Old Hijazi and All Examples of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran and Hadith: Difference between pages

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It’s been taken for granted by both academics and Muslim scholars that Classical Arabic was the language of the Quran and Arabs before Islam and during the first three centuries of Islam. This is reflected in the way Muslims recite the Quran and Hadith today. It’s even reflected in all Arabic historical movies and TV works depicting the early centuries of Islam such as the movie  “[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDVe6EZ4-Xo Al-Risālah]” about the life of Muhammad where all the actors are shown speaking in Classical Arabic with its two main hallmarks: full case inflection (final short vowels and nunation or Tanwīn) and full use of the Hamzah (glottal stop). This belief is reinforced by the popular claim by Muslim scholars that the readings tradition of the Quran, which the Quran is recited based on, were transmitted to us verbatim from the mouth of Muhammad. And all of these readings employ a full case system and heavily use the Hamzah. But recent academic research pioneered by Ahmad Al-Jallad of Ohio University and Marijn Van Putten of the University of Leiden, shows that the Quran was actually composed in a different language, which they call Old Hijazi, the ancient vernacular dialect of the Hijaz region which includes Makkah and Medina.  
This is a comprehensive list of internal rhymes in the Quran and Hadith that only appear if the text is read in [[Old Hijazi]]. This list is taken from a [https://edristhearab.blogspot.com/2023/02/a-list-of-old-hijazi-internal-rhymes-in.html blogpost by Idris Al-Arabi].


Old Hijazi differs markedly in pronunciation and grammar from the later classical Arabic that is imposed upon the Quran. This imposition led to the mismatch between the pronunciation and the text, which means the Quran was originally written phonetically in Old Hijazi. Old Hijazi sounds more like most modern Arabic vernacular as most modern Arabic dialects are completely devoid of the case system and devoid of the Hamzah to varying degrees.  
Most of the examples include two words that internally rhyme with each other. The second of the two words in the majority of cases comes in a pausal position and thus in classical Arabic it loses its final short vowel and nunation while the first word keeps them. Removing the final short vowel and nunation from the first word reveals that the first word rhymes with the second word which means that the original language of the Quran (Old Hijazi) lacked final short vowels and nunation.


The characteristics of Old Hijazi have been revealed by (1) early Arabic texts written in Greek and Hebrew letters which showed what the early defective Arabic script couldn’t, (2) the investigation into the Quranic Consonantal Text (QCT) which is the underlying consonantal skeleton (in Arabic, rasm رسم) of the Qur'an that originally lacked dots and other signs.
The ending of a verse is a certain pausal position. There are also mid-verse pausal positions. Quranic recitation rules (Tajwīd), as set by Muslim scholars, state that during recitation one should avoid pausing at a non-pausal position except when he runs out of breath. To aid the reciter with this, modern prints of the Quran include marks which show where it’s possible to pause in the middle of a verse. The position of such a mark in a verse is determined by scholars based on the meaning and the grammar of the verse. For example, the following verse has four mid-verse pausal signs. You can notice that the pausal positions fit the meaning and context:


== Main characteristics of Old Hijazi ==
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|20}}|
The first five characteristics are proven by (a) the early Arabic scripts written in Greek and Hebrew letters, (b) the linguistic analysis of the Quranic consonantal text (QCT) which is the original text of the Quran that’s devoid of dots and signs that were added later.
فَإِنْ حَآجُّوكَ فَقُلْ أَسْلَمْتُ وَجْهِىَ لِلَّهِ وَمَنِ ٱتَّبَعَنِ ۗ وَقُل لِّلَّذِينَ أُوتُوا۟ ٱلْكِتَٰبَ وَٱلْأُمِّيِّۦنَ ءَأَسْلَمْتُمْ ۚ فَإِنْ أَسْلَمُوا۟ فَقَدِ ٱهْتَدَوا۟ ۖ وَّإِن تَوَلَّوْا۟ فَإِنَّمَا عَلَيْكَ ٱلْبَلَٰغُ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ بَصِيرٌۢ بِٱلْعِبَادِ


'''1- Lack of nunation and final short vowels except in construct.'''
So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." (Pausal position) And say to those who were given the Scripture and [to] the unlearned, "Have you submitted yourselves?" (Pausal position) And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided;(Pausal position) but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. (Pausal position) And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.}}


E.g.


هذا كتاب جديد (This is a new book)
The four pausal sings and their meanings:


Classical Arabic pronunciation: hādhā kitābun jadīd
(مـ) pausing is mandatory.


The word kitāb (book) is the subject of the sentence so it took a final ‘u’ short vowel: kitābu. The word is also indefinite so it also took nunation: kitābun.
(ج) pausing is allowed.


The word jadīd (new) should also take a final “un” but since that the word is in a pausal position (last word in the sentence) it remains in its original form without any suffix.
(صلى) pausing is allowed but continuation is preferred.


In Old Hijazi, the word kitāb remains in its original form: hādhā kitāb jadīd.
(قلى) continuation is allowed but pausing is preferred.


The only case where final short vowels are retained in Old Hijazi is in construct, for example:


هذا كتاب محمد (This is Muhammad’s book)
The type of the pause and its position are the work of the scholars. There’s no way to verify if these mid-verse pauses agree with how the Quran used to be recited at the time of Muhammad. It’s also obvious that scholars have missed marking a lot of possible pausal positions. To keep things simple, this article does not count Old Hijazi internal rhymes that come at possible pausal positions if these positions were not marked in modern Qurans with pausal signs.


Old Hijazi and Classical Arabic pronunciation: hādhā kitābu Muḥammad.
In some of the examples, none of the two rhyming words comes in a pausal position. Yet the two words only rhyme with each other in Old Hijazi because each word has a different classical Arabic final short vowel or nunation and thus the two words don’t rhyme with each other in classical Arabic. Removing these final short vowels and nunation reveals that the two words in their original forms rhyme with each other. An example of this type:


since that the word kitāb (book) is the subject of the sentence, it takes the ‘u’ final short vowel. The two words “kitābu Muḥammad” are in construct (book of Muhammad). The possessed noun retains the final short vowel in Old Hijazi.
{{Quote|{{Quran|57|25}}|


Note: Old Hijazi retains case inflection in the following situations where case is expressed with long vowels: The five nouns, the Dual and Sound masculine plural<ref>Marijn Van Putten, [https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Quranic Arabic], p.282</ref>.
وَأَنْزَلْنَا <u>‌الْحَدِيدَ</u> فِيهِ بَأْسٌ <u>شَدِيدٌ</u> وَمَنَافِعُ لِلنَّاسِ


Old Hijazi: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;  wa anzalna <u>l-ḥadīd</u> fīh bās <u>shadīd</u> wa manāfiʕ lin-nās...


'''2- The feminine ending is always “ah” and it only turns to “at” in construct or when a pronoun gets attached to it.''' E.g. :
Classical Arabic: wa ʾanzalna l<u>-ḥadīda</u> fīhi baʾsun <u>shadīdun</u> wa manāfiʕu lin-nās...}}


المدرسة جديدة (the school is new)


Classical Arabic: al-madrasatu jadīdah.
'''Classes of Old Hijazi internal rhymes'''


Old Hijazi:           al-madrasah jadīdah
1- Individual instances. This includes 74 unique examples (91 with repetition) where the rhyming words share identical final consonants. As for examples where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants, they were so many that only the strongest 15 unique instances were counted, however there are many more than this.


Example for construct:
2- Verse-final attributes of Allah. The majority of internal rhymes in the Quran fall under this type. Of this type, there are 12 (46 with repetition) examples  where the rhyming words share identical final consonants. As for examples where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants, there are 24 unique ones, 142 counting repeated occurrences.


هذه مدرسة الحي (This is the neighborhood’s school)
<br />


Classical Arabic:  hādhihī madrasatu l-ḥay
==A list of Individual Instances of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran==


Old Hijazi:            hādhih madrasatu l-ḥay


<big>'''A- Internal rhymes where the rhyming words share identical final consonants:'''</big>


'''3- The indefinite accusative marker is always an ‘ā’ long vowel.''' E.g. :
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿<u>وَلِلْكَافِرِينَ</u> عَذَابٌ <u>مُهِينٌ</u>۝﴾</span> Q2:90, 58:5


اشتريت كتابا جديدا (I bought a new a book).
Old Hijazi:           wa lil-<u>kāfirīn</u> ʕadhāb <u>muhīn</u>.


Classical Arabic: ishtaraytu kitāban jadīdā.
Classical Arabic: wa lil-<u>kāfirīna</u> ʕadhābun <u>muhīn</u>.


Old Hijazi:          ishtarayt kitābā jadīdā.


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَاللَّهُ ‌<u>عَلِيمٌ ‌بِالظَّالِمِينَ</u>۝﴾</span> Q2:95,246 , 9:47, 62:7


'''4- The third person masculine singular pronoun is always a mere ‘-h’ with no vowel attached to it.''' E.g.
Old Hijazi:            wal-lāh ʕalīm biḍh-ḍhālimīn.


كتابه جديد (His book is new).
Classical Arabic: wal-lāhu ʕalīmun biḍh-ḍhālimīn.


Classical Arabic: Kitābuhū jadīd.
Note: Due to the strong similarity between the "n" and "m" sounds, the Quran doesn't distinguish between the two when it comes to rhymes as seen for example in the first Surah of the Quran whose verse-final words are: al-ʕālamīn, ar-raḥīm, ad-dīn, nastaʕīn, al-mustaqīm, aḍ-ḍāllīn.


Old Hijazi:          Kitābuh jadīd.


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَمَا أُنْزِلَ عَلَى الْمَلَكَيْنِ بِبَابِلَ <u>هَارُوتَ وَمَارُوتَ</u> ۚ وَمَا يُعَلِّمَانِ مِنْ أَحَدٍ حَتَّى...۝﴾</span> Q2:102


OH: harūt wa mārūt


In plural, the ‘-h’ pronoun only takes the “-hum” form as opposed to classical Arabic which also allows another form: “-him”. The same goes for the dual: Old Hijazi only has “-humā” while Classical Arabic has “-humā” and “-himā”.
CA: harūta wa mārūt


E.g.


عليهم
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ بِالْحَقِّ <u>بَشِيرًا وَنَذِيرًا</u> ۖ وَلَا تُسْأَلُ عَنْ أَصْحَابِ الْجَحِيمِ۝﴾</span> Q2:119, 35:24. Plus 3 other attestations where the second word isn’t in a pausal position.


Classical Arabic: ʕalayhim
OH: bashīrā wa nadhīrā


Old Hijazi:           ʕalayhum
CA: bashīran wa nadhīrā




'''5- The Alef Maqsūrah ى is pronounced as ē.''' E.g. :
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿<u>وَلِلْكَافِرِينَ</u> عَذَابٌ <u>أَلِيمٌ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q2:104 Q58:4


هدى
OH: wa lil-<u>kāfirīn</u> ʕadhāb <u>alīm</u>


Classical Arabic: hudā
CA: wa lil-<u>kāfirīna</u> ʕadhābun <u>ʾalīm</u>


Old Hijazi:          hudē


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِذْ تَبَرَّأَ الَّذِينَ اتُّبِعُوا مِنَ الَّذِينَ اتَّبَعُوا وَرَأَوُا <u>الْعَذَابَ</u> وَتَقَطَّعَتْ بِهِمُ ا<u>لْأَسْبَابُ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q2:166


'''6- Lack of Hamzah (glottal stop).'''
OH: warāu l-<u>ʕadhāb</u> wa taqaṭṭaʕat bihumu l-<u>asbāb</u>


This characteristic is proven by (a) and (b) mentioned earlier. It’s also proven by early Arab grammarians’ description of the dialect of Quraysh which Muhammad belonged to.
CA: waraʾawu l-<u>ʕadhāba</u> wa taqaṭṭaʕat bihimu l-ʾ<u>asbāb</u>


A glottal stop naturally occurs in every language when the first word to be uttered begins with a vowel. The glottal stop in Arabic is called “Hamzah” and it has the symbol: ء . This symbol wasn’t invented yet at the time of Muhammad. The Hamzah can occur at the beginning, middle or end of a word.


