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(→‎Relevant Quotations: Have linked to a brilliant post on modern academics views against Muhammad being illiterate on the subreddit r/academicquran here, arguing against the traditional view.)
 
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'''Muhammad's literacy''' is a commonly mentioned topic in regards to the historicity, revelation, and compiling of the Quran. Many Muslim scholars claim that Muhammad's illiteracy is evidence that the Quran is a divine miracle. However, skeptics disagree that this is enough to constitute a miracle and challenge the claim altogether.
'''Muhammad's literacy''' is a commonly mentioned topic in regards to the historicity, revelation, and compiling of the Quran. Many Muslim scholars have argued that Muhammad's illiteracy is evidence that the Quran is a divine miracle. However, skeptics disagree that this is enough to constitute a miracle and challenge the claim altogether. Among modern academic scholars there is virtual unanimity that the Quran does not in fact describe Muhammad or his people as illiterate, and that this was a reinterpretation arising some time after his death. Indeed, there is now known to be abundant evidence of significant literacy among the pre-Islamic Arabs.


==Transfer of Information==
==Transfer of Information==
Humans have many means by which information transfer is possible including:
{{Main|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature}}
Humans have many means by which information transfer is possible. Verbal communication, historically, was the main mode of information sharing. Many civilizations, their histories, mythologies, and stories have been kept alive as they are passed down orally from one generation to the next.


*Auditory (sound)
During Muhammad's time, his critics called him "an ear" (أذن, ''udhun''), which is confirmed in the Quran:
*Visual (sight)
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|61}}|
*Mechanical (touch)
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."}}
*Chemical (taste)
*Olfactory (smell)


Verbal communication, historically, was the main mode of information sharing. Many civilizations, their histories, mythologies, and stories have been kept alive as they are passed down orally from one generation to the next.
Julien Decharneux, an academic scholar who specialises in Syriac traditions and the Quran, proposes that the Quranic author(s) came into contact with East Syriac Christian preachers or missionaries rather than direct accessing Christian texts. In his book ''Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background'', he notes that the Christian lore in the Quran is "always periphrastic, never detailed, and often approximative". Decharneux further explains that the repetoire of texts that would have contributed to the thought of a "standard Christian preacher" at the turn of the 7th century would vary depending on church affiliation, "but it involves among other things the Bible, apocryphal texts, exegetical commentaries, and ascetic literature. These types of texts were not ''occasionally'' read. The sources attest that they were ''omnipresent'' in the Christian scholastic and monastic life from where a 'standard preacher' would have come". Indeed, he adds, "both Syriac ''and'' Greek exegetes were extremely popular".<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background", Berlin/Boston: DeGruyter, pp. 10-11</ref>


During Muhammad's time, his critics called him "an ear" (أذن, ''udhun''), which is confirmed in the Quran:
Decharneux further writes regarding missionary activity in the vicinity of Arabia:
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|9|61}}|
 
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."}}
{{Quote|Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation", p. 252|The Church of the East was particarly active from this point of view with far-reaching missionary activites in the south-eastern part of the Asian world. At the time of the emergence of the Qurʾān, both the Syro-Orthodox Church and the Church of the East were already exerting their influence on the south of the Arabian Peninsula, as the records show. Most importantly, the Church of the East was established on both sides of the Persian Gulf. From the end of the 4th century at least, Christian communities had settled in the region called Beth Qatraye, covering a large zone of the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Recent archaeology shows that several monasteries existed along the coast and in the islands of the Persian Gulf. We know that these communities were connected with the regions of Sinai and the Byzantine world particularly. Some of the writings emanating from these circles were also translated in Sogdian, Ethiopic, and Arabic from the 7th century onwards.}}


We also know that during Muhammad's time there was a man named Waraqa b. Naufal who studied the Bible and he wrote books in Arabic and he was close to Muhammad's first wife Khadija. He also became blind so we can expect he continued to teach the Bible verbally, when he could no longer write.
For further relevant verses and sources, see the introductory sections in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
{{Quote-text|{{Muslim|1|301}}|
Khadija then took him to Waraqa b. Naufal b. Asad b. 'Abd al-'Uzza, and he was the son of Khadija's uncle, i. e., the brother of her father. And he was the man who had embraced Christianity in the Days of Ignorance (i. e. before Islam) and he used to write books in Arabic and, therefore, wrote Injil in Arabic as God willed that he should write. He was very old and had become blind Khadija said to him: O uncle! listen to the son of your brother.}}


So Muhammad '''could''' get information without being able to read and he '''could''' give speeches which contain these information. And besides that, he could also be inspired by himself, by his wishes and he could use his imagination.
==The myth of pre-Islamic Arab illiteracy==
Old Arabic (i.e. pre-Islamic) comprised a continuum of dialects over a large region, and is found enscribed on rocks and monuments in a variety of scripts such as Safaitic, and eventually in early Arabic scripts. Ahmad al-Jallad, a leading expert on the history of Arabic and its epigraphic evidence outlines how we now know that a sizable segment of South Arabian society was able to write even for informal purposes, and that North and West Arabia were literate societies, as traced in the extensive range of inscriptions, and even that a large number of desert nomads were able to read and write. He further writes, "Thus, the growing body of pre-Islamic evidence strongly indicates that the use of Arabic for administration in the early Islamic period does not reflect an ad hoc invention, but the continuation of an established tradition of administration in Arabic which must have its origins in North Arabian and Syrian scribal practices."<ref>Ahmad al-Jallad (2020) [https://www.academia.edu/43141064 Chapter 7: The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia - Context for the Qur’an] in Mustafa Shah (ed.), Muhammad Abdel Haleem (ed.), "The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies", Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 122</ref>


==Was Muhammad illiterate?==
==Was Muhammad illiterate?==
===The meaning of ''ummiy''===
===The meaning of ''ummiy''===
The word is derived from the root أمم. There are 119 words in the Quran, derived from this root <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref>. There are other words besides ''ummiy'' (أمي):
The word is derived from the root أمم. There are 119 words in the Quran, derived from this root <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref>. Other words besides ''ummiy'' (أمي) from the same root are:


*''umm'' (أم) - mother
*''umm'' (أم) - mother
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*''ummah'' (أمة) - the (Islamic) community/nation
*''ummah'' (أمة) - the (Islamic) community/nation


The Lane's lexicon says this about ''ummiy'':
Lane's Lexicon of classical Arabic says this about ''ummiy'' specifically:
{{Quote-text|Lane's lexicon on أُمِّىٌّ|
{{Quote|Lane's lexicon on أُمِّىٌّ|


