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Historical Errors in the Quran: Difference between revisions
Historical Errors in the Quran (view source)
Revision as of 21:39, 19 September 2024
, 19 September 2024→The Children of Israel in Egypt: Have added in the 'double whammy' historical error of the Israelites inheriting Egypt in the Qur'an along with Israel. Have provided academic references as well as for the reason this error occurred.
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(→Countable currency in ancient Egypt: Added two academic sources for ancient Egyptian anachronisms - from Sean W Anthony's Reddit AMA on r/AcademicQuran.) |
(→The Children of Israel in Egypt: Have added in the 'double whammy' historical error of the Israelites inheriting Egypt in the Qur'an along with Israel. Have provided academic references as well as for the reason this error occurred.) |
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{{Quote|{{Quran|12|20}}|And they sold him for a reduced price - a few dirhams - and they were, concerning him, of those content with little.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|12|20}}|And they sold him for a reduced price - a few dirhams - and they were, concerning him, of those content with little.}} | ||
===The | ===The Exodus of the Israelites in Egypt=== | ||
In various passages the Quran narrates at length the story of Moses and the plagues striking Egypt, the captivity of the children of Israel, and their escape in the Exodus. There is even a glorious pre-history alluded to such that they were kings (mulūkan, compare with mulūka in {{Quran|27|34}}) and had extraordinary possessions ({{Quran|5|20}}). Historians consider that there is no historical evidence in support of [[w:the Exodus|the Exodus]] events as described, though some theorize that a historical kernal of the Egyptian control over Canaan in the late Bronze age and early Iron age served as an inspiration for the stories. The academic view on the [[w:history of ancient Israel and Juhah|history of ancient Israel and Judah]] is converging on their emergence within the central hill country of Canaan in the early Iron age, a time of small settlements and lacking signs of violent takeover, but rather a revolution in lifestyle. | In various passages the Quran narrates at length the story of Moses and the plagues striking Egypt, the captivity of the children of Israel, and their escape in the Exodus. There is even a glorious pre-history alluded to such that they were kings (mulūkan, compare with mulūka in {{Quran|27|34}}) and had extraordinary possessions ({{Quran|5|20}}). Historians consider that there is no historical evidence in support of [[w:the Exodus|the Exodus]] events as described, though some theorize that a historical kernal of the Egyptian control over Canaan in the late Bronze age and early Iron age served as an inspiration for the stories. The academic view on the [[w:history of ancient Israel and Juhah|history of ancient Israel and Judah]] is converging on their emergence within the central hill country of Canaan in the early Iron age, a time of small settlements and lacking signs of violent takeover, but rather a revolution in lifestyle. | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran|28|3}}|We recite to you from the news of Moses and Pharaoh in truth for a people who believe.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|28|3}}|We recite to you from the news of Moses and Pharaoh in truth for a people who believe.}} | ||
==== The Israelites inherit Egypt as well as Israel/Palestine ==== | |||
Along with the traditional story of [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran#A%20small%20Exodus|the Exodus]], Nicolai Sinai<ref>“[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ ''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān'']”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214 . | |||
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref> notes in his paper “''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān''”, the Qur'an has many verses that unequivocally state that the Israelites took over the land of pharaoh and his followers, i.e. Egypt (which many traditional Islamic scholars have agreed with).<ref>E.g. see the debates in https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.61 and https://quranx.com/tafsirs/10.93 over what land the Israelites inherit, including Egypt. | |||
Interestingly in the commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/26.59 verse 26:59], the modern tafsir Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an (published 1972) main reason for rejecting the Egyptian interpretation is that the facts are not supported by history, and he alleges other verses in the Qur'an - however as Sinai examines in this paper, this is untrue.</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|26|57-59}}|2=We brought them [the people of Pharaoh] out of gardens and springs and treasures and a noble place. Thus it was; and We caused the Israelites to inherit them [= the gardens and the springs etc.].}} | |||
That the Israelites take over the land of Pharaoh rather than migrating elsewhere is also implied by the end of the brief Moses pericope in:<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 203.'' | |||