Classical Arabic: رأس raʾs
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَمَثَلُ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا كَمَثَلِ الَّذِي يَنْعِقُ بِمَا لَا يَسْمَعُ إِلَّا <u>‌دُعَاءً وَنِدَاءًۚ</u> صُمٌّ بُكْمٌ عُمْيٌ فَهُمْ لَا يَعْقِلُونَ ۝﴾</span> Q2:171


Old Hijazi:           راس rās
OH: duʕāʾā wa nidāʾā


CA: duʕāʾan wa nidāʾā


Classical Arabic: ذئب dhiʾb


Old Hijazi:          ذيب  dhīb 
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿شَهْرُ <u>رَمَضَانَ</u> الَّذِي أُنْزِلَ فِيهِ <u>الْقُرْآنُ</u> هُدًى لِلنَّاسِ وَبَيِّنَاتٍ مِنَ الْهُدَى <u>وَالْفُرْقَانِۚ</u> فَمَنْ شَهِدَ مِنْكُمُ الشَّهْرَ فَلْيَصُمْهُ وَمَنْ كَانَ مَرِيضًا أَوْ عَلَى <u>سَفَرٍ</u> فَعِدَّةٌ مِنْ أَيَّامٍ <u>أُخَرَۗ</u> يُرِيدُ اللَّهُ بِكُمُ الْيُسْرَ وَلَا يُرِيدُ بِكُمُ الْعُسْرَ وَلِتُكْمِلُوا الْعِدَّةَ وَلِتُكَبِّرُوا اللَّهَ عَلَى مَا هَدَاكُمْ وَلَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ (١٨٥) وَإِذَا سَأَلَكَ عِبَادِي عَنِّي فَإِنِّي <u>قَرِيبٌ</u> ۖ <u>أُجِيبُ</u> دَعْوَةَ الدَّاعِ إِذَا دَعَانِ فَلْيَسْتَجِيبُوا لِي وَلْيُؤْمِنُوا بِي لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْشُدُونَ (١٨٦)﴾</span>


Note: QCT evidence based on rhyme shows that the Hamzah is retained when it's the last letter of a word while preceeded by the long vowel ā. E.g. : samāʾ سماء
Q2:185,186


OH:  shahru <u>ramaḍān</u> al-ladhi unzil fīhu <u>l-qurān</u> hudē lin-nās wabayyināt min al-hudē <u>wal-furqān</u> (pause) faman shahid minkumu sh-shahr fa-liyaṣumh (pause) waman kān marīḍā aw ʕalā <u>safar</u> faʕiddah min ayyām <u>ukhar</u> (pause) yurīd allah bikumu l-yusr walā yurīd bikumu l-ʕusr walitukmilu l-ʕiddah walitukabbiru llāh ʕalā mā hadēkum wa laʕallakum tashkurūn (End of verse 185) waidhā saalak ʕibādī ʕannī fainnī <u>qarīb</u> <u>ujīb</u> daʕwata d-dāʕi idhā daʕān faliyastajībū lī waliyūminū bī laʕallahum yarshudūn.


'''7- The ض  letter (ḍ) sounds very similar to the sound of ظ  (ḍh) as apposed to the modern pronunciation fo ض as ḍ (emphatic d).'''
CA: shahru <u>ramaḍāna</u> l-ladhī ʾunzila fīhi <u>l-qurʾānu</u> hudan lin-nāsi wabayyinātin mina l-hudā wa <u>l-furqān</u> (pause) faman shahida minkumu sh-shahra falyaṣumh (pause) waman kāna marīḍan ʾaw ʕalā <u>safarin</u> faʕiddatun min ʾayyāmin <u>ukhar</u> (pause) yurīdu llahu bikumu l-yusra walā yurīdu bikumu l-ʕusra walitukmilu l-ʕiddata walitukabbiru llāha ʕalā mā hadākum walaʕallakum tashkurūn (End of verse 185) waʾidhā saʾalaka ʕibādī ʕannī faʾinnī <u>qarībun</u> <u>ʾujību</u> daʕwata d-dāʕi ʾdhā daʕān (pause) falyastajībū lī walyūminū bī laʕallahum yarshudūn.


This characteristic is proven by QCT analysis (specifically, evidence based on rhyme) and early Arab grammarians’ description of the sounds of the Arabic letters.
== Quranic Comparison between Classical Arabic and Old Hijazi ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Verses of Surah 104 
!Classical Arabic Pronunciation
!Old Hijazi Pronunciation
|-
|وَيْلٌ لِكُلِّ هُمَزَةٍ لُمَزَةٍ
|waylun likulli humazatin lumazah
|wayl likulli humazah lumazah
|-
|الَّذِي جَمَعَ مَالًا وَعَدَّدَهُ 
|alladhī jamaʕa mālan wa ʕaddadah
|alladhī jamaʕ mālā wa ʕaddadah
|-
|يَحْسَبُ أَنَّ مَالَهُ أَخْلَدَهُ
|yaḥsabu ʾanna mālahū ʾakhladah
|yaḥsab an mālah akhladah
|-
|كَلَّا لَيُنْبَذَنَّ فِي الْحُطَمَةِ
|kallā layunbadhanna fil-ḥuṭamah
|kallā layunbadhan fil-ḥuṭamah
|-
|وَمَا أَدْرَاكَ مَا الْحُطَمَةُ
|wa mā ʾadrāka mal-ḥuṭamah
|wa mā adrēk mal-ḥuṭamah
|-
|نَارُ اللَّهِ الْمُوقَدَةُ
|nāru l-lāhi l-mūqadah
|nāru l-lāh ǝl-mūqadah
|-
|الَّتِي تَطَّلِعُ عَلَى الْأَفْئِدَةِ
|allatī taṭṭaliʕu ʕala l-ʾafʾidah
|allatī taṭṭaliʕ ʕala l-afidah
|-
|إِنَّهَا عَلَيْهِمْ مُؤْصَدَةٌ
|innahā ʕalayhim muʾṣadah
|innahā ʕalayhum mūṣadah
|-
|فِي عَمَدٍ مُمَدَّدَةٍ
|fī ʕamadin mumaddadah
|fī ʕamad mumaddadah
|}


==Introduction to the Iʕrāb==
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَزَادَهُ بَسْطَةً فِي <u>الْعِلْمِ وَالْجِسْمِۖ</u> وَاللَّهُ يُؤْتِي مُلْكَهُ مَنْ يَشَاءُ ۚ وَاللَّهُ وَاسِعٌ عَلِيمٌ۝﴾</span>  Q2:247


In order to understand how the language of the QCT differs from the later classical Arabic it is now read in, it's important to understand the Iʕrāb.
OH: fil-ʕilm wal-jism.


The Iʕrāb system in Arabic is a set of grammatical endings attached to words to convey aspects such as case, mood, and voice in a sentence. This system has its origin in classical Arabic as formulated by the classical Arabic grammarians after the 8th century, and it continues to be used, with very little change, in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), known in Arabic as Fuṣḥā, the lingua franca of the Arab world and the language of books and official media such as government proclamations and news media.  
CA: fil-ʕilmi wal-jism.


In Classical Arabic and MSA, nouns and adjectives can be marked for three grammatical cases: nominative (مرفوع), accusative (منصوب), and genitive (مجرور). The markings consist of either a short vowel, a short vowel and an “n” sound, or (occasionally) a long vowel. Nouns  can also be in the state of definiteness or indefiniteness, which each take different endings. The system of Iʕrāb specifies the vowel endings for nouns in these different states (Fischer, 86).


Here is a basic outline of i'arab for singular nouns:
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَمَنْ يُؤْتَ الْحِكْمَةَ فَقَدْ أُوتِيَ <u>‌خَيْرًا ‌كَثِيرًا</u> ۗ وَمَا يَذَّكَّرُ إِلَّا أُولُو الْأَلْبَابِ۝﴾</span>  Q2:269


1. Nominative case: the noun takes a short -u for definite and -un for indefinite nouns. This case is typically used for the subject of a sentence. E.g. :
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">Q4:19 ﴿ وَيَجْعَلَ اللَّهُ فِيهِ <u>خَيْرًا كَثِيرًا</u> ۝﴾</span>


al-baytu jadīd البيتُ جديد (The house is new) : The word “al-bayt” (the house) is the subject so it takes the ‘u’ final short vowel.
OH: khayrā kathīrā.


2. Accusative case: the noun takes a short -a for definite and -un for indefinite nouns. This case is often used for the direct object of a sentence. E.g. :
CA: khayran kathīrā.


raʾaytu baytan jadīdā رأيتُ بيتاً جديدا (I saw a new house) : The word “bayt” (house) is the object so it takes the ‘a’ final short vowel. The word is also indefinite so it also take a final ‘n’.


3. Genitive case: the noun takes a short -i for definite and -in for indefinite nouns. This case is commonly used for objects of prepositions and to express ownership or relation of one noun to another (Karing Ryding, 183-184). E.g. :  
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَإِنْ كَانَ ذُو <u>‌عُسْرَةٍ</u> <u>‌فَنَظِرَةٌ</u> إِلَى <u>مَيْسَرَةٍۚ</u> وَأَنْ تَصَدَّقُوا خَيْرٌ لَكُمْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ ۝﴾</span> Q2:280


Marartu ʕala l-bayti l-jadīd مررتُ على البيتِ الجديد (I passed by the new house) : The word “l-bayt” (the house) is in the genitive so it takes the ‘i’ final short vowel.  
OH: ʕusurah fanaḍhirah ilā maysurah.


These are the basic form for regular, singular nouns, there are other variations on these three cases for other types and classes of noun.  
CA: ʕusratin fanaḍhiratun ʾilā maysarah.


As for verbs, they can take different endings based on tense, mood, and voice.
ʕusrah and maysarah in the dialect of Hijaz are pronounced as ʕusurah and maysurah. (Muʕjam al-qirāʾāt, vol.1 p.407)


Present tense (المضارع) verbs can have different endings based on the mood:


1. Indicative mood (مرفوع): The verb ends in -u. This is used when the verb is in an independent clause.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿تَوَدُّ لَوْ أَنَّ بَيْنَهَا وَبَيْنَهُ ‌<u>أَمَدًا ‌بَعِيدًا</u> ۗ وَيُحَذِّرُكُمُ اللَّهُ نَفْسَهُ... ﴾</span>  Q3:30


2. Subjunctive mood (منصوب): The verb ends in -a. This is used after certain particles or in other cases.
OH: amadā baʕīdā


3. Jussive mood (مجزوم): The verb ends in a sukūn, indicating a full stop/lack of vowel. This is used in commands or after certain particles (Karin Ryding, 445).
CA: ʾamadan baʕīdā


The endings for nouns are thus u, a, and i, and for verbs they are u, a, and sukūn (silent, no vowel).


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿فَإِنْ تَوَلَّوْا فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ ‌<u>عَلِيمٌ ‌بِالْمُفْسِدِينَ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q3:63


A lot of words and particles take a fixed final short vowel that doesn’t change with case, the most commonly used one is ‘a’, which is attached in many instances such as:
OH: ʕalīm bil-mufsidīn


- Singular masculine verbs in the past tense: dhahaba ذهبَ “(he) went”.
CA: ʕalīmun bil-mufsidīn


- The final “ūn/īn” of the sound masculine plural nouns and second/third person masculine verbs, such as: muʾminūna مؤمنونَ (believers). Yaktubūna يكتبونَ “(they) write”.


-The singular masculine possessive pronoun -k: kitābuka كتابكَ  (your book).
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أُولَئِكَ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ <u>أَلِيمٌ</u> ‌وَمَا ‌لَهُمْ ‌مِنْ <u>‌نَاصِرِينَ</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q3:91


- Many particles such as: kayfa كيفَ (how) , ʕinda عندَ (at), ayna أينَ(where), thumma ثمَّ  (then), hunāka هناكَ (there),
OH: ʕadhāb <u>alīm</u> wamālahum min <u>nāṣirīn</u>


CA: ʕadhābun <u>ʾalīmun</u> wamālahum min <u>nāṣirīn</u>


Almost all Arabic words take a final short vowel. The exceptions are:


- Words that end with a long vowel (though many of them can take nunation).
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَاللَّهُ عَ<u>لِيمٌ بِالْمُتَّقِينَ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q3:115, 9:44


- The jussive case which doesn’t require the addition of a final vowel.
OH: ʕalīm bil-muttaqīn


- imperatives, such as: uktub اكتب  (write)
CA: ʕalīmun bil-muttaqīn


- A few particles such as kam كم (how much), min من  (from).


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّ الَّذِينَ تَوَلَّوْا مِنْكُمْ يَوْمَ الْتَقَى <u>الْجَمْعَانِ</u> إِنَّمَا اسْتَزَلَّهُمُ <u>الشَّيْطَانُ</u> بِبَعْضِ مَا كَسَبُوا... ﴾</span>  Q3:155


Modern Arabic dialects have completely lost these endings, and MSA may be spoken with or without them and be understood. All of the classical Islamic reading traditions feature full use of the Iʕrāb system. Despite the presence of the diacritical markings on every word indicating the presence of these short vowels, these endings are not pronounced at the end of a line of Quranic recitation. If the Iʕrāb were to be pronounced at the end of all lines, the Qur’an would cease to rhyme; meanwhile, if the Qur’an is read without the Iʕrāb, [[All Examples of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran and Hadith|hundreds of internal rhymes emerge.]]
OH: yawm altaqa l-<u>jamʕān</u> innama stazallahum ash-<u>shayṭān</u> bibaʕḍi mā…


==The Quranic Consonantal Text==
CA: yawma ltaqa l-<u>jamʕāni</u> ʾinnama stazallahumu sh-<u>shayṭānu</u> bibaʕḍi mā…
[[File:Qct1.jpg|thumb|Comparison of modern Arabic Print to the QCT]]
The Qur’anic consonantal text (QCT) is the original consonantal skeleton of the text of the Qur’an. It is derived from the vast Uthmanic corpus of copies of the Qur’an created after the third caliph Uthman standardized the Quran and ordered the destruction of all other different versions. The QCT was written without most (but not without all) of the diacritical marks and dots which now typify Arabic texts, including hamzahs, consonant dots and short vowel marks (rarely used in modern Arabic writing but used in the Quran and Hadith to ensure proper pronunciation). Other differences between QCT and modern Arabic writing include the mid-word long ā vowel which is usually unwritten in QCT.


The QCT shows a number of differences from both the later interpretation of it in the Islamic tradition and later medieval norms around writing Arabic.