أُمِّىٌّ
أُمِّىٌّ
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Also, (Ḳ,) or [only] أُمِّىٌّ, (AZ, T, M,) applied to a man, (AZ, T,) Impotent in speech, (عَيِىّ, in the Ḳ incorrectly written غَبِىّ, TA,) of few words, and rude, churlish, uncivil, or surly. (AZ, T, M, Ḳ.)}}
Also, (Ḳ,) or [only] أُمِّىٌّ, (AZ, T, M,) applied to a man, (AZ, T,) Impotent in speech, (عَيِىّ, in the Ḳ incorrectly written غَبِىّ, TA,) of few words, and rude, churlish, uncivil, or surly. (AZ, T, M, Ḳ.)}}


Online Arabic dictionary says about ummiy:
===The word ''ummiy'' in the Quran===
{{Quote-text|Almaany.com on أمي |Translation and Meaning of أمي in Almaany English Arabic Dictionary
The word ''ummiy'' (أمي) appears 6 times in the Quran. Two times in the singular in relation to Muhammad himself (verses 7:157-158) and four times in the plural form (verses 2:78, 3:20, 3:75 and 62:2). <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref> From these verses quoted below we will see that the word doesn't have to necessarily mean "illiterate", but can also mean "ignorant" or "not given a scripture".


أُمّيّ  ( اسم ):
Mehdy Shaddel says that modern academic scholars "virtually unanimously" agree that the Arabic word ummi did not mean that the Prophet is illiterate, contrary to the Islamic tradition. In at least three of the six verses where the word appears such an interpretation does not fit. This is also true of its usage in many cases in the hadith tradition. It is less easy to positively determine exactly what it did mean, though in general it is now believed to mean gentile or pagan i.e. coming from an unscriptured people.<ref>Mehdy Shaddel, [https://www.academia.edu/8811286 Qurʾānic ummī: Genealogy, Ethnicity, and the Foundation of a New Community] (Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 43, 2016, pp. 1-60)</ref>


illiterate ; uneducated ; unlettered
In his commentary on the Quran, Gabriel Said Reynolds (a modern academic scholar) points to verse 3:20 as evidence that the word refers to those who do not know the word of God (similarly verses 3:75 and 62:2).<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p.54 (commentary on Q. 2:78-9)</ref> Thus, Muhammad is described as an ummi prophet in verses 7:157-158 because he came from a people to whom God had not yet sent down revelation, not because he was illiterate. As Reynolds further points out (crediting Holger Zelletin), verses 29:47-48, which are commonly cited to interpret the other verses on this topic, deny that Muhammad wrote the Quran himself, yet this does not imply that he could not read:
-
- illiterate
- unable to read or uneducated
- an illiterate person
- not educated; illiterate  
- illiterate, not well educated


أُمّيّ  ( اسم ):
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|47|48}}|And thus We have sent down to you the Qur'an. And those to whom We [previously] gave the Scripture believe in it. And among these [people of Makkah] are those who believe in it. And none reject Our verses except the disbelievers. And you did not recite before it any scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt.}}


maternal ; mother ; motherly
====Chapter 2 Verse 78====
-
One of the plural forms is in sura 2. Shaddel here argues that the verse is talking about Arab converts to Judaism.
- maternal
- typical of or connected with being a mother
- of a female parent of a child or animal
- of or relating to mother}}


===The word ''ummiy'' in the Quran===
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|78}}|
The word ''ummiy'' (أمي) appears 6 times in the Quran. Two times in the singular (verses 7:157-158) and four times in the plural form (verses 2:78, 3:20, 3:75 and 62:2). <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref> From the verses we will see that the word doesn't have to necessarily mean "illiterate", but can also mean "ignorant" or "pagan" or "gentile".
====Chapter 2 Verse 78====
One of the plural forms is in sura 2:
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|2|78}}|
And among them are '''unlettered ones''' (أُمِّيُّونَ, ''ummeeoona'') who do not know the Scripture except in wishful thinking, but they are only assuming.}}
And among them are '''unlettered ones''' (أُمِّيُّونَ, ''ummeeoona'') who do not know the Scripture except in wishful thinking, but they are only assuming.}}
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn says about the verse:
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn says about the verse:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 2:78|
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 2:78|
And there are some of them the Jews that are '''illiterate unlettered not knowing the Scripture''' the Torah but only desires lies which were handed down to them by their leaders and which they relied upon; and in their rejection of the prophethood of the Prophet and fabrications of other matters they have mere conjectures and no firm knowledge.}}
And there are some of them the Jews that are '''illiterate unlettered not knowing the Scripture''' the Torah but only desires lies which were handed down to them by their leaders and which they relied upon; and in their rejection of the prophethood of the Prophet and fabrications of other matters they have mere conjectures and no firm knowledge.}}
So here the word could mean "illiterate" or "ignorant".


====Chapter 3 Verse 20====
====Chapter 3 Verse 20====
Another is in the verse 3:20.
Another is in verse 3:20 (see above regarding Reynolds' commentary about this and similar verses).
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|3|20}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|20}}|
So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture '''and [to] the unlearned''' (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''wa-al-ummeena''), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.}}
So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture '''and [to] the unlearned''' (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''wa-al-ummeena''), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.}}


Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20 says:
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20 says:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20|
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20|
So if they the disbelievers dispute with you O Muhammad (s) concerning religion say to them ‘I have surrendered my countenance to God that is to say I have submitted to Him I and whoever follows me’ wajh ‘countenance’ is chosen here because of its noble character for the other parts of the body will just as soon surrender once the countenance has; and say to those who have been given the Scripture the Jews and the Christians '''and to the uninstructed the Arab idolaters''' ‘Have you submitted?’ that is to say ‘Submit!’ And so if they have submitted they have been guided from error but if they turn their backs to Islam your duty is only to deliver the Message; and God sees His servants and so requites them for their deeds — this statement was revealed before the command to fight them had been revealed.}}
So if they the disbelievers dispute with you O Muhammad (s) concerning religion say to them ‘I have surrendered my countenance to God that is to say I have submitted to Him I and whoever follows me’ wajh ‘countenance’ is chosen here because of its noble character for the other parts of the body will just as soon surrender once the countenance has; and say to those who have been given the Scripture the Jews and the Christians '''and to the uninstructed the Arab idolaters''' ‘Have you submitted?’ that is to say ‘Submit!’ And so if they have submitted they have been guided from error but if they turn their backs to Islam your duty is only to deliver the Message; and God sees His servants and so requites them for their deeds — this statement was revealed before the command to fight them had been revealed.}}
So here, according to the tafsir Al-Jalalayn, the word ''ummiy'' means gentile/pagan.
Here, according to Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, as well as most academic scholars, the word ''ummiy'' means pagan or gentile (i.e. those not given a scripture).
====Chapter 3 Verse 75====
====Chapter 3 Verse 75====
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|3|75}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|75}}|
And among the People of the Scripture is he who, if you entrust him with a great amount [of wealth], he will return it to you. And among them is he who, if you entrust him with a [single] silver coin, he will not return it to you unless you are constantly standing over him [demanding it]. That is because they say, "There is no blame upon us concerning '''the unlearned''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeena'')." And they speak untruth about Allah while they know [it].}}
And among the People of the Scripture is he who, if you entrust him with a great amount [of wealth], he will return it to you. And among them is he who, if you entrust him with a [single] silver coin, he will not return it to you unless you are constantly standing over him [demanding it]. That is because they say, "There is no blame upon us concerning '''the unlearned''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeena'')." And they speak untruth about Allah while they know [it].}}
The tafsir Al-Jalalayn explains:
The tafsir Al-Jalalayn explains:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:75|
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:75|
And of the People of the Scripture is he who if you trust him with a hundredweight that is with much money he will return it to you on account of his trustworthiness the like of ‘Abd Allāh b. Salām to whom a man entrusted 1200 plates of gold which he then returned to him; and of them is he who if you trust him with one dinar will not return it to you on account of his treachery; unless you keep standing over him not leaving him for one minute for as soon as you leave him he will deny it as was the case with Ka‘b b. al-Ashraf to whom a man from Quraysh entrusted a dinar and later denied it. '''That refusal to return things is because they say ‘We have no duty towards namely no possibility of acquiring sin because of the Gentiles’ the Arabs; for they considered it lawful to be unjust towards any person of a different religion''' and they attributed the source of this conviction to God exalted be He. God exalted be He says They speak falsehood against God by attributing such things to Him while they are aware that they are liars.}}
And of the People of the Scripture is he who if you trust him with a hundredweight that is with much money he will return it to you on account of his trustworthiness the like of ‘Abd Allāh b. Salām to whom a man entrusted 1200 plates of gold which he then returned to him; and of them is he who if you trust him with one dinar will not return it to you on account of his treachery; unless you keep standing over him not leaving him for one minute for as soon as you leave him he will deny it as was the case with Ka‘b b. al-Ashraf to whom a man from Quraysh entrusted a dinar and later denied it. '''That refusal to return things is because they say ‘We have no duty towards namely no possibility of acquiring sin because of the Gentiles’ the Arabs; for they considered it lawful to be unjust towards any person of a different religion''' and they attributed the source of this conviction to God exalted be He. God exalted be He says They speak falsehood against God by attributing such things to Him while they are aware that they are liars.}}
So from this verse it seem to indicate that ummiy means gentile.
The tafsir interprets ummiy here to mean gentiles, those not given a scripture.  
====Chapter 7 Verses 157-158====
====Chapter 7 Verses 157-158====
The two singular forms are in the verses 7:157 and 7:158 in the context of talking about Moses:
The two singular forms are in the verses 7:157 and 7:158 in the context of talking about Moses:
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."


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7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."}}
7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."}}
So the information about Muhammad's illiteracy was for some reason inserted into a passage which talks about Moses. "[O Muhammad]" was added by translators. This strange insertion could be interpreted in many ways. The context doesn't give us a hint what the word ''ummiy'' means.
So the information about Muhammad's illiteracy (as orthodoxy interpreted the word, but alternatively his coming from a people without a scripture) was for some reason inserted into a passage which talks about Moses. The context doesn't provide any indication as to what the word ''ummiy'' means here.


According to tafsir Ibn Kathir, it is a description of Muhammad in Jewish and Christian scripture and that rabbis and priests "well know" it:
According to Tafsir Ibn Kathir, it is a description of Muhammad in Jewish and Christian scripture and that rabbis and priests "well know" it:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 7:157|
{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 7:157|
(Those who follow the Messenger, '''the Prophet who can neither read nor write whom they find written with them in the Tawrah and the Injil,) This is the description of the Prophet Muhammad in the Books of the Prophets'''. They delivered the good news of his advent to their nations and commanded them to follow him. His descriptions were still apparent in their Books, as '''the rabbis and the priests well know'''.}}
(Those who follow the Messenger, '''the Prophet who can neither read nor write whom they find written with them in the Tawrah and the Injil,) This is the description of the Prophet Muhammad in the Books of the Prophets'''. They delivered the good news of his advent to their nations and commanded them to follow him. His descriptions were still apparent in their Books, as '''the rabbis and the priests well know'''.}}
Ibn Kathir doesn't specify where exactly this "well known" description of Muhammad in the Torah is.
It is worth noting, however, that Ibn Kathir doesn't specify what this "well known" description of Muhammad in the Torah is.


====Chapter 62 Verse 2====
====Chapter 62 Verse 2====
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|62|2-3}}|
The modern academic view is that again this verse refers to gentiles or pagans i.e. those not given a scripture. The verse has traditionally been interpreted to describe the Arabs as illiterates. However, modern epigraphic research has refuted this picture (as outlined above), and first century Quran manuscripts show that an early Arabic orthographic standard was already in existence.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|62|2-3}}|
62:2 "It is He who has sent among '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeen'') a Messenger from themselves reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom - although they were before in clear error -"
62:2 "It is He who has sent among '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeen'') a Messenger from themselves reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom - although they were before in clear error -"


62:3 "And [to] others of them who have not yet joined them. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise."}}
62:3 "And [to] others of them who have not yet joined them. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise."}}
In 62:2, according to the tafsir Al-Jalalayn, the word means illiterate and refers to the illiterate Arabs:
In 62:2, according to the tafsir Al-Jalalayn, the word means illiterate and refers to the illiterate Arabs:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2|
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2|
It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs '''ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’''' a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.}}
It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs '''ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’''' a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.}}
Ibn Kathir says "other" in 62:3 means Persians:
Ibn Kathir says "other" in 62:3 means Persians:
{{Quote-text|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 62:3 |
{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 62:3 |
The Prophet explained Allah's statement,
The Prophet explained Allah's statement,


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===Claimed prediction of an illiterate prophet in the Bible===
===Claimed prediction of an illiterate prophet in the Bible===
A popular Islamic preacher Zakir Naik proposed that an illiterate prophet is predicted in Isaiah 29:12 <ref>http://www.unchangingword.com/illiterate-prophet/</ref>. According to Zakir Naik, the verse says:
A popular Islamic preacher Zakir Naik proposed that an illiterate prophet is predicted in Isaiah 29:12 <ref>http://www.unchangingword.com/illiterate-prophet/</ref>. According to Zakir Naik, the verse says:
{{Quote-text|Non-existant (Isaiah 29:12 according to Zakir Naik)|
{{Quote|Non-existant (Isaiah 29:12 according to Zakir Naik)|
"The book shall be given to a person who is not learned. And when will be asked "Read this!", he will say "I am not learned".}}
"The book shall be given to a person who is not learned. And when will be asked "Read this!", he will say "I am not learned".}}
This could be a prediction of what Aisha described:
This could be a prediction of what Aisha described:
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...}}
But this is what Isaiah 29:12 actually says:
Isaiah 29:12, however, is as follows:
{{Quote-text|Isaiah 29:11-13|
{{Quote|Isaiah 29:11-13|
29:11 "For you this whole vision is nothing but words sealed in a scroll. And if you give the scroll to someone who can read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I can’t; it is sealed.”"
29:11 "For you this whole vision is nothing but words sealed in a scroll. And if you give the scroll to someone who can read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I can’t; it is sealed.”"