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|103-104}}|He [Pharaoh] wished to chase them away from the land (al-arḍ), but We drowned him and all who were with him. And after him We said to the Israelites, “Dwell in the land! And when the announcement of the next world comes to pass, We shall bring you forward as a motley crowd.”}} | |||
Similarly, the Moses narrative in Q 28 is preceded by the following summary:<ref>Ibid. pp. 203</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|4-6}}|4 Pharaoh became haughty in the land and divided its people into factions, seeking to weaken a party among them by slaying their sons and sparing their women. He was one of those who wreak mischief. | |||
5 We wished to show favor to those who had been oppressed in the land and to make them examples and to make them the inheritors, | |||
6 and to give them a place (numakkinu lahum) in the land, and to show Pharaoh and Hāmān and their hosts what they feared from them.}} | |||
Also Sinai remarks: | |||
{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ “Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān”], Nicolai Sinai: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016. pp204.|What Pharaoh and his notables fear is being displaced from their land: in Q 20:57, Pharaoh asks Moses whether “you have come to drive us from our land by your sorcery” (li-tukhrijanā min arḍinā bi-siḥrika), and the same apprehension resonates in Q 20:63 (“They said, ‘These two men are sorcerers who wish to drive you from your land by means of their sorcery’ . . .”) as well as in Q 26:35 and 7:110. The inference that it is Pharaoh and his followers rather than the Israelites who are removed from “the land” is also supported by other verses from the extended Moses narrative in Q 7:103–74. According to Q 7:128, Moses exhorts his people to “seek God’s help and be patient; for the land belongs to God, and he gives it as an inheritance to whom he wishes,” and in the following verse Moses consoles his people by saying that “perhaps your Lord will destroy your enemy and appoint you as successors ( yastakhlifakum) in the land.”}} | |||
He notes that starting with the earlier Meccan Quran, there are no references whatsoever to an Exodus, with no indication that Moses lead the Israelites out of captivity.<ref>Ibid. pp. 200</ref> The only purpose of the sea in the story appears to be to set a trap for the Egyptians to drown them.<ref>Ibid. pp. 205</ref> | |||
Later verses imply that only after taking the Pharaoh and his people's land, they eventually settled in another land.<ref>Ibid. pp. 206-208</ref> The Qurʾān’s Blessed Land would appear to fuse Egypt, the Sinai, and Palestine into one sacred landscape that is understood to provide the setting for biblical history and all of which, it seems, the Israelites came to inherit.<ref>Ibid. pp. 207</ref> | |||
While as mentioned above, there was no evidence the Israelites came from Egypt, who never mention the event,<ref>Finkelstein, I., & Silberman, N. A. (2001). ''The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts''. New York, Free Press. See: ''Chapter 2: Did the Exodus Happen? And Chapter 4: Who Were the Israelites?''</ref> this adds another layer of historical difficulty of the Jews actually taking over Egypt having no historical or archaeological evidence for what would be a momentous event where we would expect to see it. | |||
This interpretation was first noticed in Western scholarship by orientalist Aloys Sprenger in 1869, who attributed it to a supposed simple mistake by Prophet Muhammad.<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 198 - introduction. See footnote 3.'' | |||
DOI: <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</nowiki></ref> However, Sinai notes a clear reason for this repacking of biblical material to suit different theological concerns, relating Muhmmad's immediate life. Primarily in the Meccan period of the Qur'an before banishment to Medina, Muhammad aligning with principle of istikhlāf, understood as a general rule of God’s compensatory intervention in the world in this context, i.e. the followers of god will be given the lands and property of the unbelievers who will be destroyed.<ref>Ibid. pp. 208-209</ref> There are consistent stories told that god will intervene with a supernatural destruction to those who reject monotheism after a call from a prophet, with the so-called 'punishment stories' dominating here, and direct references that this will happen to the Meccans,<ref>On the Meccan promise of Allah intervening to destroy the unbelievers and Muhammad's followers promise to inherit the land see as well for example: Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. Chapter 2: The Eschatological Crisis and 3: A Nonbiographical Qurʾanic Chronology.'' Lexington Books. 2018. | |||
Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers.'' 1999. <nowiki>ISBN 9780415759946</nowiki> | |||