'''Final Yā’'''
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿الَّذِينَ قَالُوا إِنَّ اللَّهَ فَقِيرٌ وَنَحْنُ <u>أَغْنِيَاءُ</u> ۘ سَنَكْتُبُ مَا قَالُوا وَقَتْلَهُمُ <u>الْأَنْبِيَاءَ</u> بِغَيْرِ حَقٍّ...﴾</span>  Q3:181


Some Arabic words such as raʾā رأى and fatā فتى are spelled with a final “y” (ى) but pronounced as a long vowel ā. The ‘y’ that is pronounced as ā is called Alif Maqṣūrah and in modern spelling it doesn’t take the bottom two dots which are reserved for a genuine ‘y’ or ‘ī’, i.e: in modern prints of the Quran, a word-final ى is pronounced as ā, while a word-final ي  (with the two dots) is pronounced as ‘y’ or ‘ī’. The QCT analysis, particularly evidence based on rhyme, shows that the Alif Maqṣūrah in the Quran wasn’t pronounced as ā. Early Arabic texts written in Greek show that this letter was pronounced as ē. It’s also pronounced as ē in some canonical readings. When Arabic was Classicized, the ‘ē’ sound merged into ‘ā’.  
OH: wa naḥn <u>aghniyāʾ</u> (pause) sanaktub mā qālū wa qatlahumu l-<u>anbiyāʾ</u> bighayri ḥaqq.


The development of the triphthongs in Quranic and Classical Arabic, 2017
CA: wa naḥnu <u>ʾaghniyāʾ</u> (pause) sanaktubu mā qālū wa qatlahumu l-<u>ʾanbiyāʾa</u> bighayri ḥaqq.


'''The Hamzah'''


In most cases where later forms of Arabic and interpretations of the QCT would have a hamzah (the letter ء, in later Arabic used to represent the glottal stop) the QCT does not spell word with a hamzah in any position. The orthography of the QCT seems to indicate a total lack of the glottal stop in all cases save one : When a final ‘ā’ is followed by a hamzah, such as سماء samāʾ. Unlike with the other hamzahs, where rhyme seems to indicate the glottal stop was not pronounced, the rhymes involving this position seem to indicate the hamzah may have been pronounced, though it was never written.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿فَكُلُوهُ <u>هَنِيئًا ‌مَرِيئًا</u>۝﴾</span> Q4:4


'''Nunation Lost'''
OH: haniyyā mariyyā.


The QCT never writes out the tanwiin, the addition of a nūn to the Iʕrāb ending of a noun, with one exception, where the expression kaʾayyin min “oh how many of” is written in all its 7 attestations in the Quran as كأين من , which is an older form where the nunation got fossilized into the expression. Otherwise the 3rd person masculine accusative ‘an’ is written just as a long ‘ā’ ا or else the tanwīn is not written at all.
CA: hanīʾan marīʾā.


== Enforcement of Classical Arabic on Early Arabic Texts ==
{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/43189829/Al_Jallad_2020_The_Damascus_Psalm_Fragment_Middle_Arabic_and_the_Legacy_of_Old_%E1%B8%A4ig%C4%81z%C4%AB_w_a_contribution_by_R_Vollandt Ahmad Al-Jallad, The Damascus Psalm Fragment, p.2,5]|Modern scholars have generally taken for granted the antiquity and universality of the Arabic of the grammarians (Classical Arabic). Earlier written texts, such as the papyri from the seventh and early eighth centuries ce and the Quran, the earliest manuscripts of which precede the grammatical tradition by more than a century, are conventionally interpreted according to much later norms, without the need for justification. Any reader of these texts will notice that the oral component differs from the written in significant ways. To illustrate, consider the word ملىكه in Q66:6. All reading traditions instruct that this word should be pronounced as [malāʔikatun]; these traditions go back to the middle of the eighth century at the earliest, while the true seventh-century form is the written artifact, mlykh, lacking the final syllable tun. Despite the fact that the written in these cases is demonstrably older than the reading traditions, the oral is given default preference, and the differences are a reduced to orthographic convention. Indeed, most scholars have assumed that the language behind the most ancient component of the Quran, its Consonantal Text (QCT), is more or less identical to the language recited in the halls of Al-Azhar today.
<BR>
The careful and dispassionate study of Arabia’s ancient epigraphy reveals a picture quite dissimilar from that presented in Muslim historical sources. The Arabic of the grammarians is not met with; instead, the peninsula displays a dazzling degree of linguistic diversity. The Old Arabic dialects differ in ways not recorded by the grammarians, while features that figure prominently in the grammatical manuals are nowhere to be found. Consider nunation (tanwīn)—this is a standard feature of Classical Arabic, but in the consonantal South Semitic writing systems, Greek transcriptions, and the Graeco-Arabic inscription A1, the feature is completely absent. While the absence of nunation in Arabic orthography is usually written off as a convention, there is no reason to assume such conventions when Arabic is written in other scripts, much less before the development of the Arabic script itself. These attestations can mean only one thing: nunation had disappeared in most forms of Old Arabic.}}


== Early transcriptions of Arabic in Greek and Hebrew scripts ==
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أَنْ تَقُولُوا مَا جَاءَنَا ‌مِنْ ‌<u>بَشِيرٍ ‌وَلَا نَذِيرٍۖ</u> فَقَدْ جَاءَكُمْ بَ<u>شِيرٌ وَنَذِيرٌ</u> ۗ وَاللَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ۝﴾</span>  Q5:19
Since that short vowels aren’t represented in Arabic writing, early Arabic texts written in non-Arabic scripts provide important pronunciation details as these scripts are free from Arabic spelling rules and do show short vowels.{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/46885698/Copto_Arabica_The_Phonology_of_Early_Islamic_Arabic_Based_on_Coptic_Transcriptions Marijn Van Putten, Copto-Arabica, p.1]|One of the great challenges of understanding the linguistic history of Arabic in the early Islamic period is the highly defective spelling of early Arabic. It is ambiguous in terms of phonetic features such as the short vowels, the hamzah, and a general disagreement whether a written text is supposed to represent the vernacular or rather a form approximating Classical Arabic, or something in between, make it difficult to establish much of a baseline of expectations of the Arabic of this period. Historically, scholars interested in the history of Arabic have relied on the descriptions of the language by the Arab Grammarians who started their effort to standardize a high Arabic language around the end of the 8th  century. The form of Arabic they describe, however, is highly idealized, and certainly rather artificial. Any data there is about the spoken vernacular in such works is, as Rabin (1951, p. 4) put it, seen “only through the veil of the literary Arabic used by their speakers”. Recent advances in the field of Arabic historical linguistics, spearheaded by Ahmad Al-Jallad, have made it clear that in the Pre-Islamic period, Arabic was much more diverse than was previously thought.}}{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.44]|The lack of explicit prescriptivism in the early grammatical tradition concerning a large amount of phonological, morphological and syntactic variation should not be understood as evidence that the data presented by the grammarians is an uncurated representation of the dialects of Arabic. In fact, if we compare what the grammarians describe to contemporary Arabic texts written in scripts other than Arabic, we find one very striking difference: The Arabic of this period, not filtered through the grammarian lens, lacks the full ʔiʕrāb and tanwīn system which so quintessentially marks Classical Arabic.}}


== First Islamic century Greek transcriptions ==
OH: min <u>bashīr</u> walā <u>nadhīr</u> (pause) faqad jākum <u>bashīr</u> wa<u>nadhīr</u> (pause) wal-lāh ʕalā kulli shayy qadīr.
These texts are mainly official documents belonging to the Umayyad caliphate which was founded by Muʕāwiyah, a companion of Muhammad. Although the Greek texts in these documents contain short Arabic phrases (mainly names and titles), they reveal that the documented dialect has the following features:


'''1-The loss of final short vowels and nunation'''.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/24938389/Al_Jallad_2017_The_Arabic_of_the_Islamic_Conquests_Notes_on_Phonology_and_Morphology_based_on_the_Greek_Transcriptions_from_the_First_Islamic_Century <nowiki>Ahmad Al-Jallad, The Arabic of the Islamic conquests, 2017, p11]</nowiki>]</ref>
CA: min <u>bashīrin</u> walā <u>nadhīr</u> (pause) faqad jāʾakum <u>bashīrun</u> wa<u>nadhīr</u> (pause) wal-lāhu ʕalā kulli shayʾin qadīr.


E.g.:The name banī saʕd بني سعد is written without the final short vowel ‘i’ and without nunation (tanwīn):


Β(ανι) Σααδ β(εν) Μαλεχ / B(ani) saad b(en) malek / بني سعد بن مالك
Classical Arabic pronunciation: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik


You can view the papyri [https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/papyri/jerus.html here].
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿وَمَا نُرْسِلُ الْمُرْسَلِينَ إِلَّا ‌<u>مُبَشِّرِينَ ‌وَمُنْذِرِينَ</u> ۖ فَمَنْ آمَنَ وَأَصْلَحَ فَلَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ۝﴾</span>  Q6:48 The two words also occur in three other positions, including one in a pausal position Q18:56


'''2- Final short vowels are retained In construct.'''
OH: mubashshirīn wa mundhirīn.


E.g.
CA: mubashshirīna wa mundhirīn.


Ομμου Ιωσεw / ommu yūsef/ أم يوسف <ref>Ibid, [https://www.academia.edu/24938389/Al_Jallad_2017_The_Arabic_of_the_Islamic_Conquests_Notes_on_Phonology_and_Morphology_based_on_the_Greek_Transcriptions_from_the_First_Islamic_Century p12]</ref>


But if the possessive noun begins with the definite article, the final short vowel of the possessed noun is replaced with the vowel of the ‘al’ article. E.g.: αβδαλλα/abdalla / عبد الله (Classical Arabic: Abdullah).
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَيَعْلَمُ مَا فِي ‌<u>الْبَرِّ ‌وَالْبَحْرِۚ</u> وَمَا تَسْقُطُ مِنْ وَرَقَةٍ إِلَّا يَعْلَمُهَا...﴾</span>  Q6:59 The two words also occur in 6 other positions including 2 in pausal positions Q6:97, 10:22


'''3- The feminine ending “ah” changes to “at” only in construct'''<ref>Ibid[https://www.academia.edu/24938389/Al_Jallad_2017_The_Arabic_of_the_Islamic_Conquests_Notes_on_Phonology_and_Morphology_based_on_the_Greek_Transcriptions_from_the_First_Islamic_Century , p14]</ref>'''. Which proves the lack of final short vowels in non-construct.'''
OH: fil-barr wal-baḥr.


Example for feminine “at” in construct:
CA: fil-barri wal-baḥr.


The (female) servant of God أمة الله


αμαθαλλα : amatalla<ref>Kaplony, Andreas, The orthography and pronunciation of Arabic names and terms in the Greek , p.16</ref>  
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌لَهُمْ ‌شَرَابٌ ‌مِنْ <u>‌حَمِيمٍ</u> وَعَذَابٌ <u>أَلِيمٌ</u> بِمَا كَانُوا يَكْفُرُونَ۝﴾</span>  Q6:70 Q10:4


'''4- Case inflection with long vowels is retained.'''
OH: min <u>ḥamīm</u> wa ʕadhāb <u>alīm</u> bimā…


The word “father” in the nominative appears as abū while in the genitive appears as abī<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/24938389/Al_Jallad_2017_The_Arabic_of_the_Islamic_Conquests_Notes_on_Phonology_and_Morphology_based_on_the_Greek_Transcriptions_from_the_First_Islamic_Century Ahmad Al-Jallad, The Arabic of the Islamic conquests, 2017, p11]</ref>.
CA: min <u>ḥamīmin</u> wa ʕadhābun <u>ʾalīmun</u> bimā…


E.g.<ref>Ibid, p12</ref>


Αβου Σαειδ /abū saʕīd/ أبو سعيد
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَمَا أَنْزَلْنَا عَلَى عَبْدِنَا ‌يَوْمَ <u>‌الْفُرْقَانِ</u> يَوْمَ الْتَقَى <u>الْجَمْعَانِۗ</u> وَاللَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ۝﴾</span> Q8:41


Οβαιδαλλα β(ιν) Αβιλαας / ʕobaydallāh b(in) ʾabī l-ʕās ̣/ عبيد الله بن أبي العاص
OH: yawma l-<u>furqān</u> yawma ltaqa l-<u>jamʕān</u>.


CA: yawma l-<u>furqāni</u> yawma ltaqa l-<u>jamʕān</u>.


'''5-  The alef maqsūrah ى is pronounced as ē instead of the Classical Arabic pronunciation ā.'''


E.g. <ref>Ibid, p13</ref>
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿لَهُمْ فِيهَا ‌<u>نَعِيمٌ ‌مُقِيمٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q9:21


Μαυλε /mawlē/مولى
OH: naʕīm muqīm.


ιαειε /yaḥyē/ يحيى
CA: naʕīmun muqīm.


ιαλε /yaʕlē/يعلى


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أَمْ مَنْ أَسَّسَ بُنْيَانَهُ عَلَى شَفَا ‌جُرُفٍ ‌<u>هَارٍ فَانْهَارَ</u> بِهِ فِي نَارِ جَهَنَّمَ...۝﴾</span>   Q9:109


An example of these Umayyad Greek-Arabic texts:
OH: hār fanhār …


=== <big>A Greek Inscription from Jordan Dated 42 AH / 662-63 CE</big> ===
CA: hārin fanhāra …
[[File:Muawiyah Arabic In Greek.jpg|thumb|A Greek inscription containing an Arabic line written in Greek letters which reveals that final short vowels weren’t used: ABDALLA MAAUIA AMIRAALMUMENEN (The servant of Allah Muʕāwiyah the commander of the faithful)|450x450px]]
This inscription includes the Arabic pronunciation of the title and name of Muʕāwiyah, the first Umayyad caliph.