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29:13 "The Lord says: “These people come near to me with their mouth and honor me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me. Their worship of me is based on merely human rules they have been taught."}}
29:13 "The Lord says: “These people come near to me with their mouth and honor me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me. Their worship of me is based on merely human rules they have been taught."}}
So the verse 29:12 actually talks about hypocrites who give lame excuses for not reading the Bible.


*اسم (''ism'') means "a noun".
*اسم (''ism'') means "a noun".


So this word has a variety of meanings. We could speculate that it could even mean "motherly" (derived from ''umm'' - mother), because Muhammad's father died before Muhammad was born and he lived only with his mother.
So this word has a variety of meanings. One could speculate that it could even mean "motherly" (derived from ''umm'' - mother), because Muhammad's father died before Muhammad was born and he lived only with his mother.


===Indications Muhammad was literate===
===Indications Muhammad was literate===
Muhammad was employed by his first wife Khadija to travel as a merchant. It's hard to do trade business without being able to write. Besides this implicit indication to his ability to write, we have explicit hadiths talking about Muhammad writing stuff.
Muhammad was employed by his first wife Khadija to travel as a merchant. It's hard to do trade business without being able to write. Besides this implicit indication to his ability to write, we have explicit hadiths talking about Muhammad writing.


====Hadiths====
====Hadiths====
كتب (''kataba'') means "he wrote":
كتب (''kataba'') means "he wrote":
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|1|3|65}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|3|65}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:
Narrated Anas bin Malik:


'''Once the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter or had an idea of writing a letter'''. The Prophet (ﷺ) was told that they (rulers) would not read letters unless they were sealed. So the Prophet (ﷺ) got a silver ring made with "Muhammad Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)" engraved on it. As if I were just observing its white glitter in the hand of the Prophet.}}
'''Once the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter or had an idea of writing a letter'''. The Prophet (ﷺ) was told that they (rulers) would not read letters unless they were sealed. So the Prophet (ﷺ) got a silver ring made with "Muhammad Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)" engraved on it. As if I were just observing its white glitter in the hand of the Prophet.}}
{{Quote-text|{{Abudawud|42|5117}}|
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|42|5117}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:


'''The Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter to Heraclius''': "From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql (Heraclius), Chief of the Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance." Ibn Yahya reported on the authority of Ibn Abbas that AbuSufyan said to him: We then came to see Hiraql (Heraclius) who seated us before him. He then called for the letter from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Its contents were: "In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, from Muhammad the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql, chief of Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance. To proceed."}}
'''The Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter to Heraclius''': "From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql (Heraclius), Chief of the Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance." Ibn Yahya reported on the authority of Ibn Abbas that AbuSufyan said to him: We then came to see Hiraql (Heraclius) who seated us before him. He then called for the letter from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Its contents were: "In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, from Muhammad the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql, chief of Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance. To proceed."}}
{{Quote-text|{{Abudawud|18|2921}} (sahih)|
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|18|2921}} (sahih)|
Narrated Umar ibn al-Khattab:
Narrated Umar ibn al-Khattab:


Line 162: Line 145:


Ahmad ibn Salih said: AbdurRazzaq transmitted this tradition to us from Ma'mar, from az-Zuhri on the authority of Sa'id. In this version he said: The Prophet (ﷺ) made him governor over the bedouins.}}
Ahmad ibn Salih said: AbdurRazzaq transmitted this tradition to us from Ma'mar, from az-Zuhri on the authority of Sa'id. In this version he said: The Prophet (ﷺ) made him governor over the bedouins.}}
{{Quote-text|{{Abudawud|19|2993}}|
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|19|2993}}|
Narrated Yazid ibn Abdullah:
Narrated Yazid ibn Abdullah:


Line 172: Line 155:


وكتب (''wa-kataba'') means "and he wrote":
وكتب (''wa-kataba'') means "and he wrote":
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|4|53|387}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|53|387}}|
Narrated Abu Humaid As-Saidi:
Narrated Abu Humaid As-Saidi:


Line 178: Line 161:


فكتب (''fa-kataba'') means "then he wrote":
فكتب (''fa-kataba'') means "then he wrote":
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|9|89|302}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|9|89|302}}|
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Jews should either pay the blood money of your (deceased) companion or be ready for war." '''After that Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) wrote (فَكَتَبَ) a letter to the Jews''' in that respect, and they wrote that they had not killed him.}}
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Jews should either pay the blood money of your (deceased) companion or be ready for war." '''After that Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) wrote (فَكَتَبَ) a letter to the Jews''' in that respect, and they wrote that they had not killed him.}}
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|3|49|863}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|3|49|863}}|
Narrated Al-Bara:
Narrated Al-Bara:


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====The first revelation====
====The first revelation====
The first sura was the sura 96, which  begins as follows:
The first sura was the sura 96, which  begins as follows:
{{Quote-text|{{Quran|96|1-5}}|'''Read''' (اقرا, ''iqra'') in the name of your Lord who created -
{{Quote|{{Quran|96|1-5}}|'''Read''' (اقرا, ''iqra'') in the name of your Lord who created -


Created man from a clinging substance.
Created man from a clinging substance.
Line 199: Line 182:


There are two versions of the story of the first revelation. In the Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq it goes as follows:
There are two versions of the story of the first revelation. In the Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq it goes as follows:
{{Quote-text|Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq |When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. "He came to me," said the apostle of God, "while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade whereon was some writing, and said, ‘Read!’ I said, '''‘What shall I read?’''' (وما اقرأ) He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What then shall I read?’—and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same to me again. He said:
{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq |When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. "He came to me," said the apostle of God, "while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade whereon was some writing, and said, ‘Read!’ I said, '''‘What shall I read?’''' (وما اقرأ) He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What then shall I read?’—and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same to me again. He said:


‘Read in the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is the most beneficent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men.’
‘Read in the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is the most beneficent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men.’
Line 205: Line 188:
It says وما اقرأ "and what (should I) read?". So in this story Muhammad can read, he just asks what should he read.
It says وما اقرأ "and what (should I) read?". So in this story Muhammad can read, he just asks what should he read.


