bone that replaces it, continue their formation in parallel with each other.

Problems With The Quranic Description

The prefix fa before kasawna (we clothed) means "and then", indicating an uninterrupted sequence.[48] Further emphasising this, each stage is mentioned twice ("nutfah...nutfah...alaqah'...alaqah...lump, then we made the lump bones, then we clothed the bones with flesh"). The whole verse conveys a sequential process.

In reality, the verse is not compatible with, let alone a good description of musculoskeletal development. There is no scientific basis for a two-stage process by which bones have in any sense been created before the process of muscle formation is underway.

Firstly, it is clear from the above sections that actual bone formation (ossification) begins long after the process of muscle formation has begun to develop around its precursors. Since the myoblasts have already migrated and aggregated into distinct masses, nor can their subsequent fusing into myotubes and muscle fibres be described as "clothing" the bones (which in any case ossify and continue to grow in parallel with muscle development) - the masses were already there.

It is sometimes claimed that the Quran was only referring to precursor cartilage models of the bones and not bone itself. However, this does not explain why the author of the Quran mentioned not cartilage (ghudhroof)[49]) but only bone ('itham)[11], which literally replaces the cartilage and starts to form well after muscle building blocks are in place.

In any case its description would still be incompatible with scientific reality. The evidence set out above shows that muscle and bone (or their precursors) develop contemporaneously, although the parallel processes start when myoblasts migrate and form distinct masses around condensations of mesenchyme that have only just begun to differentiate into cartilage, as detailed above.

For the same reason the Quran would still be wrong even to suppose, with a further stretch, that it means only the very beginning of the formation of the cartilage (chondrification) before they are in any sense complete shapes. Going back earlier still, it can even be pointed out that the precursors of muscles (myoblasts) and precursors to the cartilage (mesenchyme) are present in the limb bud as soon as it arises.

However, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that the bones have some sort of meaningful shape, and can meaningfully be called bones. This is certainly not the case when the condensed mesenchyme has merely started to produce cartilage. Furthermore, the natural reading of verse 23:14 is that all the bones have some meaningful presence worthy of the label 'bones' before Allah clothes them with flesh. As noted in the evidence above, fingers only start to even chondrify after muscle formation is already well underway in the upper part of the limbs.

There is more evidence that 23:14 refers to things already recognizable as bones then being clothed with muscles or flesh elsewhere in the Quran. Verse 2:259 uses the same Arabic words as does 23:14 for 'bones', 'clothed' and 'flesh' to describe the resurrection of a donkey which had been dead for 100 years.[50] The main embryology passages such as verse 22:5 suggest that embryological development has similarities with resurrection.[37]

The New Creation Stage

After the bones were clothed with flesh, the Quran finally says that Allah "produced it as another creation".[51] Some apologists identify this with the fetal period of pregnancy, which begins at week nine.

Related claims

Aside from the various stages described in the main Quranic embryology verses, some apologists claim to have found additional examples of miraculous knowledge relating to this topic.

Gender Determination

Some claim that verses 35:11 and 53:45-46 indicate that gender is determined at the nutfah stage, and specifically by sperm cells (which contain either an x or y chromosome to go with the x chromosome of the female ovum).

Allah created you from dust [tubarin تُرَابٍ], then from a little fluid [nutfatin نُّطْفَةٍ], then He made you pairs [azwajan أَزْوَٰجًا](the male and female). No female beareth or bringeth forth save with His knowledge. And no-one groweth old who groweth old, nor is aught lessened of his life, but it is recorded in a Book, Lo! that is easy for Allah.
And that He createth the two spouses, the male and the female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ], From a drop (of seed) when it is poured forth [nutfatin itha tumna نُّطْفَةٍ إِذَا تُمْنَىٰ];

If 35:11 and 53:45 are taken literally as indicating 'when' gender is determined, it would be inaccurate, because millions of sperm are emitted, some with an x chromosome, some with a y chromosome. Gender is determined not when the semen is emitted (as the next verse 46 indicates), but rather when the egg is fertilized by one of the sperm cells, which can take anything from half an hour to 12 hours for the first of them to reach the egg, and then more time for one of the many that arrive to successfully penetrate it. The point from 35:11 and 53:45-46 seems to be rather that Allah simply created human beings as men and women; no inference can reasonably be made about sexual development from sperm based on these verses.