“In the days of the servant of God Muʕāwiya, the commander of the faithful, the hot baths of the people there were saved and rebuilt…”


In this inscription, not a single Arabic word recieved a final short vowel:
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا اللَّهَ إِنَّنِي لَكُمْ مِنْهُ ‌<u>نَذِيرٌ ‌وَبَشِيرٌ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q11:2 The two words also occur in a context position in Q7:188


“The servant of God Muʕāwiya the commander of the faithful”
OH: nadhīr wa bashīr.


The Greek transcription:                ABDALLA MAAUIA AMIRAALMUMENEN
CA: nadhīrun wa bashīr.


Classical Arabic pronunciation: ʕabdullāhi muʕāwiyatu amīru l-muʾminin


عبدُ اللهِ معاويةُ أميرُ المؤمنين
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَلَمَّا بَلَغَ أَشُدَّهُ آتَيْنَاهُ ‌<u>حُكْمًا ‌وَعِلْمًا</u> ۚ وَكَذَلِكَ نَجْزِي الْمُحْسِنِينَ۝﴾</span>  Q12:22 The two words also occur in three other verses including two in pausal positions Q21:79, 28:14.


In classical Arabic, the first 4 words receive the following final short vowels:
OH: ḥukmā waʕilmā.


“ʕabd” receives ‘u’. “Allah” receives ‘i’. Muʕāwiyah receives ‘u’ which turns the ‘ah’ to ‘at’: muʕāwiyatu. “amīr” receives ‘u’.  
CA: ḥukman waʕilmā.


You can view the inscription [https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions/hammat.html here].


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّكَ الْيَوْمَ لَدَيْنَا ‌<u>مَكِينٌ ‌أَمِينٌ</u> ۝﴾</span> Q12:22


Another Umayyad Greek-Arabic text:
OH: makīn amīn


=== <big>A Bilingual Umayyad Document From The Year 54 AH / 674 CE</big> ===
CA: makīnun ʾamīn
[[File:Names.jpg|thumb|A Bilingual Umayyad Document where a number of names were written in both Arabic and Greek. The names in Greek lack nunation and final short vowels.|234x234px]]
This is an Umayyad Note to the people of the city of Neṣṣana demanding that they pay their due of the Jizyah (Tax on non-Muslims). It’s written both in Arabic and Greek. The Greek portion includes the following Arabic names that lacked any case inflection:


Alaaret b(en) Abd الحارث بن عبد


Classical Arabic: Al-ḥārithi bni ʕabd (The name in the document is in the genitive case, hence taking the ‘i’ final short vowel)
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ وَسَيَعْلَمُ <u>الْكُفَّارُ</u> لِمَنْ ‌عُقْبَى <u>‌الدَّارِ۝</u>﴾</span> Q13:42


Adie B(en) Kaled عدي بن خالد
OH: wasayaʕlam <u>al-kuffār</u> liman ʕuqba <u>d-dār</u>


Classical Arabic: Adeyyi bni khālid (The name in the document is in the genitive case)
CA: wasayaʕlamu <u>l-kuffāru</u> liman ʕuqba <u>d-dār</u>


بني سعد بن مالك


B(ani) saad b(en) malek
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿خَلَقَ الْإِنْسَانَ مِنْ نُطْفَةٍ فَإِذَا هُوَ ‌<u>خَصِيمٌ ‌مُبِينٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q16:4, 36:77


Classical Arabic: Banī saʕdin ibni mālik
OH: khaṣīm mubīn


You can view the document [https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/papyri/jerus.html here].
CA: khaṣīmun mubīn


== The Damascus Psalm Fragment ==
This document, dated to the third Islamic century, was discovered in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus in 1900. It includes a translation of a portion of “The Book of Psalms” of the bible (Psalm 77). This Arabic translation is written with Greek letters. The translation is literal with strict adherence to the syntax and wording of the original language*, which caused parts of it to sound awkward and hard to understand.{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/43189829/Al_Jallad_2020_The_Damascus_Psalm_Fragment_Middle_Arabic_and_the_Legacy_of_Old_%E1%B8%A4ig%C4%81z%C4%AB_w_a_contribution_by_R_Vollandt Ahmad Al-Jallad, The Damascus Psalm Fragment, 2020, p.46]|The phonology and morphology of the Psalm Fragment reflect the contemporary vernacular, while its syntax follows the Greek. }}The dialect of the Psalm Fragment has the following features:


'''1- The loss of final short vowels and nunation'''<ref>Ahmad Al-Jallad, [https://www.academia.edu/43189829/Al_Jallad_2020_The_Damascus_Psalm_Fragment_Middle_Arabic_and_the_Legacy_of_Old_%E1%B8%A4ig%C4%81z%C4%AB_w_a_contribution_by_R_Vollandt The Damascus Psalm Fragment], 2020, p.21</ref>.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ وَمَنْ رَزَقْنَاهُ مِنَّا رِزْقًا حَسَنًا فَهُوَ يُنْفِقُ مِنْهُ ‌<u>سِرًّا ‌وَجَهْرًا</u> ۖ هَلْ يَسْتَوُونَ الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ بَلْ أَكْثَرُهُمْ لَا يَعْلَمُونَ۝﴾</span>  Q16:75


E.g.
OH: sirrā wajahrā


yuheyyī māy(i)deh li-šiʕb-hu(hi)<ref>Ibid, p.79</ref>
CA: sirran wajahrā


ὑεϳει μάϳδεὑ λιχχειγβὑϳ


يهيِّي (يهيء) مايدة (مائدة) لشعبه
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَيُبَشِّرُ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ الَّذِينَ يَعْمَلُونَ الصَّالِحَاتِ أَنَّ لَهُمْ ‌<u>أَجْرًا ‌كَبِيرً</u>ا۝﴾</span>   Q17:9


Classical Arabic:
OH: ajrā kabīrā


yuhayyiʾu māʾidatan li-šaʕbih
CA: ʾajran kabīrā




'''2- In construct, final short vowels are retained in some cases and lost in others'''<ref>Ibid, p.22</ref>'''.'''
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلَّا ‌<u>مُبَشِّرًا ‌وَنَذِيرًا</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q17:105 The two words also occur at the end of 3 other verses Q25:56, 33:45, 48:8.


Example for the loss<ref>Ibid, p.84</ref>:
OH: mubashshirā wanadhīrā


حول خيامْهُم
CA: mubashshiran wanadhīrā


ḥawl ḫiyēm-hum


χαυλ χηέμὑμ
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿هُوَ خَيْرٌ <u>ثَوَابًا</u> ‌وَخَيْرٌ <u>‌عُقْبًا</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q18:44


OH: hū khayr <u>thawābā</u> wakhayr <u>ʕuqbā</u>


Example for retention<ref>Ibid, p.90</ref>:
CA: huwa khayrun <u>thawāban</u> wakhayrun <u>ʕuqbā</u>


بأوثانِهُم


bi-ʔaṯwāni-hum
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿قَالَ سَتَجِدُنِي إِنْ شَاءَ اللَّهُ <u>صَابِرًا</u> ‌وَلَا ‌أَعْصِي ‌لَكَ <u>‌أَمْرًا۝</u>﴾</span>   Q18:69


βη αυθάνϳὑμ
OH: ṣābirā...amrā


CA: ṣābiran...ʾamrā


'''3- The Alef maqṣūrah is pronounced as [ā] in backed and labial environments, but as [ē] otherwise'''<ref>Ibid, p.48</ref>'''.'''


E.g.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿قَالُوا يَامَرْيَمُ لَقَدْ جِئْتِ <u>شَيْئًا ‌فَرِيًّا</u>۝﴾</span> Q19:27


أعطى  aʕṭā
OH: shayyā fariyyā


Αγτα
CA: shayʾan fariyyā




أتى  atē
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿فَلَا يَخَافُ <u>ظُلْمًا وَلَا ‌هَضْمًا</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q20:112


Ατε
OH: ḍhulmā walā haḍmā


CA: ḍhulman walā haḍmā


'''4- The “L” of the definite article doesn’t assimilate to the following coronal consonant'''<ref>Ibid, p.49</ref>.


E.g.<ref>Ibid, p.80</ref>
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّهُمْ كَانُوا يُسَارِعُونَ فِي الْخَيْرَاتِ وَيَدْعُونَنَا ‌<u>رَغَبًا وَرَهَبًا</u> ۖ وَكَانُوا لَنَا خَاشِعِينَ۝﴾</span>  Q21:90


οελναρ
OH: raghabā warahabā


wel-nār
CA: raghaban warahabā


والنار


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَالْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ الَّذِي جَعَلْنَاهُ لِلنَّاسِ سَوَاءً الْعَاكِفُ فِيهِ <u>وَالْبَادِۚ</u> وَمَنْ يُرِدْ فِيهِ <u>‌بِإِلْحَادٍ</u> بِظُلْمٍ نُذِقْهُ مِنْ عَذَابٍ أَلِيمٍ ۝﴾</span>  Q22:25


Note: In the Greek transcriptions from the first Islamic century, the L is assimilated:
OH: fīh <u>wal-bād</u> (pause) wa man yurid fīh <u>biilḥād</u> biḍhulm…


Αβδεραμαν<ref>Ahmad Al-Jallad, [https://www.academia.edu/24938389/Al_Jallad_2017_The_Arabic_of_the_Islamic_Conquests_Notes_on_Phonology_and_Morphology_based_on_the_Greek_Transcriptions_from_the_First_Islamic_Century The Arabic of the Islamic conquests], p.428</ref>
CA: fīhi <u>wal-bād</u> (pause) wa man yurid fīhi <u>biʾilḥādin</u> biḍhulmin…


ʕabdərahṃān


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿لَا تَدْعُوا الْيَوْمَ ثُبُورًا وَاحِدًا وَادْعُوا <u>‌ثُبُورًا ‌كَثِيرًا</u>۝﴾</span>   Q25:14


'''5- The pronominal suffix of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form. While classical Arabic has both “hum” and “him”.'''
OH: thubūrā kathīrā


In the following example<ref>Ibid, p.90</ref>, the final pronoun should take the “him” form in accordance with classical Arabic rules. The psalm fragment instead uses the “hum” form.
CA: thubūran kathīrā


بأوثانِهُم


bi-ʔaṯwāni-hum
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌وَبُرِّزَتِ ا<u>لْجَحِيمُ لِلْغَاوِينَ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q26:91


βη αυθάνϳὑμ
OH: wa burrizat <u>al-jaḥīm lil-ghāwīn</u>


CA: wa burrizati <u>l-jaḥīmu lil-ghāwīn</u>


'''6- The indefinite accusative is marked with ā instead of classical Arabic “an”.'''


This is attested twice in the word γεδδα [ǧeddā]<ref>Ibid, p.22</ref> which means “very”.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿قَالَ هَذَا مِنْ فَضْلِ رَبِّي لِيَبْلُوَنِي <u>أَأَشْكُرُ أَمْ أَكْفُرُ</u> ۖ ‌وَمَنْ ‌شَكَرَ فَإِنَّمَا يَشْكُرُ لِنَفْسِهِ ۖ ... ﴾</span>  Q27:40


OH: aashkur am akfur


'''7- The Feminine Ending is “eh” instead of “ah” which matches modern Levantine Arabic'''<ref>Ibid, p.51</ref>
CA: ʾaʾashkuru ʾam ʾakfur


οελευδιεὑ [wel-ʾʔewdiyeh] والأودية<ref>Ibid, p.79</ref>


χαϳμετ σεϳλουμ [ḫaymet seylūm] خيمة سيلوم <ref>Ibid, p.91</ref>
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَإِنَّ أَوْهَنَ <u>الْبُيُوتِ</u> لَبَيْتُ <u>‌الْعَنْكَبُوتِۚ</u> لَوْ كَانُوا يَعْلَمُونَ ۝﴾</span>   Q29:41


'''8- ā is realized as [ē] unless there is an inhibiting factor, that is, an emphatic or a labial'''<ref>Ibid, p.51</ref>'''.'''
OH: wa inn awhan <u>al-buyūt</u> labayt <u>al-ʕankabūt</u>


E.g.
CA: wa ʾinna ʾawhana <u>l-buyūti</u> labaytu <u>l-ʕankabūt</u>


فسالت


φασέλετ
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَإِذَا تُتْلَى عَلَيْهِ آيَاتُنَا ‌وَلَّى <u>‌مُسْتَكْبِرًا</u> كَأَنْ لَمْ يَسْمَعْهَا كَأَنَّ فِي أُذُنَيْهِ <u>وَقْرًا</u> ۖ فَبَشِّرْهُ بِعَذَابٍ أَلِيمٍ۝﴾</span> Q31:7


fa-sēlet<ref>Ibid, p.79</ref>
OH: wallē <u>mustakbirā</u> kaan lam yasmaʕhā kaan fī udhunayh <u>waqrā</u>


CA: wallā <u>mustakbiran</u> kaʾan lam yasmaʕhā kaʾanna fī ʾudhunayhi <u>waqrā</u>




<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿<u>وَاقْصِدْ فِي مَشْيِكَ ‌وَاغْضُضْ مِنْ صَوْتِكَ</u> ۚ إِنَّ أَنْكَرَ الْأَصْوَاتِ لَصَوْتُ الْحَمِيرِ ۝﴾</span>   Q31:19


'''<big>The text of the Damascus Psalm Fragment</big>'''
OH: waqṣid fī mashyik waghḍuḍ min ṣawtik


fa-sēlet mayyah wel-ʔewdiyeh fāḍat leʕal wa-ḫubz yeqdir yuʕtī
CA: waqṣid fī mashyika waghḍuḍ min ṣawtik


ʔeu yuheyyī māy(i)deh li-šiʕb-hu(hi) [sic] [*li-siʕbi-h(?)]