Ibn Ishaq died in 761. But in 810 was born Bukhari, who wrote a little different story in his Sahih Bukhari collection:
Ibn Ishaq died in 761. But in the 9th century, Bukhari recorded the narration differently:
{{Quote-text|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
}}
}}
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This shift from ''"and what shall I read"'' (وما اقرأ) to ''"I don't know how to read"'' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ) seems to indicate that Muhammad's illiteracy was a later invention.
This shift from ''"and what shall I read"'' (وما اقرأ) to ''"I don't know how to read"'' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ) seems to indicate that Muhammad's illiteracy was a later invention.


==Association with illiteracy in Muslim majority countries==
==Hadith regarding the Ummah as an unlettered people==
Muhammad is seen as the foremost role model in Islam. It is considered [[sunnah]] (righteous conduct) to emulate Prophet Muhammad as much as possible.
According to a hadith, Muhammad said that the Islamic community was a ummiyya who could not write nor count. The hadith has been understood to mean that the start of the month should be determined by moon sighting and not by calculation.<ref>https://islamqa.info/en/4713</ref>:
 
{{Quote|{{Muslim|6|2376}}|
Muhammad said that the ummah (the Islamic community) is illiterate and it's not important to use astronomical calculations to determine beginning of a month and it should be rather determined primitively by sight <ref>https://islamqa.info/en/4713</ref>:
{{Quote-text|{{Muslim|6|2376}}|
Ibn 'Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Apostle as saying:
Ibn 'Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Apostle as saying:


We are '''an unlettered people''' ( أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ, ''umma ummiyya'') who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus. folding his thumb when he said it the third time.
We are '''an unlettered people''' ( أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ, ''umma ummiyya'') who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus. folding his thumb when he said it the third time.
}}
}}
It is estimated that around 40% of the Muslim population today is illiterate <ref>http://www.iinanews.com/page/public/report.aspx?id=10377#.WsC4q6iWaUk</ref>. The word ''ummah'' (أمة) itself is derived from the same root as ''ummi'' (أمي).


==Relevant Quotations==
==Relevant Quotations==
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|61}}|
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|61}}|
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."
}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
}}{{Quote|{{Quran|44|14}}|Yet they turn away from him and say: "'''Tutored (by others)''' (مُعَلَّمٌۭ), a man possessed!"}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."


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{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
}}<br />
}}
 
=== Modern Academic Quotations ===
The Sub-Reddit [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/ r/AcademicQuran] moderator(s) have complied a list of quotes and citations from modern academics on the data as to whether Muhammad literate or not which can be read here: [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/1fz3vr8/the_data_on_muhammads_literacy/ ''The data on Muhammad's literacy'']
 
==See also==
==See also==


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==References==
==References==
<references />
<references />
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Sirah]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]

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Muhammad's literacy is a commonly mentioned topic in regards to the historicity, revelation, and compiling of the Quran. Many Muslim scholars have argued that Muhammad's illiteracy is evidence that the Quran is a divine miracle. However, skeptics disagree that this is enough to constitute a miracle and challenge the claim altogether. Among modern academic scholars there is virtual unanimity that the Quran does not in fact describe Muhammad or his people as illiterate, and that this was a reinterpretation arising some time after his death. Indeed, there is now known to be abundant evidence of significant literacy among the pre-Islamic Arabs.

Transfer of Information

Main Article: Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature

Humans have many means by which information transfer is possible. Verbal communication, historically, was the main mode of information sharing. Many civilizations, their histories, mythologies, and stories have been kept alive as they are passed down orally from one generation to the next.

During Muhammad's time, his critics called him "an ear" (أذن, udhun), which is confirmed in the Quran:

And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is an ear (أذن, udhun)."
Quran 9:61

Julien Decharneux, an academic scholar who specialises in Syriac traditions and the Quran, proposes that the Quranic author(s) came into contact with East Syriac Christian preachers or missionaries rather than direct accessing Christian texts. In his book Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background, he notes that the Christian lore in the Quran is "always periphrastic, never detailed, and often approximative". Decharneux further explains that the repetoire of texts that would have contributed to the thought of a "standard Christian preacher" at the turn of the 7th century would vary depending on church affiliation, "but it involves among other things the Bible, apocryphal texts, exegetical commentaries, and ascetic literature. These types of texts were not occasionally read. The sources attest that they were omnipresent in the Christian scholastic and monastic life from where a 'standard preacher' would have come". Indeed, he adds, "both Syriac and Greek exegetes were extremely popular".[1]

Decharneux further writes regarding missionary activity in the vicinity of Arabia:

The Church of the East was particarly active from this point of view with far-reaching missionary activites in the south-eastern part of the Asian world. At the time of the emergence of the Qurʾān, both the Syro-Orthodox Church and the Church of the East were already exerting their influence on the south of the Arabian Peninsula, as the records show. Most importantly, the Church of the East was established on both sides of the Persian Gulf. From the end of the 4th century at least, Christian communities had settled in the region called Beth Qatraye, covering a large zone of the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Recent archaeology shows that several monasteries existed along the coast and in the islands of the Persian Gulf. We know that these communities were connected with the regions of Sinai and the Byzantine world particularly. Some of the writings emanating from these circles were also translated in Sogdian, Ethiopic, and Arabic from the 7th century onwards.
Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation", p. 252

For further relevant verses and sources, see the introductory sections in the article Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature.

The myth of pre-Islamic Arab illiteracy

Old Arabic (i.e. pre-Islamic) comprised a continuum of dialects over a large region, and is found enscribed on rocks and monuments in a variety of scripts such as Safaitic, and eventually in early Arabic scripts. Ahmad al-Jallad, a leading expert on the history of Arabic and its epigraphic evidence outlines how we now know that a sizable segment of South Arabian society was able to write even for informal purposes, and that North and West Arabia were literate societies, as traced in the extensive range of inscriptions, and even that a large number of desert nomads were able to read and write. He further writes, "Thus, the growing body of pre-Islamic evidence strongly indicates that the use of Arabic for administration in the early Islamic period does not reflect an ad hoc invention, but the continuation of an established tradition of administration in Arabic which must have its origins in North Arabian and Syrian scribal practices."[2]

Was Muhammad illiterate?