Moreover, verses 75:37-39 use the same language about gender, but after the 'alaqah stage. 75:39 uses the exact same phrase as in 53:45, "وَأَنَّهُۥ خَلَقَ ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ" "wa innahu khalaqa alzzawjayni aldhdhakara waaluntha" ("verily he created the two spouses, the male and the female"}, which is also similar to the word used in 35:11, azwajan (male / female pair).

Was he not a drop [nutfatan نُطْفَةً] of fluid [manayin مَّنِىٍّ] which gushed forth [yumna يُمْنَىٰ]? Then he became a clot [alaqatan عَلَقَةً]; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female [alzzawjayni alththakara waalontha ٱلزَّوْجَيْنِ ٱلذَّكَرَ وَٱلْأُنثَىٰ].

It should also be remembered, as noted above, that the evidence is unanimous that nutfah means a small quantity of fluid, a euphemism for semen – there is no indication of sperm cells within the fluid.

In an alternative approach, apologists interpret 75:39 to mean that the external genitalia and gonads are formed after the 'alaqah stage, knowing that the gender of the child has already been determined genetically at the moment of conception as stated above. However, this approach not only ignores the other two verses already mentioned, but there are hadith even more explicit than Quran 75:37-39 which say that gender is decided after the mudghah stage.[52]

Intersex People

Furthermore, not everyone is simply a male with XY sex chromosomes, or a female with XX sex chromosomes. A small minority are called intersex due to certain types of genetic or phenotypic sex variations, including:[53]

  • Those who are 46, XY intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a man, but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or clearly female.
  • Those who are 46, XX intersex. The person has the chromosomes of a woman, the ovaries of a woman, but external (outside) genitals that appear male.
  • True Gonadal intersex (formerly called True Hermaphroditism). Such people have both male and female gonads (ovaries and testes), and may have ambiguous external genitalia.
  • Other genetic configurations include XXX, and XXY (1 in 1000 people)[54]. These people have no discrepancy between their gonads and external genitalia, but there may be problems with sex hormone levels, and overall sexual development.

According to Leonard Sax, when the term intersex is "restricted to those conditions in which chromosomal sex is inconsistent with phenotypic sex, or in which the phenotype is not classifiable as either male or female", around 0.018% of the population are intersex. This definition excludes Klinefelter syndrome and many other variations.[55] There is no mention of these conditions in any conceivable interpretation of the Qur'an.

Sperm within Semen

Others claim that verses 75:37[56] and 32:7-8[57] hint at sperm within the semen. These claims are discussed in the context of very similar verses at the end of the article Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith

Mingled male and female fluids

Quran 76:2 states that "Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight." Some claim that this is a reference to male semen and follicular fluid. There are two problems with this claim:

1) By the time a sperm cell reaches a woman's fallopian tube where fertilisation occurs, it is no longer swimming in male semen, but has instead swam through cervical mucus, then binded to epithelium of the uterine tube where it undergoes capacitation and detaches again, then through a combination of muscular movements of the tube and some swimming movements makes its way up the tube.[58]; and

2) Follicular fluid is part of the developmental environment of the female ovum (oocyte, egg cell) before the egg is released from the egg follicle. While some fluid is released at the same time into the fallopian tube, the ovum is pushed along the fallopian tube by fallopian cilia (microscopic hairs) and is bathed in another type of tubal fluid secretion.[59]

For these reasons, fertilization cannot reasonably be described as a mingling of semen and follicular fluid. Rather, the Qur'anic statement corresponds with the Galenic theory of two semens, male and female, which was widespread in the region and time. Galen's influence is also apparent in numerous hadiths relating to this notion and other issues relating to human reproduction.

Fetus is in Three Layers of darkness

Some apologetics claim that Quran 39:6 accurately describes 3 dark layers around the fetus.[60] A common apologetic interpretation is that the "three darknesses" are the abdominal wall, the uterine wall, and the amniotic sac.

The word butun (بطن)[61] means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators like to use the more specific word "womb". Tafsirs interpreted the "three darknesses" as the placenta, womb (uterus) and belly. There are in fact many more layers in the human body such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers).

The idea of three membranes around the fetus - (chorion, allantois, and amnion) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen. Some critics suggest that the Quranic author is simply repeating this idea, which applies only to the embryonic membranes. The allantois is a sac-like structure which becomes part of the umbilical cord, and thus cannot be described as 'a darkness' for the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the amniotic sac, which is quite thin and transparent.