فسىلت (فسالت) مَيَّه والأودية فاضت لعل وخبز يقدر يعطي أو يهيِّي (يهيء) مايدة (مائدة) لشعبه.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَكَانَ أَمْرُ اللَّهِ <u>قَدَرًا ‌مَقْدُورًا</u>۝﴾</span>   Q33:38


li-dhālik semiʕ el-rab fa-ʔamtenaʕ wel-nār ʔeshteʕalet fī yaʕqūb wa ruǧz ṣaʕ(ad)
OH: qadarā maqdūrā


ʕalā ʔisrāel
CA: qadaran maqdūrā


لذلكْ سمع الرب فأَمتَنَع والنار اشتعلت في يعقوب ورُجُز صعد على إسراييل


li-ʔen(nahum) (la)m yūmi(nū) billāh wa-lā (tawa)kkelū ʕalā khalāṣ-h
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿اذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ <u>‌ذِكْرًا ‌كَثِيرًا</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q33:41  


لأنهم لم يومنوا بالله ولا توكلوا على خلاصه
OH: dhikrā kathīrā


wa ʔamar el-siḥēb min fawq wa ʔabwāb el-se…samā fateḥ
CA: dhikran kathīrā


وأَمَر السحىب (السحاب) من فوق وأبواب السما فتح


wa ʔamṭar lehum m(ann)a liyā(kul)ū (wa) (ḫub)z min el-(semā) ʔaʕṭā-hum
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أَمْ أَنَا خَيْرٌ مِنْ هَذَا الَّذِي ‌هُوَ <u>‌مَهِينٌ</u> وَلَا يَكَادُ <u>يُبِينُ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q43:52 “mahīn” is the ending of a verse according to some readings so this instance in those readings doesn't count as an internal rhyme.


وأمطر لهم منَّا لياكلوا و خبز من السما أعطاهم
OH: hū <u>mahīn</u> walā yakād <u>yabīn</u>


(ḫub)z el-melēyke (ʔak)el ʔinsēn (ša)ba(ʕ) baʕaṯ la-hum ley(i)temellew
CA: huwa <u>mahīnun</u> walā yakādu <u>yabīn</u>


خبز الملايكة أكل إنسان شبع بعث لهم ليتمَلَّوْا.


ʔahāǧ el-teym(an) min el-semā wa ʔatē bi-quwwet-uh el-ʕāṣif
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿خَافِضَةٌ رَافِعَةٌ۝﴾</span>  Q56:3


أهاج التيْمَن* من السما وأتى بقوته العاصف
OH: khāfiḍah rāfiʕah


''* Al-Jallad Notes: The name of the south wind in Classical Arabic is al-ǧanūb. The use of Teym[an] here might be an Aramaicism, tayman “south.” An identical term is used in the Hebrew Bible, têmān. (p.83)''
CA: khāfiḍatun rāfiʕah


wa ʔamṭar ʕaley-hum mithl el-turāb luḥūm wa mithl raml el-buḥūr ṭiyūr


mujneḥah
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌إِلَّا ‌قِيلًا سَلَامًا سَلَامًا۝﴾</span>   Q56:26 Discovered by Van Putten And Phillip Stokes


وأمطر عليهم مثل التراب لحوم ومثل رمل البحور طيور مِجْنِحَة
OH: illā qīlā salāmā salāmā


fa-waqaʕat fī wasaṭ ʕasker-hum ḥawl ḫiyēm-hum
CA: illā qīlan salāman salāmā


فوقعت في وسط عسكرهم حول خيامهم


fa-ʔakelūwa šebiʕū ǧeddā wa šehwet-hum ǧēb la-hum
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿لَا ‌مَقْطُوعَةٍ وَلَا مَمْنُوعَةٍ ۝﴾</span>   Q56:33


فأكلوا وشبعوا جدا وشهوتهم جاب لهم
OH: lā maqṭūʕah walā mamnūʕah


(la)m yuʕdemū (š)ehwet-hum wa ʕindmā kēn el-ṭaʕām fī fāh-hum
CA: lā maqṭūʕatin walā mamnūʕah


لم يُعدموا شهوتهم وعندما كان الطعام في فاهم


wa ʔabtelew wa marmarū el-ʔilēh el-ʕālī wa šehād(ā)t-uh lam yeḥfaḏ̣ū
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌عُرُبًا أَتْرَابًا۝﴾</span>  Q56:37


وابتلوا ومرموا الإله العالي وشهاداتُه لم يحفظوا
OH: ʕurubā atrābā


fa ʔanqalebū wa ġadarū miṯl ābāy(i)-hum ʔanqalebū miṯl el-qaws el-ʕawǧē
CA: ʕuruban ʾatrābā


فأَنقلبوا وغدروا مثل آبايهُم أَنقلبوا مثل القوس العوجى


wa (ʔa)sḫaṭū-h bi-ʔawθāni-hum wa bi-menḥūtēti-hum ʔaġārū-h
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌وَأَنْزَلْنَا <u>‌الْحَدِيدَ</u> فِيهِ بَأْسٌ <u>شَدِيدٌ</u> وَمَنَافِعُ لِلنَّاسِ... ﴾</span>   Q57:25


وأسخطوه بأوثانهم وبمنحوتاتهم أغاروه.
OH: wa anzalna <u>l-ḥadīd</u> fīh bās <u>shadīd</u> wa manāfiʕ…


semiʕ allāh wa teġāfel (wa) ʔafsel ǧed(dā)—li-isra(il)
CA: wa ʾanzalna <u>l-ḥadīda</u> fīhi baʾsun <u>shadīdun</u> wa manāfiʕu…


سمع الله وتغافل وأفسل جدا لإسراييل


wa ʔaqṣā ḫaymet seylūm el-mesken elleðī ʔesken fil-bašer
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَإِنَّهُمْ لَيَقُولُونَ <u>‌مُنْكَرًا</u> ‌مِنَ ‌الْقَوْلِ <u>وَزُورًا</u> ۚ وَإِنَّ اللَّهَ لَعَفُوٌّ غَفُورٌ ۝﴾</span>  Q58:2


وأقصا خيمة سيلوم المسكن الذي أسكن في البشر
OH: <u>munkarā</u> min al-qawl wa <u>zūrā</u>


wa ʔas(l)e(m) lilseb(ī) (q)oe(t-hum)
CA: <u>munkaran</u> mina l-qawli wa <u>zūrā</u>


وأسلم للسبي قوتهم.


== Judaeo-Arabic Texts ==
A collection of papyri from Egypt includes Arabic texts written with Hebrew characters. These papyri predate 900 AD<ref>Blau and Hopkins, [https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160 Judaeo-Arabic papyri], 1987,  p. 90</ref>.{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160 Blau and Hopkins, Judaeo-Arabic papyri, 1987,  p.154]|“The Arabic of these papyri has lost case and mood categories in the noun and verb. The breakdown of the case system is indicated by several features. Had tanwīn existed in the type of Arabic studied here, there can be no real doubt that it would have been marked by final nun; the fact that these texts use an acoustically based orthography, quite free from the influence of literary Arabic spelling, makes this virtually certain. The adverbs terminating in aleph must therefore be regarded as reflecting the ending ā, not the literary tnwīn.”}}Although the Hebrew script is defective and doesn’t write short vowels and many long ‘a’ vowels, these Judaeo-Arabic texts are still valuable as they don’t abide by Arabic orthography rules. E.g. A word pronounced as “kalbun”(with final short vowel and nunation) is written in Arabic as “klb” without the suffix in accordance with Arabic orthography rules. But when this word is written in Judaeo-Arabic as “klb”( instead of “klbn”) then this means it’s pronounced without the suffix because these texts are phonetic and don’t abide by Arabic orthography rules<ref>Joshua Blau, [https://www.academia.edu/10334155/A_Handbook_of_Early_Middle_Arabic_by_Prof_Joshua_Blau A Handbook of Early Middle Arabic], 2002, p.137</ref>.


In the following example<ref>Joshua Blau, [https://www.academia.edu/10334155/A_Handbook_of_Early_Middle_Arabic_by_Prof_Joshua_Blau A handbook of early Middle Arabic], 2002, p.140</ref> from the Judaeo-Arabic Papyri, the word عافية ʕāfiyah is written as ʕfyh which means the word lacked nunation otherwise it would have been written as ʕfytn (ʕāfiyatin).
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿وَمَكَرُوا <u>مَكْرًا ‌كُبَّارًا</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q71:22


The same example also shows the word محمود  maḥmūd is written as mḥmwd which means the word lacked nunation otherwise it would have been written as mḥmwdn (maḥmūdun).
OH: makrā kubbārā


CA: makran kubbārā


ונחן פי עפיה ואלה מחמוד עלא דלך


ونحن في عافية والله محمود على ذلك
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَلَا يَلِدُوا إِلَّا <u>فَاجِرًا ‌كَفَّارًا</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q71:27


(We are in good health thanks to Allah)
OH: fājirā kaffārā


Litteral transcription: wnḥn fy ʕfyh walh mḥmwd ʕlā dlk
CA: fājiran kaffārā


Pronunciation: wanaḥn fī ʕāfiyah wallāh maḥmūd ʕalā dhālik


Classical Arabic: wanaḥnu fī ʕāfiyatin wallāhu maḥmūdun ʕalā dhālik
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّا سَنُلْقِي عَلَيْكَ <u>قَوْلًا ‌ثَقِيلًا</u> ۝﴾</span> Q73:5


OH: qawlā thaqīlā


Besides the loss of final short vowels and nunations, other features of these texts include:
CA: qawlan thaqīlā


'''1- Frequent loss of Hamzah'''<ref>Blau and Hopkins, [https://www.academia.edu/38210910/Joshua_Blau_and_Simon_Hopkins_Judaeo-Arabic_Papyri_Collected_Edited_Translated_and_Analysed_Jerusalem_Studies_in_Arabic_and_Islam_vol._9_1987_87-160 Judaeo-Arabic Papyri], 1987, p.126</ref>''':'''


אלרדיה (The cloaks الأردية )
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿تَجِدُوهُ عِنْدَ اللَّهِ هُوَ <u>خَيْرًا</u> ‌وَأَعْظَمَ <u>‌أَجْرًا</u> ۚ وَاسْتَغْفِرُوا اللَّهَ... ﴾</span>  Q73:20


Litteral transcription: alrdyh
OH: hū <u>khayrā</u> wa aʕḍham <u>ajrā</u>    


Pronunciation: alardiyah
CA: huwa <u>khayran</u> wa ʾaʕḍhamu <u>ʾajrā</u>


Classical Arabic: alʾardiyah


Note: The Hebrew letter א can be used to express the long vowel ā or a glottal stop. If the word for “the cloaks” was pronounced with a glottal stop, it would have been written with two א :  אלארדיה
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّهُ <u>فَكَّرَ وَقَدَّرَ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q74:18


OH: innah <u>fakkar waqaddar</u>


תכוד (تأخذ  you take)
CA: innahū <u>fakkara waqaddar</u>


Litteral transcription: tkwd


Pronunciation: tākhudh
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ثُمَّ <u>أَدْبَرَ وَاسْتَكْبَرَ۝</u>﴾</span>  Q74:23


Classical Arabic: taʾkhudh
OH: thumm <u>adbar wastakbar</u>


Note: If the word was pronounced with a glottal stop, it would have been written as: תאכוד
CA: thumma <u>ʾadbara wastakbar</u>




<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا <u>شَاكِرًا</u> وَإِمَّا <u>كَفُورًا</u> ۝﴾</span> Q76:3


'''2- The indefinite accusative is marked with ‘ā’ instead of classical Arabic “an”'''<ref>Blau and Hopkins, Judaeo-Arabic Papyri, 1987, p. 149</ref>'''.'''
OH: immā <u>shākirā</u> wa immā <u>kafūrā</u>


וידא
CA: ʾimmā <u>shākiran</u> wa ʾimmā <u>kafūrā</u>


(and also) (وأيضا)


Litteral transcription: wydā
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌وَمِنَ ‌اللَّيْلِ فَاسْجُدْ لَهُ وَسَبِّحْهُ <u>لَيْلًا طَوِيلًا</u>۝﴾</span>   Q76:26


Pronunciation: wēḍā
OH: laylā ṭawīlā


Classical Arabic: waʾayḍan
CA: laylan ṭawīlā




וגדא
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌عُذْرًا ‌أَوْ ‌نُذْرًا۝﴾</span>   Q77:6


(and tomorrow) (وغدا)
OH: ʕudhrā aw nudhrā


Litteral transcription: wgdā
CA: ʕudhran ʾaw nudhrā


Pronunciation: waghadā


Classical Arabic: waghadan
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّهَا تَرْمِي ‌<u>بِشَرَرٍ كَالْقَصْرِ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q77:32


'''<br />3- The pronominal suffix of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person masculine is ‘h’ with no vowel after it as opposed to classical Arabic forms: hū/hī, hu/hi'''<ref>Ibid, p.151</ref>'''.'''
OH: bisharar kal-qaṣar