Selah, Walid. [https://www.academia.edu/28915104/End_of_Hope_Suras_10_15_Despair_and_a_Way_Out_of_Mecca ''End of Hope: Suras 10-15, Despair and a Way Out of Mecca.''] Qur' anic Studies Today. Edited by Angelika Neuwirth and Michael A. Sells. pp. 105-123. </ref> in line with the principle of messenger uniformitarianism.<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 135-142) (pp. 281-294 Kindle Edition)''. 5.3 Messenger Uniformitarianism. Lexington Books. 2018.</ref> And the true believers will survive and inherit their land,<ref>''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān,'' Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, ''pp 208-209 & 211-214''</ref> which this story seeks to validate as part of a repeated pattern in history. However in later parts of the Qurʾān we see that actual events followed a different course: the Qur'anic community was “expelled” from its “homes” (Q 3:195 and elsewhere) and forced to “emigrate” (hājara) to Medina<ref>Ibid. pp. 213</ref> - who Muhammad now identifies his followers with the Israelites leaving Egypt, and comes up against Jewish traditions who recognize this story - with many Meccan verses extended and undergoing revisions during this period.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 232 Kindle Edition).</ref> Critics contend this creative adaption of biblical material to suit current needs, has simply added another historical inaccuracy into the Qur'an. | |||
===Noah's worldwide flood=== | ===Noah's worldwide flood=== | ||
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And finally, there is no archaeological evidence for the dead soldiers (numbered in tens of thousands in some Islamic traditions)<ref>Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an. [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/maududi/105.1 ''Tafsir on Surah of the elephant / 105.''] </ref> in bits of baked clay as found in the Qur'an. Critics argue that this, along with the contemporary records showing a different story of a similar attack in the region, the severe lack of evidence for elephant(s) including no mentions from contemporary historians or inscriptions, no recording of the Meccan invasion, the muddling of the dates, along with practical problems, makes the whole account unreliable. | And finally, there is no archaeological evidence for the dead soldiers (numbered in tens of thousands in some Islamic traditions)<ref>Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an. [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/maududi/105.1 ''Tafsir on Surah of the elephant / 105.''] </ref> in bits of baked clay as found in the Qur'an. Critics argue that this, along with the contemporary records showing a different story of a similar attack in the region, the severe lack of evidence for elephant(s) including no mentions from contemporary historians or inscriptions, no recording of the Meccan invasion, the muddling of the dates, along with practical problems, makes the whole account unreliable. | ||
Historian Arthur Jeffrey, citing Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini, states that the Axumites did not use war elephants, and suggests that the Abraha-elephant legend developed from a misunderstanding of the name of Abraha’s royal master, Alfilas, which when the ending was dropped, sounded like al-Fil, ‘the elephant.’ <ref>Jeffery, Arthur. ''The Koran: Selected Suras (Dover Thrift Editions: Religion)'' (p. 30). Sura 105 Dover Publications.</ref> | Historian Arthur Jeffrey, citing Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini, states that the Axumites did not use war elephants, and suggests that the Abraha-elephant legend developed from a misunderstanding of the name of Abraha’s royal master, Alfilas, which when the ending was dropped, sounded like al-Fil, ‘the elephant.’ <ref>Jeffery, Arthur. ''The Koran: Selected Suras (Dover Thrift Editions: Religion)'' (p. 30). Sura 105 Dover Publications.</ref> | ||
=== The Historical Jesus === | |||
The Qur'an includes references to [[:en:Isa_al-Masih_(Jesus_Christ)|Jesus (called as Isa in Islam)]], acknowledging him as a prophet of Allah and the Messiah. Unlike the Christian Bible, the Qur'an portrays Jesus as a human being similar to other messengers, not the son of God (E.g. {{Quran|4|171}}, {{Quran|17|111}} and {{Quran|2|116}}). He was also allegedly not actually crucified {{Quran|4|157}}. | |||
It states that Jesus preached the Gospel (Injeel) but suggests it has been corrupted, and though what these means exactly is debated (''see: [[:en:Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Corruption_of_Previous_Scriptures|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Corruption of Previous Scriptures]]'' and ''[[Corruption of Previous Scriptures]])'', however the current mainstream Sunni view is that the Christian Scripture (known as the New Testament which contains 4 'gospels'), does not reflect Jesus's original Islamic teachings.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47516/what-do-muslims-think-about-the-gospels What Do Muslims Think about the Gospels?] IslamQA. 2023. </ref> | |||
While Muslims reject the Christian view of Jesus based on theological grounds, secular Biblical scholarship (separate to Islamic studies) has also long sought to reconstruct the historical Jesus through critical methods rather than faith-based one's, of which the results differ greatly from the Qur'anic portrayal. | |||
'''Imminent Apocalyptic Preacher''' | |||
Analysis of the sources written closest to Jesus's life, has lead to a consensus view that Jesus and his original followers believed the 'apocalypse', i.e. judgment day in Islam, would happen within his lifetime.<ref>While it would be futile to do full justice to the many academic works and their respective arguments in this small webpage section, this area will cover some of the key findings. For those who want to read more, some scholars that accept that Jesus expected a final judgment in the near future include: Bart Ehrman, Thom Stark, EP Sanders, Johannes Weiss, John P. Meier, Albert Schweitzer, David Madison, Krister Olofson Stendahl and Paula Fredriksen, some whose works are directly cited below here.</ref> | |||