The Minimum Period of Fetal Viability

Another claim is that the Qur'an correctly states that the minimum period for gestation of a viable baby is 6 months. This claim is based on two Quranic verses, the first of which states that a child is weaned for two years (24 lunar months), and the other that the bearing and weaning of a child lasts for 30 lunar months.[62][63] Yusuf Ali makes this claim in the notes of his translation for verse 46:15, presumably having noticed that the two verses in combination do not equate to a 9 month pregnancy.

Six lunar months equates to 22 weeks. The claim that this is the minimum period for fetal viability is unsupported by modern medical science. It has changed, at least in recent history, and was never 22 weeks or 6 lunar months prior to the era of modern medicine, being likely to have been at least 30 weeks. Now, it has shrunk to only 19 weeks in countries with advanced pediatric medicine.[64] The minimum period of fetal viability in many less-developed countries would still be around 30 weeks.

The End of Cell Differentiation

Some proponents of Quranic embryology state that the mudghah stage, which is described in one verse as "partly formed and partly unformed" or "shaped and shapeless", refers to the incomplete cell differentiation observed in this stage.[37]

However, cell differentiation occurs throughout the embryonic stage, and even into the fetal period, for example as discussed above regarding bone and muscle development.

Classical Commentaries

As mentioned in the opening section, classical commentators understood the verses in accordance with incorrect scientific theories at the time. Critics note how naturally they did so, and that the commentaries have value as linguistic evidence for the relevant Arabic words. Two of the major tafsirs translated into English (on Islamic websites) state the following regarding Quran 23:14:

...(Then We made the Nutfah into a clot,) meaning, `then We made the Nutfah, which is the water gushing forth that comes from the loins of man, i.e., his back, and the ribs of woman, i.e., the bones of her chest, between the clavicle and the breast. Then it becomes a red clot, like an elongated clot.' `Ikrimah said, "This is blood.

(then We made the clot into a little lump of flesh,) which is like a piece of flesh with no shape or features. (then We made out of that little lump of flesh bones,) meaning, `We gave it shape, with a head, two arms and two legs, with its bones, nerves and veins.' (then We clothed the bones with flesh,) meaning, `We gave it something to cover it and strengthen it.'

(and then We brought it forth as another creation.) means, `then We breathed the soul into it, and it moved and became a new creature, one that could hear, see, understand and move.
Then We transformed the drop [of semen] into a clot, congealed blood. Then We transformed the clot into a [little] lump of flesh (mudgha), a piece of flesh, about the size of what one would be able to chew (mā yumdagh). Then We transformed the lump of flesh into bones. Then We clothed the bones with flesh (a variant reading in both instances [instead of the plurals ‘izāman and al-‘izāma, ‘the bones’] is [singular] ‘azman [and ‘al-‘azma], ‘the bone’; and in all three instances above khalaqnā, means ‘We made it become’ [as opposed to ‘We created’]). Then We produced him as [yet] another creature, by breathing into him [Our] Spirit. So blessed be God, the best of creators!, that is, [the best of] determiners (the specificier noun for ahsana, ‘the best’, has been omitted because it is obvious: khalqan, ‘in terms of creation’).

See also

External Links


References

  1. Bucaille, M., La Bible, le Coran et la Science : Les Écritures Saintes examinées à la lumière des connaissances modernes, Paris:Seghers, 1976, (ISBN 978-2221501535)
  2. Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, The Developing Human With Islamic Additions, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983
  3. Later, Dr. Moore wrote a similarly popularised article for an Islamic journal:
    Dr. Moore, K., A Scientist's Interpretation of References to Embryology in the Qur'an, Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 1986, vol.18(Jan-June):15-17
  4. Keith L. Moore and Abdul-Majeed A. Zindani, The Developing Human With Islamic Additions, 3rd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders with Jeddah:Dar al-Qiblah for Islamic Literature, 1983, page viii insert c.
  5. Dr. P.Z. Myers Islamic embryology: overblown balderdash, Pharyngula blog - Scienceblogs.com, 2011, accessed 4 Jan 2019
  6. Marshall Clagett, “Greek Science in Antiquity”, pp.180-181, New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1955; Dover, 2001
  7. "Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Arabic Emphatics and Gutturals". University of Wisconsin–Madison. Bin-Muqbil, Musaed (2006).
  8. 8.0 8.1 نُطْفَةً nutfah - Lane's Lexicon Suppliment, page 3034
  9. 9.0 9.1 عَلَقَةً alaqah - Lane's Lexicon Volume 5, page 2134
  10. 10.0 10.1 مُضْغَةً mudghah - Lane's Lexicon Suppliment, page 3021
  11. 11.0 11.1 11.2 عِظَٰمًا 'itham - Lane's Lexicon Volume 5, page 2087
  12. 12.0 12.1 كَسَوَ kasawa - Lane's Lexicon Suppliment, page 3000
  13. 13.0 13.1 لَحْمًا lahm - Lane's Lexicon Suppliment, page 3008 and page 3009
  14. Quran 23:13, Quran 70:20-22, Quran 80:18-19 See discussion in the Nutfah Stage section.
  15. "Conception: How it Works", University of California San Francisco - Center for Reproductive Health, https://crh.ucsf.edu/fertility/conception. 
  16. Quran 23:14, Quran 22:5, Quran 40:67 See discussion in the 'Alaqah Stage section.
  17. Dr Mark Hill, "Timeline human development", University of New South Wales, https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Timeline_human_development. 
  18. Quran 23:14 See discussion in the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.
  19. See discussion and scientific references in the sub-sections to the Bones and Clothing with Flesh Stages section.
  20. Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay [teenin طِينٍ]; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;