After consonants the pronoun is spelled as wh, to be pronounced uh or oh. And after vowels the pronoun is spelled h.
CA: bishararin kal-qaṣar


In the canonical readings, the final word is read as “kal-qaṣr”. But a number of non-canonical readings read it as “kal-qaṣar” which makes it a perfect rhyming fit for the preceding word “bisharar”. The final word of the next verse is non-canonically read as ṣufur instead of the canonical ṣufr. (Muʕjam al-qirāʾāt, vol.10 p.248, 251)


ולדוה


His son ولده
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَجَعَلْنَا <u>سِرَاجًا وَهَّاجًا</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q78:13


Litteral transcription: wldwh
OH: sirājā wahhājā


Pronunciation: waladuh
CA: sirājan wahhājā


Classical Arabic: waladuhū


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿إِنَّا أَنْذَرْنَاكُمْ <u>عَذَابًا</u> <u>قَرِيبًا</u> يَوْمَ يَنْظُرُ الْمَرْءُ مَا قَدَّمَتْ يَدَاهُ وَيَقُولُ الْكَافِرُ يَالَيْتَنِي كُنْتُ تُرَابًا ۝﴾</span> Q78:40


מין אכיה
OH: ʕadhābā qarībā


From his brother من أخيه
CA: ʕadhāban qarībā (This position is an end of a verse in the Baṣran and some Makkan readings. In the readings where this position isn't counted as an end of a verse, the two words are read as ʕadhāban qarīban)


Litteral transcription: myn akyh


Pronunciation: min ʾakhīh
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَعِنَبًا وَقَضْبًا ۝﴾</span>  Q80:28


Classical Arabic: min ʾakhīhi
OH: waʕinabā waqaḍbā


CA: wa inaban waqaḍbā




'''4- The pronominal suffix of the 3<sup>rd</sup> person masculine plural takes only the “hum” form'''<ref>Ibid, p.152</ref>'''. As opposed to classical Arabic which has both “hum” and “him”.'''
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ أُولَئِكَ هُمُ <u>الْكَفَرَةُ الْفَجَرَةُ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q80:42


In the following example, the pronominal suffix should take the “him” form in accordance with classical Arabic rules. But it’s written as “hum”.
OH: humu l-kafarah al-fajarah


CA: humu l-kafaratu l-fajarah


עלא חאלתהום


In their condition على حالتهم
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿عَامِلَةٌ نَاصِبَةٌ۝﴾</span>  Q88:3


Litteral transcription: ʕlā ḥālthwm
OH: ʕāmilah nāṣibah


Pronunciation: ʕalā ḥālatihum
CA: ʕāmilatun nāṣibah


Classical Arabic: ʕalā ḥālatihim


'''<br />5- Loss of verbal moods'''<ref>Ibid, p.155</ref>'''.'''
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌نَاصِيَةٍ كَاذِبَةٍ خَاطِئَةٍ ۝﴾</span>  Q96:16 discovered by Larcher


יהרובו
OH: nāṣiyah kādhibah khāṭiyah


They are going to flee يهربوا
CA: nāṣiyatin kādhibatin khāṭiyah


Litteral transcription: yhrwbw


Pronunciation: yahrubū
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَيْلٌ لِكُلِّ <u>‌هُمَزَةٍ لُمَزَةٍ</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q104:1


Classical Arabic: yahrubūn
OH: humazah lumazah


== Final short vowels and Nunation in the Quranic Readings Tradition ==
CA: humazatin lumazah
The third caliph’s standardization of the Quran unified the Quranic consonantal text. But as this standardized Quran lacked diacritics, this allowed for the emergence of readings that differ in short vowels, dotting and linguistic characteristics.


In their recitation of the Quran, Muslims follow early Quran scholars whose readings became named after them, hence called eponymous readings. In the third Islamic century, the Quranic readings were canonized into 7 readings. And in the ninth Islamic century another 3 were added making the total number of canonical readings 10.  Today the reading of Ḥafṣ is the most popular in the world.


Final short vowels and nunation (Iʕrāb) are fully employed in all of the canonical readings. This doesn’t necessarily mean Iʕrāb was part of the original language of the Quran since that the linguistic and historical analysis reveals that these readings were linguistically reworked<ref>Marijn Van Putten, [https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Quranic Arabic], p.214</ref>, none of them represents natural language<ref>Ibid, p.99</ref>, they were full of innovation and didn’t strictly adhere to a supposed oral tradition that goes back to Muhammad. An example of this is the following report from Al-Kisāʾī, the founder of a one of the canonical readings. In his reading, he treats the word thamūd in the accusative as triptotic (thamūdan: i.e. it can take nunation and one of three possible final short vowels). He also treats the word in the genitive and nominative as diptotic (thamūda/thamūdu: i.e. can’t take nunation, and can take one of two possible final short vowels instead of three). Al- Kisāʾī breaks his own rule in verse Q11:68 where the word thamūd is mentioned twice: first in the accusative and second in the genitive. According to his rule, the first word in the verse should be treated as triptotic (thamūdan), and the second word as diptotic (thamūda), but instead he treats both of them as triptotic (thamūdan, thamūdin, respectively):


''ʔa-lā ʔinna thamūdan kafarū rabba-hum ʔa-lā buʕdan li-thamūdin'' (Q11:68)”.
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿تَبَّتْ يَدَا ‌أَبِي <u>‌لَهَبٍ وَتَبَّ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q111:1


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿أَلَا ‌إِنَّ ‌ثَمُوداً كَفَرُوا رَبَّهُمْ أَلَا بُعْدًا لِثَمُودٍ (٦٨)﴾  هود</span>
OH: tabbat yadā abī lahab watab


Al-Kisāʾī was asked about this, and his response showed that his reasoning had no regard to oral transmission, he said: “It is ugly to have a word occur twice in two places (within the same verse) and then have them disagree [on triptosy/dipotsy], so I treated it [''ṯamūdin''] as a triptote because of it being close to it [''ṯamūdan'']." <ref>Ibid, p.189</ref>
CA: tabbat yadā ʾabī lahabin watab


Marijn Van Putten comments on this report saying: {{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.189]|While this account of course does not prove that the Quran was once composed without ʔiʕrāb, what it does show is how readers themselves thought about their role in applying ʔiʕrāb in recitation. Their role was not to faithfully verbatim the ʔiʕrāb as had been taught to them, but rather to argue and rationalize why a word should have the ʔiʕrāb that they would give it. In such cases even purely aesthetic arguments such as the one cited, was apparently enough to deviate from the way their teacher taught it (Ḥamzah, al-Kisāʔī’s direct teacher reads ṯamūda and li-ṯamūda in the relevant verse). As such the application of ʔiʕrāb by these readers can tell us nothing at all about the use of ʔiʕrāb of the original language of the qct. However, given that the choice of ʔiʕrāb was a rational endeavour explicitly based on both the rasm (QCT) and aesthetic preference rather than prophetic example, it becomes quite easy to envision that the presence of this very system was not original to the text, but was rather imposed on it sometime after the standardization of the QCT by ʕuṯmān.}}
<br />


Another sign that the application of Iʕrāb wasn’t based on oral tradition, is the pseudo correct use of Iʕrāb, as in the following example<ref>Ibid, p191-192</ref>:
'''<big>B- Internal rhymes where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants.</big>'''


The question word أيَّانَ ʾayyāna (when?) which is used in the Quran several times (such as Q7:187), is a merge between two words: أي  ʾayy (which) and  آنʾān (time). The original shape with Iʕrāb is: ʾayya ʾānin. The Hamzah is lost which allows the merge: ʾayyānin. Yet all of the readings have the word as “ʾayyāna” instead of “ʾayyānin” although ʾān in this structure should take the final short vowel ‘i’ and nunation according to classical Arabic rules: The word ʾayy is the possessed مضاف, and the word ʾān is the possessor مضاف إليه which means it should take the “in” suffix. What explains the readers giving “ayyān” a final -a is that the two words originally had no final short vowels: ayy ān, or ayya ān. And when the two words merged as “ayyān” and got treated as a single word, the readers gave it a final -a because they thought the word is similar to other words such as:
Due to the large number of examples of this type, not all of them were counted. Here are some of the notable examples:


- Question words such as أينَ  ʾayna which only takes a fixed final -a and can’t take nunation nor any other final short vowel.


- Denotations of time which grammatically usually take a final -a, such as يومَ  ''yawma'' ‘on the day’ and حينَ ''ḥīna'' ‘at the time’.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿<u>وَهُدًى وَبُشْرَى</u> لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ۝﴾</span> Q2:97 The two words also occur at 16:102 and 27:2


Old Hijazi:            <u>wa hudē wa bushrē</u> lil-mūminīn


'''<big>The mysterious letters</big>'''
Classical Arabic: <u>wa hudan wa bushrā</u> lil-muʾminīn


Unlike what the readers did with the entirety of the Quran, the mysterious letters are the only verses they didn’t force case inflection on. These letters appear at the beginning of 29 Surahs, such as Surah no.2 which begins with the three letters ألم (ALM) recited as “Alef lām mīm”. No one knows what these letters mean or why they were employed. Muslim scholars have many different explanations that are based on pure speculation.


In Hadith, which classical Arabic has been imposed on, the mysterious letters are inflected for case:
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌نَذِيرٌ ‌مُبِينٌ۝﴾</span>  Q7:184 The two words also occur at the end of 10 other verses such as 11:25, 22:49.


مَنْ قَرَأَ حَرْفًا مِنْ كِتَابِ اللَّهِ فَلَهُ بِهِ حَسَنَةٌ وَالْحَسَنَةُ بِعَشْرِ أَمْثَالِهَا لَا أَقُولُ: آلم حَرْفٌ. أَلْفٌ حَرْفٌ وَلَامٌ حَرْفٌ وَمِيمٌ حَرْفٌ
OH: nadhīr mubīn


“If anyone recites a letter of God’s Book he will be credited with a good deed, and a good deed gets a tenfold reward (Al-Qur’ān, 6:160). I do not say that ''A.L.M'' are one letter, but ''alif'' is a letter, ''lām'' is a letter and ''mīm'' is a letter.”<ref>[https://sunnah.com/mishkat:2137 Mishkat al-Masabih 2137, Book 8, Hadith 28]</ref>
CA: nadhīrun mubīn




In the Arabic text of the Hadith, the three letters are case inflected in the last part of the Hadith:
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌لَيَئُوسٌ ‌كَفُورٌ۝﴾</span>   Q11:9


''“alifun'' is a letter, ''lāmun'' is a letter and ''mīmun'' is a letter.”
OH: layaūs kafūr


Also when modern Muslim scholars cite this Hadith they pronounce the letters at the last part of the Hadith with inflection as can be heard in this video:
CA: layaʾūsun kafūr




<center><youtube>bWxjAURbMYw</youtube></center>
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌إِنَّ ‌أَخْذَهُ ‌<u>أَلِيمٌ ‌شَدِيدٌ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q11:102


Since that these letters should be inflected in Classical Arabic, why were they left without any inflection in the readings tradition? Van Putten answers:{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.200]|The form of the mysterious letters is fairly easy to understand from a situation that started out as lacking inflectional endings, which were classicized.
OH: alīm shadīd


As these mysterious letters have no obvious syntactical function, it is difficult to classicize these into an inflectional paradigm. The inverse, however, is more difficult to understand. There is no reason why the mysterious letters would be uninflected, if the base language of the Quran was inflected.}}
CA: ʾalīmun shadīd


== Evidence based on the Consonantal Text of the Quran ==
{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/43189829/Al_Jallad_2020_The_Damascus_Psalm_Fragment_Middle_Arabic_and_the_Legacy_of_Old_%E1%B8%A4ig%C4%81z%C4%AB_w_a_contribution_by_R_Vollandt Ahmad Al-Jallad, The Damascus Psalm Fragment, 2020, p.27]|most scholars have assumed that the language behind the most ancient component of the Quran, its Consonantal Text (QCT), is more or less identical to the language recited in the halls of Al-Azhar today. It is only in very recent years that the QCT has enjoyed study as an epigraphic document, interrogating the text for linguistic facts rather than assuming them. These efforts have led to a radically different view of the language of its composition.}}{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.99]|When looking to answer the question what the language of the Quran is, the reading traditions fail to give a consistent answer. They are linguistically diverse, none of them look like natural language, and they must be considered to be a concerted effort to beautify the recitation of the Quran through the use of exotic linguistic features from a variety of different dialects, augmented with completely innovative forms that do not seem to have been part of anyone’s natural speech. However, there is a source of the Quran that carries linguistic information that does go back to the very first decades of Islam: the written text itself.}}


=== The mismatch between Classical Arabic pronunciation and Spelling ===
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌لَهُمْ ‌فِيهَا ‌<u>زَفِيرٌ ‌وَشَهِيقٌ</u>۝﴾</span>   Q11:106
(for a detailed explanation see [[Internal Rhymes as Evidence for Old Hijazi|this article]])


There exists a mismatch between Arabic spelling and classical Arabic pronunciation. For example:
OH: zafīr wa shahīq


هناك كتاب جديد hunāka kitābun jadīd (that is a new book)
CA: zafīrun wa shahīq


The word Kitābun is spelled as if it were pronounced as kitāb. The final short ‘u’ vowel cannot be spelled as Arabic doesn’t write short vowels. But the final ‘n’ can be spelled, yet nunation is never written in Arabic. If it was, then the sentence would look like this:


هناك كتابن جديد
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿قَالَ اجْعَلْنِي عَلَى خَزَائِنِ الْأَرْضِ ‌إِنِّي ‌<u>حَفِيظٌ ‌عَلِيمٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q12:55


Arab grammarians tried to explain the mismatch between spelling and classical Arabic pronunciation by saying that every Arabic word is spelled in the pausal form even if the word wasn’t in a pausal position.
OH: ḥafīḍh ʕalīm


=== Pausal forms ===
CA: ḥafīḍhun ʕalīm
A pausal position means the word at the end of an utterance such as the last word of a sentence. When a word is in a pausal position, it receives special treatment in Classical Arabic:


- Neither a final short vowel nor nunation can be attached to the word.