The meaning of ummiy

The word is derived from the root أمم. There are 119 words in the Quran, derived from this root [3]. Other words besides ummiy (أمي) from the same root are:

  • umm (أم) - mother
  • amam (امام) - in front of
  • imam (إمام) - leader (because he is "in front of" others)
  • ummah (أمة) - the (Islamic) community/nation

Lane's Lexicon of classical Arabic says this about ummiy specifically:

أُمِّىٌّ (T, M, Mgh, Mṣb, Ḳ) and ↓أُمَّانٌ (Ḳ) [the former a rel. n. from أُمَّةٌ, and thus properly meaning Gentile: whence, in a secondary, or tropical, sense,(assumed tropical:) a heathen;] (assumed tropical:) one not having a revealed scripture; (Bḍ in iii. 19 and 69;) so applied by those having a revealed scripture: (Bḍ in iii.69:) [and particularly] an Arab: (Jel in iii. 69, and Bḍ and Jel in lxii. 2:) [or] in the proper language [of the Arabs], of, or belonging to, or relating to, the nation (أُمَّة) of the Arabs, who did not write nor read: and therefore metaphorically applied to (tropical:) any one not knowing the art of writing nor that of reading: (Mgh:) or (assumed tropical:) one who does not write; (T, M, Ḳ;) because the art of writing is acquired; as though he were thus called in relation to the condition in which his mother (أُمَّهُ) brought him forth: (T:) or (assumed tropical:) one who is in the natural condition of the nation (الأُمَّة) to which he belongs, (Zj, * T, M, * Ḳ, *) in respect of not writing, (T,) or not having learned writing; thus remaining in his natural state: (M, Ḳ:) or (assumed tropical:) one who does not write well; said to be a rel. n. from أمٌّ; because the art of writing is acquired, and such a person is as his mother brought him forth, in respect of ignorance of that art; or, as some say, from أُمَّةُ العَرَبِ; because most of the Arabs were of this description: (Mṣb:) the art of writing was known among the Arabs [in the time of Moḥammad] by the people of Et-Táïf, who learned it from a man of the people of El-Heereh, and these had it from the people of El-Ambár. (T.) أُمِّيُّون لَا يَعْلَمُونَ, الكِتَابَ, in the Ḳur ii. 73, means Vulgar persons, [or heathen,] who know not the Book of the Law revealed to Moses: (Jel:) or ignorant persons, who know not writing, so that they may read that book; or, who know not the Book of the Law revealed to Moses. (Bḍ.) Moḥammad was termed أُمِّىّ [meaning A Gentile, as distinguished from an Israelite: or, accord. to most of his followers, meaning illiterate;] because the nation (أُمَّة) of the Arabs did not write, nor read writing; and [they say that] God sent him as an apostle when he did not write, nor read from a book; and this natural condition of his was one of his miraculous signs, to which reference is made in the Ḳur [xxix. 47], where it is said, “thou didst not read, before it, from a book, nor didst thou write it with thy right hand:” (T, TA:) but accord. to the more correct opinion, he was not well acquainted with written characters nor with poetry, but he discriminated between good and bad poetry: or, as some assert, he became acquainted with writing after he had been unacquainted therewith, on account of the expression “ before it ” in the verse of the Ḳur mentioned above: or, as some say, this may mean that he wrote though ignorant of the art of writing, like as some of the kings, being أُمِّيُّون, write their signs, or marks: (TA:) or, accord. to Jaạfar Es-Sádik, he used to read from the book, or scripture, if he did not write. (Kull p. 73.) [Some judicious observations on this word are comprised in Dr. Sprenger's Life of Moḥammad (pp. 101-2); a work which, in the portion already published (Part I.), contains much very valuable information.] ―

Also, (Ḳ,) or [only] أُمِّىٌّ, (AZ, T, M,) applied to a man, (AZ, T,) Impotent in speech, (عَيِىّ, in the Ḳ incorrectly written غَبِىّ, TA,) of few words, and rude, churlish, uncivil, or surly. (AZ, T, M, Ḳ.)
Lane's lexicon on أُمِّىٌّ

The word ummiy in the Quran

The word ummiy (أمي) appears 6 times in the Quran. Two times in the singular in relation to Muhammad himself (verses 7:157-158) and four times in the plural form (verses 2:78, 3:20, 3:75 and 62:2). [4] From these verses quoted below we will see that the word doesn't have to necessarily mean "illiterate", but can also mean "ignorant" or "not given a scripture".

Mehdy Shaddel says that modern academic scholars "virtually unanimously" agree that the Arabic word ummi did not mean that the Prophet is illiterate, contrary to the Islamic tradition. In at least three of the six verses where the word appears such an interpretation does not fit. This is also true of its usage in many cases in the hadith tradition. It is less easy to positively determine exactly what it did mean, though in general it is now believed to mean gentile or pagan i.e. coming from an unscriptured people.[5]

In his commentary on the Quran, Gabriel Said Reynolds (a modern academic scholar) points to verse 3:20 as evidence that the word refers to those who do not know the word of God (similarly verses 3:75 and 62:2).[6] Thus, Muhammad is described as an ummi prophet in verses 7:157-158 because he came from a people to whom God had not yet sent down revelation, not because he was illiterate. As Reynolds further points out (crediting Holger Zelletin), verses 29:47-48, which are commonly cited to interpret the other verses on this topic, deny that Muhammad wrote the Quran himself, yet this does not imply that he could not read:

And thus We have sent down to you the Qur'an. And those to whom We [previously] gave the Scripture believe in it. And among these [people of Makkah] are those who believe in it. And none reject Our verses except the disbelievers. And you did not recite before it any scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt.
Quran 29:47-48

Chapter 2 Verse 78

One of the plural forms is in sura 2. Shaddel here argues that the verse is talking about Arab converts to Judaism.

And among them are unlettered ones (أُمِّيُّونَ, ummeeoona) who do not know the Scripture except in wishful thinking, but they are only assuming.
Quran 2:78

Tafsir Al-Jalalayn says about the verse:

And there are some of them the Jews that are illiterate unlettered not knowing the Scripture the Torah but only desires lies which were handed down to them by their leaders and which they relied upon; and in their rejection of the prophethood of the Prophet and fabrications of other matters they have mere conjectures and no firm knowledge.
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 2:78

Chapter 3 Verse 20

Another is in verse 3:20 (see above regarding Reynolds' commentary about this and similar verses).

So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture and [to] the unlearned (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, wa-al-ummeena), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.
Quran 3:20

Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20 says:

So if they the disbelievers dispute with you O Muhammad (s) concerning religion say to them ‘I have surrendered my countenance to God that is to say I have submitted to Him I and whoever follows me’ wajh ‘countenance’ is chosen here because of its noble character for the other parts of the body will just as soon surrender once the countenance has; and say to those who have been given the Scripture the Jews and the Christians and to the uninstructed the Arab idolaters ‘Have you submitted?’ that is to say ‘Submit!’ And so if they have submitted they have been guided from error but if they turn their backs to Islam your duty is only to deliver the Message; and God sees His servants and so requites them for their deeds — this statement was revealed before the command to fight them had been revealed.
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20

Here, according to Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, as well as most academic scholars, the word ummiy means pagan or gentile (i.e. those not given a scripture).