    The word translated “seed” in Pickthall’s translation is nasl, which means progeny (i.e. descendants). نسل nasl - Lane’s Lexicon Suppliment, page 3032

  21. Lo! the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him of dust [turabin تُرَابٍ], then He said unto him: Be! and he is.
    Quran 3:59
  22. We created man from sounding clay [salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ], from mud [hamain حَمَإٍ] molded into shape;
    Quran 15:26
  23. Fenchel, Tom 2003. The origin and Early Evolution of Life. Oxford University Press. Page 27.
  24. Lisan al Arab
  25. Irfan Shahid, “Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century. Volume 2, Part 2”, p.145, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2009
  26. أَمْشَاج Amshajan - [1] Volume 7 Page 2717
  27. Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm [nutfatin amshajin نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ], in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.
    Quran 76:2
  28. Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).
    Quran 2:223
  29. Fraternal twins in the womb -- 4 weeks - BabyCenter Medical Advisory Board, June 1, 2013
  30. Benirschke, K. & Kaufmann, B. 2000. Pathology of the Human Placenta. 4th Edition. Springer-Verlag, New York. Page 399 - 400
  31. علق 'alaq - Lane's Lexicon Volume 5, page 2134
  32. Barry Mitchell & Ram Sharma 2009. Embryology: An Illustrated Colour Text. Second Edition. Churchill Livingstone ElSevier. Page 10-12
  33. "The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy in which pieces of information that have no relationship to one another are called out for their similarities, and that similarity is used for claiming the existence of a pattern. This fallacy is the philosophical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psychology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret patterns where none actually exist. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter."
    Texas sharpshooter fallacy
  34. الخـالق البـارئ المصـور في الأرحام ماء حتى يصير دما
    Translation: The creator, the maker, the fashioner, in the wombs water until it becomes blood

    Water (maa') is used here as a euphemism for semen, just as we sometimes find in the Quran and hadiths (see above).