-Due to the lack of a final short vowel, the feminine ending “ah” doesn’t change to “at”: al-madrasatu => al-madrasah.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌مَذْمُومًا ‌مَدْحُورًا۝﴾</span>   Q17:18


- The “an” marker for the indefinite accusative becomes a long ‘a’ vowel: Kitāban => Kitābā.
OH: madhmūmā madḥūrā


- The dropping of the vowel of the third person masculine singular pronoun: Kitābuhū => Kitābuh.
CA: madhmūman madḥūrā


=== Evidence Against the Pausal Spelling Rule ===
Historical linguists Van Putten and Phillip Stokes note that such a spelling convention is unique among the languages of the world<ref>Marijn Van Putten & Phillip Stokes, Case in the Quranic Consonantal Text, p7</ref> . They also challenge the pausal spelling convention by the following arguments based on the linguistic analysis of QCT:


==== 1- Internal Rhymes. ====
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿‌مَذْمُومًا ‌مَخْذُولًا۝﴾</span>   Q17:22
(for a detailed explanation see [[Internal Rhymes as Evidence for Old Hijazi|this article]])


There are Internal rhymes in the Quran that only show up if every word is pronounced in the pausal form. This means that what was thought to be a special treatment for the pronunciation of pausal words was actually the norm for almost all words in the original language of the Quran. The mismatch between the Quranic spelling and the Classical Arabic pronunciation is the result of imposing classical Arabic on a text that wasn’t written in Classical Arabic. Which means the QCT was written phonetically in Old Hijazi, a language that lacked nunation and final short vowels.
OH: madhmūmā makhdhūlā


An example of these internal rhymes is the following attribute of Allah used as a verse ending in 15 verses such as 4:26, 8:71:
CA: madhmūman makhdhūlā


عليم حكيم ʕalīmun ḥakīm (Knowing, Wise)


The first word of the pair, ʕalīm, takes the final short vowel ‘u’ plus nunation. While the second word ḥakīm is in a pausal position (the end of a verse) and hence according to Classical Arabic rules the word doesn’t take the expected ‘un’ suffix. But suffix of the first word is dropped, the two words rhymes with each other:  


ʕalīm ḥakīm
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿ إِنَّهُ كَانَ <u>ظَلُومًا ‌جَهُولً</u>ا ۝﴾</span>  Q33:72


OH: ḍhalūmā jahūlā


Which means that in the original language of the Quran, final short vowels and nunation weren’t only lost in pausal positions, but they were lost in all words (except in construct).
CA: ḍhalūman jahūlā


There are hundreds of similar examples of Old Hijazi internal rhymes. You can see all these examples [[All Examples of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran and Hadith|here]].  


==== 2- The treatment of the final -ī ====
Word-final -ī in QCT is written in some cases and omitted in others.


A thorough analysis of all words with final -ī revealed that -ī is omitted mostly in pausal positions, while kept mostly in context. This important find reveals that the spelling of the Quran isn’t based on the pausal rule. Otherwise, the treatment of the final -ī wouldn’t have changed between pausal and non-pausal positions.
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿وَإِنْ مَسَّهُ الشَّرُّ فَ<u>يَئُوسٌ ‌قَنُوطٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q41:49


An example of the treatment of final -ī:  
OH: fa yaūs qanūṭ


The possessive -ī is omitted in 143 pausal positions and never omitted in context. While it’s written in 531 context positions and 21 pausal positions.<ref>Ibid, p16</ref>
CA: fa yaʾūsun qanūṭ


==== 3- The feminine ending ‘-ah’ is only spelled as ‘-at’ in construct. ====
Most of Arabic singular feminine nouns and adjectives end with “-ah”. As in: madrasah مدرسة (school). But when these words are in a construct position, or when anything is attached to the end of these words such as a final short vowel, the feminine ‘-ah’ turns into ‘at’ in pronunciation but it remains spelled as ‘ah’.


E.g.:


al-madrasatu hunāk. المدرسة هناك (the school is there).
<span lang="en" dir="rtl">﴿مَا يَلْفِظُ مِنْ قَوْلٍ إِلَّا لَدَيْهِ <u>رَقِيبٌ عَتِيدٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q50:18


The word madrasah is the subject of this sentence so it received a final ‘u’ vowel. And since that something was attached to the end of the word, the feminine ‘ah’ of “al-madrasah” turns into ‘at’: al-madrasatu. Yet in spelling, the word is still spelled with a final ‘h’: المدرسة . That’s because in Classical Arabic spelling, the feminine ending is always spelled as ‘h’ even in construct which is a position where the feminine ending is always pronounced as ‘t’ and never as ‘h’. The QCT adheres to this spelling rule but shows some instability in many instances where the feminine ending is spelled as ‘-t’ ـت .
OH: raqīb ʕatīd


Van Putten and Stokes found that all instances where the feminine ending is spelled as ‘-t’ occurred in construct, a position where the feminine ending is always pronounced as ‘-t’ in all forms of Arabic including Classical Arabic and modern Arabic dialects. The incidence of the ‘-t’ spelling is 47 (22%) out of 218 total of feminine constructs present in the QCT. The rest of the feminine words in construct were spelled as ‘-h’.
CA: raqībun ʕatīd


“The best way to understand these spellings then, is as inconsistencies of orthography by the scribe, who would occasionally write the construct feminine the way he pronounced it, rather than the non-phonetic orthographic practice to write it with ‘-h’ ـه.” {{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/37481811/Case_in_the_Qur%CB%80%C4%81nic_Consonantal_Text_Wiener_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_die_Kunde_des_Morgenlandes_108_2018_pp_143_179, Marijn Van Putten & Phillip Stokes, Case in the Quranic Consonantal Text, p.23]|The fact that this hāʔ only shows up in pausal position, is yet another piece of evidence that ‘pausal spelling’ is not a governing principle in Quranic orthography. Had that been the case, all apocopates and imperatives should have received a final h, not just the one that stand in a pausal position.}}


As for the other thousands of instances where feminine words aren’t in construct, QCT spells them all with ‘-h’ although most of them are in positions where they should receive final short vowels which turns the feminine ending to ‘-t’. The 22% incidence of the ‘-t’ spelling in construct and the total lack of the ‘-t’ spelling in non-construct proves that in the language of QCT, the construct is the only position that allows turning the feminine ending into ‘-t’. Which means the QCT language lacked final short vowels which explains why there wasn’t any incidence of the ‘-t’ spelling in non-construct. 
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَيَبْقَى وَجْهُ رَبِّكَ ذُو <u>الْجَلَالِ وَالْإِكْرَامِ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q55:27


==== 4- The pausal hāʾ هاء السكت ====
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ذِي <u>الْجَلَالِ وَالْإِكْرَامِ</u> ۝﴾</span>  Q55:78
This hāʾ is used in the Quran several times for rhyming purposes, except in two instances:


- The word ‘yatasannah’ (yatasanna+h) in 2:259
OH: l-jalāl wal-ikram


فَٱنظُرۡ إِلَىٰ طَعَامِكَ وَشَرَابِكَ لَمۡ ‌يَتَسَنَّهۡۖ 
CA: l-jalāli wal-ʾikram


The original form of the word is ‘yatasannā’ يتسنى (yatasannē in Old Hijazi), but the final long vowel is shortened because the word is preceded by the jussive negating particle ‘lam’, yielding the jussive form: yatasanna. Which makes the word an apocopate (a word whose final sound is omitted).    


- The imperative word ‘iqtadih’ (iqtadi+h) in 6:90:
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَكَانَتِ الْجِبَالُ ‌<u>كَثِيبًا ‌مَهِيلًا</u>۝﴾</span>  Q73:14


أُوْلَٰٓئِكَ ٱلَّذِينَ هَدَى ٱللَّهُۖ فَبِهُدَىٰهُمُ ‌ٱقۡتَدِهۡۗ  
OH: kathībā mahīlā


The previous two words, yatasannah and iqtadih, are the only two times an apocopate and an imperative occur in in a pausal position. And both of them received a final ‘h’. Which means in the language of QCT, an apocopate or an imperative receives a final ‘h’ in pause.
CA: kathīban mahīlā


{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.291]|The fact that this hāʔ only shows up in pausal position, is yet another piece of evidence that ‘pausal spelling’ is not a governing principle in Quranic orthography. Had that been the case, all apocopates and imperatives should have received a final h, not just the one that stand in a pausal position.}}


== The Hamzah in the Quranic Reading Traditions ==
Q89:19-22
The use of Hamzah is among the differences in linguistic characteristics between the 10 canonical readings. A lot of the readings, including the reading of Ḥafṣ, heavily use the Hamzah while other readings use it moderately. The Hamzah isn’t an original part of the Quran (except in word-final Hamzah that’s preceded by the long vowel ā). There are reports clearly showing that the Hamzah was a later addition. One of these reports says that Nāfiʕ, the founder of one of the ten canonical readings, was asked if it’s possible to introduce the Hamzah to (the two words in the Quran) “al-dhīb” and “al-bīr”. He replied: “If there are Arabs who use the Hamzah with these words then you can use the Hamzah”<ref>السبعة في القراءات لابن مجاهد، ص346، تحقيق شوقي ضيف


Al-Sabʕah Fil-Qirāʾāt, Tahqiq by Shawqi Ḍayf, p.346, </ref>.
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿وَتَأْكُلُونَ التُّرَاثَ <u>أَكْلًا لَمًّا</u> (١٩) وَتُحِبُّونَ الْمَالَ <u>حُبًّا جَمًّا</u> (٢٠) كَلَّا إِذَا دُكَّتِ الْأَرْضُ <u>دَكًّا دَكًّا (</u>٢١) وَجَاءَ رَبُّكَ وَالْمَلَكُ <u>صَفًّا صَفًّا</u> (٢٢) ﴾</span>  


Khalaf, another founder of one of the ten canonical readings, says: “Quraish (Muhammad’s tribe) doesn't use the Hamzah. It's not in their dialect. The eponymous readers took the Hamzah from non-Quraishi dialects.”<ref>رسم  المصحف لغانم قدوري ص357
OH: …aklā lammā۝…ḥubbā jammā۝…dakkā dakkā۝…ṣaffā ṣaffā۝


Ghanim Qadduuri, Rasm Al-Mishaf, p357</ref>
CA: …aklan lammā۝…ḥubban jammā۝…dakkan dakkā۝…ṣaffan ṣaffā۝


Khalaf’s statement agrees with what early grammarians report. Mukhtār Al-Ghawth says in his book "The dialect of Quraish": “Since that the Hamzah is hard to pronounce, some early Arabic dialects leaned towards dropping the hamzah. This was most notable in the dialect of Quraish as all early sources agree that this dialect lacked the hamzah.”  p.39
'''<big>C- Some examples of Internal rhymes where the rhyming words don't share identical final long vowels.</big>'''


The enforcement of Hamzah on the Quran is apparent in the instances of pseudo-correct application of the Hamzah. Van Putten lists 12 examples<ref>Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.158-167</ref> of such cases, such as the word kās كاس (cup) which is read as kaʾs in all canonical readings.


{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/71626921/Quranic_Arabic_From_its_Hijazi_Origins_to_its_Classical_Reading_Traditions_Studies_in_Semitic_Languages_and_Linguistics_106 Marijn Van Putten, Quranic Arabic, p.167]|Comparative Semitic evidence shows that kaʔs ‘cup’ must have a pseudocorrect hamzah in Arabic. The reflexes in Hebrew כוס kos (spelled without aleph) and Aramaic kās as well as Ugaritic ⟨ks⟩ leave no doubt that the reconstruction of this noun in Proto-West Semitic is *kās and the hamzah in the Quranic reading traditions must be pseudocorrect.}}
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿فَقَالَ رَبِّ إِنِّي لِمَا أَنْزَلْتَ إِلَيَّ ‌مِنْ ‌<u>خَيْرٍ ‌فَقِيرٌ</u> ۝﴾</span>   Q28:24


== The Hamzah and the Consonantal Text of the Quran ==
OH: khayr faqīr
[[File:الهمزات بين القديم والحديث.jpg|thumb|A table showing how the Hamzah is written in standard and pre-standard Arabic|450x450px]]
The consonantal text of the Quran provides evidence that the original language of the Quran lacked the Hamzah.