Chapter 3 Verse 75

And among the People of the Scripture is he who, if you entrust him with a great amount [of wealth], he will return it to you. And among them is he who, if you entrust him with a [single] silver coin, he will not return it to you unless you are constantly standing over him [demanding it]. That is because they say, "There is no blame upon us concerning the unlearned (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, al-ummeena)." And they speak untruth about Allah while they know [it].
Quran 3:75

The tafsir Al-Jalalayn explains:

And of the People of the Scripture is he who if you trust him with a hundredweight that is with much money he will return it to you on account of his trustworthiness the like of ‘Abd Allāh b. Salām to whom a man entrusted 1200 plates of gold which he then returned to him; and of them is he who if you trust him with one dinar will not return it to you on account of his treachery; unless you keep standing over him not leaving him for one minute for as soon as you leave him he will deny it as was the case with Ka‘b b. al-Ashraf to whom a man from Quraysh entrusted a dinar and later denied it. That refusal to return things is because they say ‘We have no duty towards namely no possibility of acquiring sin because of the Gentiles’ the Arabs; for they considered it lawful to be unjust towards any person of a different religion and they attributed the source of this conviction to God exalted be He. God exalted be He says They speak falsehood against God by attributing such things to Him while they are aware that they are liars.
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:75

The tafsir interprets ummiy here to mean gentiles, those not given a scripture.

Chapter 7 Verses 157-158

The two singular forms are in the verses 7:157 and 7:158 in the context of talking about Moses:

7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."

7:156 "And decree for us in this world [that which is] good and [also] in the Hereafter; indeed, we have turned back to You." [ Allah ] said, "My punishment - I afflict with it whom I will, but My mercy encompasses all things." So I will decree it [especially] for those who fear Me and give zakah and those who believe in Our verses -"

7:157 "Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered (الْأُمِّيَّ, al-ummiy) prophet, whom they find written in what they have of the Torah and the Gospel, who enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong and makes lawful for them the good things and prohibits for them the evil and relieves them of their burden and the shackles which were upon them. So they who have believed in him, honored him, supported him and followed the light which was sent down with him - it is those who will be the successful."

7:158 "Say, [O Muhammad], "O mankind, indeed I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; He gives life and causes death." So believe in Allah and His Messenger, the unlettered (الْأُمِّيِّ, al-ummiy) prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided."

7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."
Quran 7:155-159

So the information about Muhammad's illiteracy (as orthodoxy interpreted the word, but alternatively his coming from a people without a scripture) was for some reason inserted into a passage which talks about Moses. The context doesn't provide any indication as to what the word ummiy means here.

According to Tafsir Ibn Kathir, it is a description of Muhammad in Jewish and Christian scripture and that rabbis and priests "well know" it:

(Those who follow the Messenger, the Prophet who can neither read nor write whom they find written with them in the Tawrah and the Injil,) This is the description of the Prophet Muhammad in the Books of the Prophets. They delivered the good news of his advent to their nations and commanded them to follow him. His descriptions were still apparent in their Books, as the rabbis and the priests well know.
Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 7:157

It is worth noting, however, that Ibn Kathir doesn't specify what this "well known" description of Muhammad in the Torah is.

Chapter 62 Verse 2

The modern academic view is that again this verse refers to gentiles or pagans i.e. those not given a scripture. The verse has traditionally been interpreted to describe the Arabs as illiterates. However, modern epigraphic research has refuted this picture (as outlined above), and first century Quran manuscripts show that an early Arabic orthographic standard was already in existence.

62:2 "It is He who has sent among the unlettered (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, al-ummeen) a Messenger from themselves reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom - although they were before in clear error -"

62:3 "And [to] others of them who have not yet joined them. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise."
Quran 62:2-3

In 62:2, according to the tafsir Al-Jalalayn, the word means illiterate and refers to the illiterate Arabs:

It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’ a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2

Ibn Kathir says "other" in 62:3 means Persians:

The Prophet explained Allah's statement,

﴿وَءَاخَرِينَ مِنْهُمْ﴾

(And others among them) by mentioning Persia.
Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 62:3

Claimed prediction of an illiterate prophet in the Bible

A popular Islamic preacher Zakir Naik proposed that an illiterate prophet is predicted in Isaiah 29:12 [7]. According to Zakir Naik, the verse says:

"The book shall be given to a person who is not learned. And when will be asked "Read this!", he will say "I am not learned".
Non-existant (Isaiah 29:12 according to Zakir Naik)

This could be a prediction of what Aisha described:

...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...
Sahih Bukhari 1:1:3

Isaiah 29:12, however, is as follows:

29:11 "For you this whole vision is nothing but words sealed in a scroll. And if you give the scroll to someone who can read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I can’t; it is sealed.”"

29:12 "Or if you give the scroll to someone who cannot read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I don’t know how to read.”"

29:13 "The Lord says: “These people come near to me with their mouth and honor me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me. Their worship of me is based on merely human rules they have been taught."
Isaiah 29:11-13
  • اسم (ism) means "a noun".

So this word has a variety of meanings. One could speculate that it could even mean "motherly" (derived from umm - mother), because Muhammad's father died before Muhammad was born and he lived only with his mother.

Indications Muhammad was literate

Muhammad was employed by his first wife Khadija to travel as a merchant. It's hard to do trade business without being able to write. Besides this implicit indication to his ability to write, we have explicit hadiths talking about Muhammad writing.

Hadiths

كتب (kataba) means "he wrote":

Narrated Anas bin Malik:

Once the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter or had an idea of writing a letter. The Prophet (ﷺ) was told that they (rulers) would not read letters unless they were sealed. So the Prophet (ﷺ) got a silver ring made with "Muhammad Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)" engraved on it. As if I were just observing its white glitter in the hand of the Prophet.
Sahih Bukhari 1:3:65

Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:

The Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter to Heraclius: "From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql (Heraclius), Chief of the Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance." Ibn Yahya reported on the authority of Ibn Abbas that AbuSufyan said to him: We then came to see Hiraql (Heraclius) who seated us before him. He then called for the letter from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Its contents were: "In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, from Muhammad the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql, chief of Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance. To proceed."
Sunan Abu Dawud 42:5117

Narrated Umar ibn al-Khattab:

Sa'id said: Umar ibn al-Khattab said: Blood-money is meant for the clan of the slain, and she will not inherit from the blood-money of her husband. Ad-Dahhak ibn Sufyan said: The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) to me that I should give a share to the wife of Ashyam ad-Dubabi from the blood-money of her husband. So Umar withdrew his opinion.