  35. In Arabic, the relevant line of Zuhayr's poem regarding a journey to see his patron, Harim ibn Sinan, reads:
    إليك أعملتها فتلا مرافقها، شهرين يجهض من أرحامها العلق
    It appears on p.245 of volume 1 of the anthology by Muhammad Ibn 'Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940), al-ʿIqd al-Farīd (The Unique Necklace), 9 vols, eds. Mufid Muhammad Qumayha et al, Beirut, 1983.
    The English translation of this volume by Boullata is very non-literal, glossing the last words as "productive wombs": Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih, The Unique Necklace: Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd, trans. by Issa J. Boullata, Great Books of Islamic Civilization, 3 vols, first edition, Reading, UK: Garnet, 2006, p.200
  36. Clouston, W. A., Arabian Poetry for English Readers Glasgow (private publication), 1881, Introduction p. xliii
  37. 37.0 37.1 37.2 O People, if you should be in doubt about the Resurrection, then [consider that] indeed, We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and then from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed - that We may show you. And We settle in the wombs whom We will for a specified term, then We bring you out as a child, and then [We develop you] that you may reach your [time of] maturity. And among you is he who is taken in [early] death, and among you is he who is returned to the most decrepit [old] age so that he knows, after [once having] knowledge, nothing. And you see the earth barren, but when We send down upon it rain, it quivers and swells and grows [something] of every beautiful kind
    Quran 22:5
  38. Galjaard, R.J.H. Mapping Studies of Congenital Limb Anomalies. Ablasserdam: Haveka, B.V., 2003, page 16 (archive)
  39. Sivakumar, B. et. al. Congenital Hand Differences in Farhadieh, R. et. al. (ed.) Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: Approaches and Techniques, Chichester: Wiley, 2015, p.660 Google books preview
  40. Law, Peter et al., Pioneering Human Myoblast Genome Therapy as a Platform Technology of Regenerative Medicine. In: Stem Cell Therapy. Erik Greer (Editor). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2006. Page 3.
  41. Walker, U. A., and Miranda, A. F. Muscle Metabolism in the Fetus and Neonate in Cowett, R. M. (ed.) Principles of Perinatal-Neonatal Metabolism, 2nd Edition, Volume 1, New York: Springer, 1998, pp.642-643 Google Books preview[BR /]"The first multinucleated myotubes in limbs have been observed at day 45. By day 50, all bone rudiments have formed and the major anatomical muscles are compartmentalized into their definitive anatomical muscles by segregation from two premuscle masses that are located ventrally and dorsally from the prospective bone structures."
  42. Keith L. Moore, Ph..D., FIAC, FRSM T.V.N. Persaud, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., FRCPath W.B., The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, 10th Edition, Philadelphia: Elseiver, 2016, p. p.349 Google Books preview
  43. Ibid.
  44. Conception to Birth Roberts Rugh, Ph.D., Landrum B. Shettles, Ph.D., M.D. Harper & Row, (New York), 1971, p.35
  45. ibid. p.43
  46. ibid. p.34
  47. ibid. p.46
  48. فَ fa - Lane's Lexicon Volume 6, page 2322
  49. غضروف ghudhroof, alternatively spelt غرضوف ghurdoof - Lane's Lexicon Volume 6, page 2248
  50. [...]and look at your ass; and that We may make you a sign to men, and look at the bones, how We set them together, then clothed them with flesh[...]
    Transliteration: waonthur ila himarika walinajAAalaka ayatan lilnnasi waonthur ila alAAithami kayfa nunshizuha thumma naksooha lahman}}
    Quran 2:259
  51. Then fashioned We the drop a clot, then fashioned We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!}}
    Quran 23:14
  52. Narrated Anas bin Malik:
    The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."
    Sahih Bukhari 1:6:315
  53. Medline plus - Intersex
  54. "How common is intersex? | Intersex Society of North America", Isna.org, http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency. 
  55. Sax, L., How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling Journal of Sex Research, volume 39, issue 3, pp.174–178 (2002) doi 10.1080/00224490209552139 pmid 12476264
  56. Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth?
    Quran 75:37
  57. Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;
    Quran 32:7-8
  58. Clinicalgate.com - Transport of gametes and fertilization
  59. Britannica.com - Ovulation
  60. He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?
    Quran 39:6
  61. بطن butun - [Lane's Lexicon Volume 1, page 220
  62. And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents. His mother beareth him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto Me is the journeying.
    Quran 31:14
  63. And We have commended unto man kindness toward parents. His mother beareth him with reluctance, and bringeth him forth with reluctance, and the bearing of him and the weaning of him is thirty months, till, when he attaineth full strength and reacheth forty years, he saith: My Lord! Arouse me that I may give thanks for the favour wherewith Thou hast favoured me and my parents, and that I may do right acceptable unto Thee. And be gracious unto me In the matter of my seed. Lo! I have turned unto Thee repentant, and lo! I am of those who surrender (unto Thee).
    Quran 46:15
  64. "A fetus is defined as being viable if it has the ability to 'potentially able to live outside the mother's womb [that is, can survive], albeit with artificial help.' In the fifties viability was reached about 30 weeks after conception. Modern medical technology changed that to 25 weeks in the seventies. Now viability continues to be pushed further and further back in the pregnancy and is now as early as 19 weeks. 21 and 22 week premature babies are now supported routinely, and have a good chance of survival. By 24 weeks after conception, premature babies have a 40% chance of reaching adulthood without any major complications. By 28 weeks, the chance is 90%. By 29 weeks, survival is almost definite. (Note: These percentages are from reports written during the late 1980s. Current survival rates are most likely much higher.)"
    Fetal Development/Viability - Abortioninfo