As biblical scholar Albert Schweitzer famously pointed out in his seminal 1906 work ''<nowiki/>'The Quest of the Historical Jesus''', Jesus’s failed prophecy was not a one-off or trivial tradition but a core part of his preaching.<ref>Schweitzer, Albert. ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus (E.g. see pp. 358-368).'' Jovian Press. Published 1906 in German. Officially translated in 1910 to English.</ref> Only in later writings did this message begin to be subverted for a metaphorical kingdom of Earth of those who join Jesus's followers believing in salvation and the resurrection; I.e. only the later books in the New Testament cannon began to reinterpret these apocalyptic messages as the expected return of Jesus didn’t materialize, suggesting a more spiritual interpretation of the "Kingdom of God." This reinterpretation is seen as an attempt to reconcile early Christian beliefs with the reality that the world didn't end as expected.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130-131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> | |||
Jesus was estimated have lived between before approximately 4BCE,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (pp. 11-12). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''..as related by both Matthew and Luke in the New Testament—then he must have been born no later than 4 BCE, the year of..''</ref> and died around the year of 30 CE (for Jesus’ crucifixion).<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/when-did-jesus-die/#:~:text=According%20to%20Bart%20Ehrman%2C%20the,30%20CE%20for%20Jesus'%20crucifixion. When Did Jesus Die? Unveiling the Month & Year of His Crucifixion.] Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehrman.com </ref> The books that make up the New Testament, documenting Jesus's life and teachings, (and believed by Christians to be divinely inspired writings to cover his teachings, death and salvation) are in mostly consensus to be written in order of seven authentic letters of Paul followed the first Gospel, Mark (~C. 70 C.E), two more inauthentic (source) letters from Paul, followed by The Gospel of Matthew and then The Gospel of Luke, (both~ 80-90 C.E.), five more inauthentic letters attributed to Paul, followed by The Gospel of John (~90-100 C.E.), with the Book of Revelation and several more letters after that.<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/bible-in-chronological-order/ Bible in Chronological Order (Every Book Ordered by Date Written)]. Marko Marina, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehram.com. </ref> These books/letters and their approximate dates are in order as follows: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
|1 Thessalonians C. 49 C.E. | |||
|Galatians C. 49-51 C.E. | |||
|1 Corinthians C. 54-55 C.E. | |||
|2 Corinthians C. 55-56 C.E. | |||
|Romans C. 56-57 C.E. | |||
|Philemon 55 C.E. or 61-63 C.E. | |||
|- | |||
|Philippians C. 59-62 C.E. | |||
|The Gospel of Mark C. 70 C.E. | |||
|2 Thessalonians 70-90 C.E. | |||
|1 Peter 70-110 C.E. | |||
|The Gospel of Matthew 80-90 C.E. | |||
|The Gospel of Luke 80-90 C.E. | |||
|- | |||
|The Acts of the Apostles 80-90 C.E. | |||
|Colossians 80-100 C.E. | |||
|Ephesians 80-100 C.E. | |||
|The Epistle to the Hebrews 80-100 C.E. | |||
|The Epistle to James 80-100 C.E. | |||
|The Gospel of John 90-100 C.E. | |||
|- | |||
|The Epistle of Jude 90-100 C.E. | |||
|The Book of Revelation C. 96 C.E. | |||
|1, 2, and 3 John C. 100 C.E. | |||
|1 and 2 Timothy 90-120 C.E. | |||
|Titus 90-120 C.E. | |||
|2 Peter 110-140 C.E. | |||
|} | |||
New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman also reports that the great majority of biblical scholars hypothesize there was also an earlier but lost earlier Gospel known in scholarship 'Q' (named after the German word for “source” Quelle) to have existed, based off shared stories between the Gospels of Luke and Matthew which do not come from the earliest Gospel of Mark, which may shared sayings appear to come from.<ref>[https://ehrmanblog.org/and-then-there-was-q/ And then there was Q.] Bart Ehmran blog. 2017. | |||
''Some scholars have called into question this hypothetical document Q — especially my friend and colleague at Duke, Mark Goodacre, who is on the blog. But its existence is still held by the great majority of scholars as the most likely explanation for the accounts, mainly sayings, of Matthew and Luke not in Mark...'' | |||
''...Matthew and Luke obviously share a number of stories with Mark, but they also share with each other a number of passages not found in Mark. Most of these passages (all but two of them) involve sayings of Jesus — for example, the Beatitudes and the Lord’s Prayer. Since they didn’t get these passages from Mark, where did they get them? Since the 19th century scholars have argued that Matthew did not get them from Luke or Luke from Matthew (for reasons I’ll suggest below); that probably means they got them from some other source, a document that no longer survives…''</ref> It is believed they both used Mark as a key source too.<ref>Ibid. | |||