Ahmad ibn Salih said: AbdurRazzaq transmitted this tradition to us from Ma'mar, from az-Zuhri on the authority of Sa'id. In this version he said: The Prophet (ﷺ) made him governor over the bedouins.
Sunan Abu Dawud 18:2921 (sahih)

Narrated Yazid ibn Abdullah:

We were at Mirbad. A man with dishevelled hair and holding a piece of red skin in his hand came.

We said: You appear to be a bedouin. He said: Yes. We said: Give us this piece of skin in your hand. He then gave it to us and we read it. It contained the text: "From Muhammad, Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), to Banu Zuhayr ibn Uqaysh. If you bear witness that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, offer prayer, pay zakat, pay the fifth from the booty, and the portion of the Prophet (ﷺ) and his special portion (safi), you will be under by the protection of Allah and His Apostle."

We then asked: Who wrote (كَتَبَ) this document for you? He replied: The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ).
Sunan Abu Dawud 19:2993

وكتب (wa-kataba) means "and he wrote":

Narrated Abu Humaid As-Saidi:

We accompanied the Prophet (ﷺ) in the Ghazwa of Tabuk and the king of 'Aila presented a white mule and a cloak as a gift to the Prophet. And the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (وَكَتَبَ) to him a peace treaty allowing him to keep authority over his country.
Sahih Bukhari 4:53:387

فكتب (fa-kataba) means "then he wrote":

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Jews should either pay the blood money of your (deceased) companion or be ready for war." After that Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) wrote (فَكَتَبَ) a letter to the Jews in that respect, and they wrote that they had not killed him.
Sahih Bukhari 9:89:302

Narrated Al-Bara:

When the Prophet (ﷺ) intended to perform `Umra in the month of Dhul-Qada, the people of Mecca did not let him enter Mecca till he settled the matter with them by promising to stay in it for three days only. When the document of treaty was written, the following was mentioned: 'These are the terms on which Muhammad, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) agreed (to make peace).' They said, "We will not agree to this, for if we believed that you are Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) we would not prevent you, but you are Muhammad bin `Abdullah." The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "I am Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and also Muhammad bin `Abdullah." Then he said to `Ali, "Rub off (the words) 'Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)' ", but `Ali said, "No, by Allah, I will never rub off your name." So, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) took the document and wrote (فَكَتَبَ), 'This is what Muhammad bin `Abdullah has agreed upon: No arms will be brought into Mecca except in their cases, and nobody from the people of Mecca will be allowed to go with him (i.e. the Prophet (ﷺ) ) even if he wished to follow him and he (the Prophet (ﷺ) ) will not prevent any of his companions from staying in Mecca if the latter wants to stay.'
Sahih Bukhari 3:49:863

The first revelation

The first sura was the sura 96, which begins as follows:

Read (اقرا, iqra) in the name of your Lord who created -

Created man from a clinging substance.

Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous -

Who taught by the pen (بالقلم, bil-qalam) -

Taught man that which he knew not.
Quran 96:1-5
  • The word iqra is sometimes translated as "recite", but "recitation" in Arabic is تِلاَوَة (tilawa) and the Quran uses form of that word for "recitation" [8].

There are two versions of the story of the first revelation. In the Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq it goes as follows:

When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. "He came to me," said the apostle of God, "while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade whereon was some writing, and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ (وما اقرأ) He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What then shall I read?’—and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same to me again. He said:

‘Read in the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is the most beneficent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men.’

So I read it, and he departed from me. And I awoke from my sleep, and it was as though these words were written on my heart.
Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq

It says وما اقرأ "and what (should I) read?". So in this story Muhammad can read, he just asks what should he read.

Ibn Ishaq died in 761. But in the 9th century, Bukhari recorded the narration differently:

He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read. (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)


Sahih Bukhari 1:1:3
  • If the iqra in 96:1 meant "recite" as some translators translated it, then here Muhammad says "I don't know how to recite".

This shift from "and what shall I read" (وما اقرأ) to "I don't know how to read" (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ) seems to indicate that Muhammad's illiteracy was a later invention.

Hadith regarding the Ummah as an unlettered people

According to a hadith, Muhammad said that the Islamic community was a ummiyya who could not write nor count. The hadith has been understood to mean that the start of the month should be determined by moon sighting and not by calculation.[9]:

Ibn 'Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Apostle as saying:

We are an unlettered people ( أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ, umma ummiyya) who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus. folding his thumb when he said it the third time.


Sahih Muslim 6:2376

Relevant Quotations

And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is an ear (أذن, udhun)."


Quran 9:61
Yet they turn away from him and say: "Tutored (by others) (مُعَلَّمٌۭ), a man possessed!"
Quran 44:14

7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."

7:156 "And decree for us in this world [that which is] good and [also] in the Hereafter; indeed, we have turned back to You." [ Allah ] said, "My punishment - I afflict with it whom I will, but My mercy encompasses all things." So I will decree it [especially] for those who fear Me and give zakah and those who believe in Our verses -"

7:157 "Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered (الْأُمِّيَّ, al-ummiy) prophet, whom they find written in what they have of the Torah and the Gospel, who enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong and makes lawful for them the good things and prohibits for them the evil and relieves them of their burden and the shackles which were upon them. So they who have believed in him, honored him, supported him and followed the light which was sent down with him - it is those who will be the successful."

7:158 "Say, [O Muhammad], "O mankind, indeed I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; He gives life and causes death." So believe in Allah and His Messenger, the unlettered (الْأُمِّيِّ, al-ummiy) prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided."

7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."


Quran 7:155-159
...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...
Sahih Bukhari 1:1:3

So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture and [to] the unlearned (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, wa-al-ummeena), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.


Quran 3:20


It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’ a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2

He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read. (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)


Sahih Bukhari 1:1:3

Modern Academic Quotations

The Sub-Reddit r/AcademicQuran moderator(s) have complied a list of quotes and citations from modern academics on the data as to whether Muhammad literate or not which can be read here: The data on Muhammad's literacy

See also

Translations

  • A version of this page is also available in the following languages: Czech. For additional languages, see the sidebar on the left.

References

  1. ↑ Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background", Berlin/Boston: DeGruyter, pp. 10-11
  2. ↑ Ahmad al-Jallad (2020) Chapter 7: The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia - Context for the Qur’an in Mustafa Shah (ed.), Muhammad Abdel Haleem (ed.), "The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies", Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 122
  3. ↑ http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm
  4. ↑ http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm
  5. ↑ Mehdy Shaddel, Qurʾānic ummī: Genealogy, Ethnicity, and the Foundation of a New Community (Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 43, 2016, pp. 1-60)
  6. ↑ Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p.54 (commentary on Q. 2:78-9)
  7. ↑ http://www.unchangingword.com/illiterate-prophet/
  8. ↑ http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=tlw
  9. ↑ https://islamqa.info/en/4713
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