''...Most scholars think that Q must have been a written document; otherwise it is difficult to explain such long stretches of verbatim agreement between Matthew and Luke. It is not certain, however, that Matthew and Luke had Q in precisely the same form: they may have had it available in slightly different editions. The same, I should add, could be true of their other source, the Gospel of Mark.''</ref> | |||
Ehrman (2001) notes, through careful examination of the earliest and most likely authentic material (e.g. multiply and independently attested, avoiding anachronisms, dissimilarity (unlikely to be added by later Christians)<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 92). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''“Dissimilar” traditions, that is, those that do not support a clear Christian agenda, or that appear to work against it, are difficult to explain unless they are authentic. They are therefore more likely to be historical.''</ref> and matching the contemporary context), we can see early Christians believed in and recorded the beliefs and saying of Jesus's imminent apocalyptic sayings.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 128). Oxford University Press. | |||
''Throughout the earliest accounts of Jesus’ words are found predictions of a Kingdom of God that is soon to appear, in which God will rule. This will be an actual kingdom here on earth. When it comes, the forces of evil will be overthrown, along with everyone who has sided with them, and only those who repent and follow Jesus’ teachings will be allowed to enter. Judgment on all others will be brought by the Son of Man, a cosmic figure who may arrive from heaven at any time.''</ref> Allison (2009) comes to the same conclusion using different methods.<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus. 2009. (Kindle Location 720 - 796). Kindle Edition. (Chapter 3) How to Proceed: The Wrong Tools for the Wrong Job) | |||
''...Results, one might suppose, are determined by method. In my case, however, different methods, with and without criteria of authenticity, have produced the same result...'' (Kindle Location 796) | |||
</ref> | |||
Beginning with the earliest writings on Jesus, the authentic [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistles letters of Paul], we see some explicit references, Paul writes (~C. 49 C.E.): | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Thessalonians%204%3A15-17&version=NIV 1 Thessalonians 4:15-17]|2=15 According to the Lord’s word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. 16 For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 17 After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever.}} | |||
I.e. Paul considers himself and his contemporaries to be among those who will still be alive when Christ returns. Paul further advises time is short as the world in its present form is passing away (~C. 54-55 C.E.). | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%207%3A29-31&version=NIV 1 Corinthians 7:29-31]|2=29 What I mean, brothers and sisters, is that the time is short. From now on those who have wives should live as if they do not; 30 those who mourn, as if they did not; those who are happy, as if they were not; those who buy something, as if it were not theirs to keep; 31 those who use the things of the world, as if not engrossed in them. For this world in its present form is passing away.}} | |||
This sense of urgency of the end being imminent is continued in the Gospels (which did not use Paul as a source),<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 202). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition. | |||
''..The synoptic authors did not copy Paul, since they wrote before his letters were published..'' | |||
</ref> in fact, the very first words Jesus utters in the first gospel (Mark ~70CE) to be written are: | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201%3A15&version=NIV Mark 1:15]|2=“The time has come. The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013%3A3-31&version=NIV Mark 13:3-30]|2=…[after describing what will happen in the apocalypse]… 29 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that it is near, right at the door. 30 Truly I tell you}} | |||
Jesus tells his followers that they will not die before the Kingdom of God comes into power and judgment by the Son of Man occurs. (''The Son of man was a cosmic judge for the hour.)''<ref>[https://ehrmanblog.org/at-last-jesus-and-the-son-of-man/ At Last. Jesus and the Son of Man.] Bart Ehrman Blog. 2020. </ref> | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209%3A1&version=NIV Mark 9:1]|2=And he said to them, “Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see that the kingdom of God has come with power.”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208%3A38-9%3A1&version=NIV Mark 8:38–9:1]|2=38 “Whoever is ashamed of me and of my words in this adulterous and sinful generation, of that one will the Son of Man be ashamed when he comes in the glory of his Father with the holy angels. 1 Truly I tell you, there are some standing here who will not taste death until they see that the Kingdom of God has come in power” .}} | |||
Along with direct statements, we have other guidance given at odds with the the Qur'anic Jesus. E.g. as Ehrman (2001) notes, Jesus's followers are told to essentially give away all of their possessions, which makes far more sense in an imminent apocalyptic environment where they would not need them over a long-term life, let alone a sustainable long-term society. If the Jesus truly was the Qur'anic one, it is difficult to imagine why his early followers would have believed such things so contrary to Islam. | |||
{{Quote|Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 168). Oxford University Press.|As a corollary, people should give all they have for the sake of others. In our earliest accounts Jesus not only urges indifference to the good things of this life (which, when seen from an apocalyptic perspective, are actually not all that good-since they too will be destroyed in the coming Kingdom), he rails against them, telling his followers to be rid of them. And thus, when a rich person comes to Jesus to ask about inheriting eternal life, upon finding out that he has already observed the commandments of God found in the Law he hasn't murdered, committed adultery, stolen, or borne false witness, for example-Jesus tells him, "You still lack one thing: go, sell everything you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven" (Mark 10:17-21)}} | |||
''(Allison (2009) also notes [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2014%3A33&version=NRSVA Luke 14:33] where his followers are told they can't become his disciple if they don't give up all of their possessions,<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus (Kindle Locations 834-837). Kindle Edition.</ref> and Jesus sends forth missionaries without staff, food, or money: [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206%3A8-9&version=NIV Mark 6:8-9]; [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010%3A9-10&version=NIV Matt. 10:9-10]; [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010%3A4&version=NIV Luke 10:4].<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus (Kindle Location 829). Kindle Edition.</ref> Followers are also commanded to never refuse someone who wants to borrow money from you. ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%205%3A42&version=NRSVA Matthew 5:42])<ref>Madison, David. Ten Things Christians Wish Jesus Hadn't Taught: And Other Reasons to Question His Words (pp.26) Insighting Growth Publications. Kindle Edition.</ref>).'' | |||
These direct statements continue in the next Gospel, the Gospel of Matthew (~80-90CE). | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2016%3A28&version=NIV Matthew 16:28]|2=“Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010%3A23&version=NIV Matthew 10:23]|2=When you are persecuted in one place, flee to another. Truly I tell you, you will not finish going through the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes.}} | |||
Further statements include. | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2024%3A3-34&version=NIV Matthew 24:3-34]|2=3 As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. “Tell us,” they said, “when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?”... [after describing various signs] ...31 And he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other. 32 “Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. 33 Even so, when you see all these things, you know that it is near, right at the door. 34 Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened.}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%203%3A2-10&version=NLT Matthew 3:2-10]|2=2 “Repent of your sins and turn to God, for the Kingdom of Heaven is near.. ..10 Even now the axe of God’s judgment is poised, ready to sever the roots of the trees. Yes, every tree that does not produce good fruit will be chopped down and thrown into the fire.}} | |||
In the next Gospel of Luke, we continue to see early apocalyptic traditions, however as Ehrman (2001) and Sanders (1993) note, we also begin to see a slight 'de-apocalypting' of the message in Luke,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''The earliest sources record Jesus as propounding an apocalyptic message. But, interestingly enough, some of the most clearly apocalyptic traditions come to be “toned down” as we move further away from Jesus’ life in the 20s to Gospel materials produced near the end of the first century. Let me give one example.'' | |||
''I’ve already pointed out that Mark was our earliest Gospel and was used as a source for the Gospel of Luke (along with Q and L). It’s a relatively simple business, then, to see how the earlier traditions of Mark fared later in the hands of Luke. Interestingly, some of the earlier apocalyptic emphases begin to be muted. In Mark 9:1, for example, Jesus says, “Truly I tell you, there are some who are standing here who will not taste death until they see that the Kingdom of God has come in power.” Luke takes over this verse—but it is worth noting what he does with it. He leaves out the last few words, so that now Jesus simply says: “Truly I tell you, there are some who are standing here who will not taste death until they see the Kingdom of God” (Luke 9:27). The difference might seem slight, but in fact it’s huge: for now Jesus does not predict the imminent arrival of the Kingdom in power, but simply says that the disciples (in some sense) will see the Kingdom. And strikingly, in Luke (but not in our earlier source, Mark), the disciples do see the Kingdom—but not its coming in power. For according to Luke, the Kingdom has already “come to you” in Jesus own ministry (Luke 11:20, not in Mark), and it is said to “be among you” in the person of Jesus himself (Luke 17:21, also not in Mark).''</ref><ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 196). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition. | |||
''Of the three gospels, Luke is most concerned to minimize and de-emphasize Jesus’ future expectation. This concern surfaces, for example, in the author’s preface to a parable, in which the readers are cautioned not to expect the kingdom immediately (Luke 19.11). Even 19.11, however, does not deny that the kingdom will come.9 Both passages (17.20f. and 19.11) are Luke’s own modifications of previously existing material. Luke 17.20f. does not appear in Luke’s source (here Mark), while 19.11 is the author’s comment on the point of a parable. The saying in 17.20f. is the author’s own attempt to reduce the significance of the dramatic verses that follow, which discuss the arrival of the Son of Man and the impending judgement.'' | |||
</ref> who edits some of the earlier traditions from Mark and the earlier lost 'Q' source, so that it is no longer Jesus's generation, but the next generation that the eschaton will arrive.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130-131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''Let me stress that Luke continues to think that the end of the age is going to come in his own lifetime. But he does not seem to think that it was supposed to come in the lifetime of Jesus’ companions. Why not? Evidently because he was writing after they had died, and he knew that in fact the end had not come.'' | |||
''To deal with the “delay of the end,” he made the appropriate changes in Jesus’ predictions. This is evident as well near the end of the Gospel. At Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin in Mark’s Gospel, Jesus boldly states to the high priest, “You will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of power and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62). That is, the end would come and the high priest would see it. Luke, writing many years later, after the high priest was long dead and buried, changes the saying: “from now on the Son of Man will be seated at the right hand of the power of God” (Luke 22:69). No longer does Jesus predict that the high priest himself will be alive when the end comes.''</ref> | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2021:7-33 Luke 21:7-33]|2=...[after talking about 'the hour'] …29 He told them this parable: “Look at the fig tree and all the trees. 30 When they sprout leaves, you can see for yourselves and know that summer is near. 31 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that the kingdom of God is near. 32 “Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. 33 Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.}} | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%209%3A27&version=NIV Luke 9:27]|2=27 “Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see the kingdom of God.”}} | |||
Jesus tells his audience to be ready because the Son of Man (and accompanying judgement) will arrive at any moment, rather than e.g. death could arrive at any moment. | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2012%3A40&version=NIV Luke 12:40]|2=40 You also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him.”}} | |||
These are very unlikely to be added by Christians after the fact, as of course didn't happen, so would not naturally be words one would want attributed to their saviour.<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 202). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition. | |||
''Scholars who try to ‘test’ sayings of Jesus for authenticity will see that this tradition passes with flying colours. First, the predicted event did not actually happen; therefore the prophecy is not a fake. An unfulfilled prophecy is much more likely to be authentic than one that corresponds precisely to what actually happened, since few people would make up something that did not happen and then attribute it to Jesus.'' | |||
</ref> | |||
What we do see is in the The Gospel of John writing (~90-100CE), several decades later again, and after the 40-50 years later after the first and second generations began passing away, the message of Jesus is de-apocalycised much further.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''Here, then, is a later source that appears to have modified the earlier apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. You can see the same tendency in the Gospel of John, the last of our canonical accounts to be written. In this account, rather than speaking about the Kingdom of God that is soon to come (which is never spoken of here), Jesus talks about eternal life that is available here and now for the believer. The Kingdom is not future, it is available in the present, for all who have faith in Jesus.'' | |||
</ref> In fact, the imminent apocalyptic message is completely absent in John, as it became more apparent the prophecy was not happening, and so 'kingdom of heaven' only now becomes a metaphor for Jesus's ministry.<ref>Ibid. pp. 130-131.</ref> | |||
So we can trace the development of a Jewish preacher who believed the eschaton was imminent, being changed over time the further away from his message the writer is. Later apocrypha works written after the Gospel of John, and even further away from the time of Jesus, go further in it's denial, and explicitly condemn the view.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131. | |||
''This “de-apocalypticizing” of Jesus’ message continues into the second century. In the Gospel of Thomas, for example, written somewhat later than John, there is a clear attack on anyone who believes in a future Kingdom here on earth. In some sayings, for example, Jesus denies that the Kingdom involves an actual place but “is within..'' | |||
Ibid. pp. 134. | |||
''Before moving on to a consideration of the specific criteria that historians use with the Gospel traditions, let me stress again here, in conclusion, my simple point about our rules of thumb. The earliest sources that we have consistently ascribe an apocalyptic message to Jesus. This message begins to be muted by the end of the first century (e.g., in Luke), until it virtually disappears (e.g., in John), and begins, then, to be explicitly rejected and spurned (e.g., in Thomas). It appears that when the end never did arrive, Christians had to take stock of the fact that Jesus said it would and changed his message accordingly. You can hardly blame them.''</ref> We can therefore see the the earliest sources of Jesus and his followers do not align with the Qur'anic portrayal, who of course could not have preached this given Allah would know it was not the end of the world. | |||
==== The historical John the Baptist ==== | |||
John the Baptist whom Jesus closely preached with and is mentioned many times in the New Testament, is incidentally mentioned in the Quran. Unlike the Islamic John however, along with Jesus, he was also considered to have been an imminent apocalyptic preacher by academics. As Sanders (1993)<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 203). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition. | |||
''..entirely by studying the individual sayings. Only they can give us any of the nuances of Jesus’ thought, but the best evidence in favour of the view that Jesus expected that God would very soon intervene in history is the context of the movement that began with John the Baptist (ch. 7 above). John expected the judgement to come soon. Jesus started his career by being baptized by John. After Jesus’ death and resurrection, his followers thought that within their lifetimes he would return to establish his kingdom. After his conversion, Paul was of the very same view.''</ref> and Ehrman (2001) note: | |||
{{Quote|Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 138). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.|John the Baptist appears to have preached a message of coming destruction and salvation. Mark portrays him as a prophet in the wilderness, proclaiming the fulfilment of the prophecy of Isaiah that God would again bring his people from the wilderness into the Promised Land (Mark 1:2–8). When this happened the first time, according to the Hebrew Scriptures, it meant destruction for the nations already inhabiting the land. In preparation for this imminent event, John baptized those who repented of their sins, that is, those who were ready to enter into this coming Kingdom. The Q source gives further information, for here John preaches a clear message of apocalyptic judgment to the crowds that have come out to see him: “Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruits worthy of repentance.… Even now the ax is lying at the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire” (Luke 3:7–9). Judgment is imminent: the ax is at the root of the tree. And it will not be a pretty sight.}} | |||
We have seen that in the earliest sources of his life, John the Baptist was an apocalyptic preacher who focused on repentance in preparation for the coming judgment of God, and baptized Jesus early on.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 184). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. | |||
''We have already seen that there is overwhelming evidence that Jesus was baptized by and became a follower of John the Baptist. The baptism itself is described in our earliest narrative, Mark, followed by the other Synoptics; it is alluded to independently by John (Mark 1:9–11; Matt. 3:13–17; Luke 3:21–22; John 1:29–34). The Q source gives a lengthy account of John’s apocalyptic preaching, evidently at the very outset of its account of Jesus’ teaching (see Luke 3:7–18; Matt. 3:7–12).'' | |||
</ref> Jesus, who initially associated with and followed John before starting his own ministry,<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 110). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition. | |||
''In view of this, it is most unlikely that the gospels or earlier Christians invented the fact that Jesus started out under John. Since they wanted Jesus to stand out as superior to the Baptist, they would not have made up the story that Jesus had been his follower. Therefore, we conclude, John really did baptize Jesus. This, in turn, implies that Jesus agreed with John’s message: it was time to repent in view of the coming wrath and redemption.''</ref> spoke of him positively throughout his life. Despite differences in emphasis—John's fiery call to repentance and Jesus’ message of hope and the coming restoration—both shared the belief in an imminent divine judgment and the importance of preparing for it.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 185). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> | |||
== Regarding the Traditional Historical Account of the Quran's Origins == | == Regarding the Traditional Historical Account of the Quran's Origins == | ||