<big>'''A- The introduction of the Hamzah breaks the rhyme in the following verses'''<ref>Marijn Van Putten, [https://www.academia.edu/35556452/Hamzah_in_the_Quranic_Consonantal_Text_Orientalia_87_1_2018_pp_93_120 Hamzah in the Quranic Consonantal Text], 2018, p.101</ref>''':'''</big>
CA: khayrin faqīr


1- In Surah Ar-raḥmān (No.55), all verse-final words end with “ān”:


ar-raḥmān, al-qurʾān, al-ʾinsān…etc. الرحمن، القرآن، الإنسان
<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿ مِنْ كُلِّ ‌<u>زَوْجٍ ‌بَهِيجٍ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q22:5, 50:7


Verse no.29 ends with the word shaʾn شأن  (with the Hamzah). By dropping the Hamzah from the word it becomes shān شان and thus the word fits the Surah’s rhyme.
OH: zawj bahīj


Al-Farrāʾ, an early Arab grammarian, noted this when he said<ref>معاني القرآن للفراء، ج3 ص116، دار المصرية
CA: zawjin bahīj


Al- Farrāʾ, maʕāni l-qurʾān, vol.3 p.116</ref>: You can use the Hamzah with the word “shaʾn” in the entirety of the Quran except for the one in Surah ar- raḥmān (No.55) because the word comes in the middle of verses that lack the Hamzah.


<span dir="rtl" lang="en">﴿فِي <u>سَمُومٍ وَحَمِيمٍ</u>۝﴾</span>  Q56:42


2- In Surah no.19, the rhyme is a short vowel + yyā: zakariyyaā, khafiyyā, shaqiyyā...etc.
OH: samūm waḥamīm


زكريَّا، خفيَّا، شقيَّا
CA: samūmin waḥamīm
==A list of All Verse-Final Attributes of Allah that Form Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes==
'''<big>A- The two words share an identical final consonant.</big>'''


Verses 9, 42, 60 and 67 end with the word: shayʾā شيئا.
ʕalīm ḥakīm عليم حكيم “Knower, Wise” (15 attestations, such as 9:15,28,60,97,106,110)


By dropping the hamzah, the word becomes: shayyā شيَّا .
    ʕalīmā ḥakīmā عليما حكيما (10 attestations, such as 4:11,17,24,92,104,111,170)


The reading tradition of ḥamzah reads the word shayʾā without the hamzah.
  ḥakīm ʕalīm حكيم عليم “Wise, Knower”  (5, such as 6:83,128,139)


ghafūr shakūr غفور شكور “Forgiving, Appreciative” (35:30,34 , 42:23)


3- Verse 47 of the same Surah ends with the word riʾyā رئيا . Without the Hamzah the word becomes: riyyā. It’s read as such in the reading of ḥamzah.
ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم “Knower, ­Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)


    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā  عليما حليما (33:51)


4- In Surah no.96, verses from 15 to 18 end with the following words:
khabīr baṣīr خبير بصير “Aware, Seeing” (35:31, 42:27)


nāṣiyah, khāṭiʾah, nādiyah, zabāniyah.
    khabīrā baṣīrā خبيرا بصيرا(17:17,30,96)


كَلَّا لَئِنْ لَمْ يَنْتَهِ لَنَسْفَعًا بِالنَّاصِيَةِ (15) نَاصِيَةٍ كَاذِبَةٍ خَاطِئَةٍ (16) فَلْيَدْعُ نَادِيَهُ (17) سَنَدْعُ الزَّبَانِيَةَ (18)
ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم  “Knower, Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)


By dropping the Hamzah from the word khāṭiʾah, the word perfectly rhymes with the final words of the surrounding verses:
    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā عليما حليما (33:51)


nāṣiyah, khāṭiyah, nādiyah, zabāniyah.
qarīb mujīb قريب مجيب  “Near, Responsive” (11:61)


The reading of Abū jaʕfar reads it as khāṭiyah.
ḥamīd majīd حميد مجيد “Owner of Praise, Owner of Glory” (11:73)


===B- The two words don't share an identical final consonant.===
Note that in the rhyming of verse-final words (external rhymes), the Quran usually alternates between ūn and īn, which means that in the language of the Quran, ū rhymes with ī. Thus it’s natural to see internal rhymes such as غفور رحيم ghafūr raḥīm.


5- In surah no.69, verses 8-10 end with following words:
ghafūr raḥīm  غفور رحيم “Forgiving, Merciful” (49 attestations, such as 2:173,182,192)


Bāqiyah, khāṭiʾah, rābiyah.
      ghafūrā raḥīmā غفورا رحيما (15, such as 4:23,96,100,106)


فَهَلْ تَرَى لَهُمْ مِنْ بَاقِيَةٍ (8) وَجَاءَ فِرْعَوْنُ وَمَنْ قَبْلَهُ وَالْمُؤْتَفِكَاتُ بِالْخَاطِئَةِ (9) فَعَصَوْا رَسُولَ رَبِّهِمْ فَأَخَذَهُمْ أَخْذَةً رَابِيَةً (10)
ʕazīz ḥakīm عزيز حكيم “Mighty, Wise” (13, such as 8:10,49,63)


By dropping the Hamzah from khāṭiʾah, it becomes: khāṭiyah خاطية. It’s read as such in the reading of Abū jaʕfar.
      ʕazīzā ḥakīmā عزيزا حكيما (5, such as 4:56,158,165)


The second evidence the QCT provides for the lack of Hamzah:
samīʕ ʕalīm  سميع عليم “Hearer, Knower “(16, such as 8:17,42,53)


'''<big>B- The shapes the Hamzah takes in the QCT.</big>'''
raūf raḥīm  رؤوف رحيم “Kind, Merciful” (9, such as 16:7,47)


The sign for the Hamzah in Arabic is ء. But the Hamzah in Arabic orthography is rarely written with the Hamzah sign ء alone. In most cases, the Hamzah is written by adding the Hamzah symbol to one of the three vowel letters like this:
ghafūr ḥalīm  غفور حليم “Forgiving, Forbearing” (4, such as 5:101)


  أ ؤ ئ
ḥalīmā ghafūrā حليما غفورا “Forbearing, Forgiving” (17:44, 35:41)


The letter for a long 'a' vowel is Alef ا . As in: kitāb (book). كتاب
ʕalīm khabīr عليم خبير “Knower, Aware” (31:34, 49:13)


The letter for a long 'u' vowel or the 'w' sound is: و . As in: rʕḥ (soul) روح
    ʕalīma khabīrā عليما خبيرا (4:35)


The letter for a long 'i' vowel or the 'y' sound is: ي , يـ . As in: fī (in) في
ḥakīm khabīr حكيم خبير “Wise, Aware” (11:1)


laṭīf khabīr  لطيف خبير  “Subtle, Aware” (22:63, 31:16)


All these different forms: ء , ئ , ؤ, أ are pronounced the same: a glottal stop.
     laṭīfā khabīrā   لطيفا خبيرا  (33:34)


The Hamzah takes all these different shapes because Arabic orthography was standardized based on the QCT which represents a dialect that lacks the hamzah.<ref>Marijn Van Putten, Hamzah in the Quranic Consonantal Text, 2018, p.94</ref>
samīʕ baṣīr سميع بصير “Hearer, Seer” (4, such as 22:61)


    samīʕā baṣīrā سميعا بصيرا (3, such as 4:58)


In many cases, the dropping of Hamzah leads to the creation of a long vowel, the w sound or the y sound. Prior to the standardization of Arabic orthography, the Alef used to be the symbol of the Hamzah or the long vowel ā. For example, the word for "believer" is مؤمن muʾmin. Before the first half of the first century of Islam, Arabs who had the Hamzah in their dialects wrote this word as مامن . The Alef is the sign for the Hamzah in this word. But for Arabs who didn't have the Hamzah like Quraish, they wrote the word like this: mūmin مومن . It’s written as such because the dropping of the Hamzah in this word creates the long vowel ū. That's why in the QCT the word is written as مومن  instead of مامن.
ʕalīm qadīr  عليم قدير  “Knower, Powerful” (16:70, 42:50)


   ʕalīmā qadīrā عليما قديرا  (35:44)


Nearly 25 years after the death of the prophet, the third caliph Uthman decided to create a standard copy of the Quran to put an end to disputes over the different readings of the Quran. He assigned the job to a team of scribes most of whom belonged to the Quraishi tribe. This standard copy that Uthman assembled is called the Uthmanic Quran. All Qurans in the world today follow the exact script of the Uthmanic Quran (QCT) except for signs that were later invented like the dots, the Hamzah and diacritics short vowels.
ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم  “Knower, Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)


In the original Uthmanic text that lacks diacritics (QCT), the Hamzah is only written when it's located at the beginning of a word. That's because in the dialect of Quraish, the Hamzah is only pronounced when it's at the beginning of speech.
    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā عليما حليما (33:51)


Example:اغفر "ighfir" . Note that the Hamzah is written as an Alef because the Alef was the symbol for Hamzah or the long vowel ā.
ʕazīz ghafūr  عزيز غفور “Mighty, Forgiving” (35:28)


After Uthman created the standard copy of the Quran, he sent copies to all different regions of the caliphate. The inhabitants of these regions started basing their Arabic orthography on these Qurans. So an Arab who had the Hamzah in his dialect started writing the word muʾmin as مومن  instead of مامن although he kept pronouncing the Hamzah in it. One century later when the sign of Hamzah ء  was created, those Arabs who had the Hamzah in their dialects added the Hamzah sign over the long vowels, turning words like
raḥīm wadūd رحيم ودود “Merciful, Loving” (11:90)


Mūmin muʾmin
ḥakīm ḥamīd حكيم حميد “Wise, Owner of Praise” (41:42)


Yastahzī yastahziʾ
shakūr ḥalīm شكور حليم “Appreciative, Forbearing” (64:17)


Rās raʾs
samīʕ qarīb سميع قريب “Hearer, Near” (34:50)
<br />


مومن to مؤمن.  
==Examples of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in Hadith==
Due to the vast size of the Hadith corpus, it wasn’t possible for Idris Al-Arabi to scan the entirety of it for internal rhymes the same way he did with the Quran. Since that prayers tend to be poetic, Idris looked into Hadith collections of prayers and found most of the following internal rhymes.


يستهزي to يستهزئ


راس to رأس
The first internal rhyme is from the seven aḥruf Hadith listed in a huge number of Hadith sources. The two rhyming words in this Hadith always come at a possible pausal position and sometimes at the end of the Hadith, such as:


<ref>مصنف ابن أبي شيبة، ج6 ص137، دار التاج


That's why Arabic today writes the Hamzah in four different shapes: ء, أ, ؤ, ئ
Musannaf of Ibn Abi Shaybah, vol.6 p.137, Dar Al-Taj</ref>«نَزَلَ الْقُرْآنُ عَلَى سَبْعَةِ أَحْرُفٍ كُلٌّ ‌<u>شَافٍ ‌كَافٍ</u>»


The Iraqi Quran scholar and linguist Ghānim Qaddūrī says: {{Quote|Ghānim Qaddūrī, Rasm Al-Miṣḥaf, 1982, p.575-577|After Uthman sent copies of the standardized Quran to the different regions of the caliphate, these copies became the reference not only in recitation but also in orthography. (Note: The "newly formed societies" in the next line means the cities in Iraq that were formed after the Muslim conquest of Iraq, especially the cities of Kūfah and Baṣrah which were the capitols of Arab grammarians).
Old Hijazi:            shāf kāf


The Arabic language in the newly formed societies went through a phase of linguistic mixing between the dialects of the people of the Arabian peninsula (who migrated to these newly formed cities). The Arabic language there started adopting the hamzah. This was boosted by:
Classical Arabic: shāfin kāf, or shāfin kāfī


1- The adoption of Hamzah by the scholarly movement of Iraq because the scholars tended to study the Arabic of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia (whose dialects use the hamzah).


2- Iraq is open and connected to central Arabia.
The second example is from a popular prayer that’s said after the call of prayer (adhān):


3- Many central Arabian tribes migrated to Iraq.
أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ: " مَنْ قَالَ حِينَ يَسْمَعُ النِّدَاءَ: اللَّهُمَّ رَبَّ هَذِهِ الدَّعْوَةِ التَّامَّةِ، وَالصَّلَاةِ القَائِمَةِ آتِ مُحَمَّدًا ‌<u>الوَسِيلَةَ ‌وَالفَضِيلَةَ</u>، وَابْعَثْهُ مَقَامًا مَحْمُودًا الَّذِي وَعَدْتَهُ، حَلَّتْ لَهُ شَفَاعَتِي يَوْمَ القِيَامَةِ "<ref>صحيح البخاري، ج1 ص126، ط السلطانية


People started writing the Hamzah as one of the three letters ا ي و  following the steps of the Uthmanic script. It became forgotten that the Alef is the supposed shape of hamzah. And it became forgotten that the Uthmanic Qurans were written in the dialect of the people of Hijaz who drop the hamzah. People were careful to follow the Uthmanic Quranic text which was agreed upon by the prophet's companions. This made people stick to the shapes of words as written in Uthmanic text. The Hamzah in the Uthmanic text was written as the vowels  و ي ا . So when people copied this orthography, they added dots over these letters to indicate the hamzahs. Then the dot changed to the ء symbol after Al-Khalīl invented it.}}
Sahih Al-Bukhari, Vol.1 p.126, published by Al-Sultaniah</ref>


Old Hijazi:           al-wasīlah wal-faḍīlah
Classical Arabic: al-wasīlata wal-faḍīlah
<ref>صحيح مسلم، ج1 ص412، تحقيق عبد الباقي
Sahih Muslim, vol.1 p.412, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi</ref>أَنَّ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ كَانَ يَدْعُو فِي الصَّلَاةِ اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ عَذَابِ الْقَبْرِ ، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ فِتْنَةِ الْمَسِيحِ الدَّجَّالِ ، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ فِتْنَةِ الْمَحْيَا وَالْمَمَاتِ ، اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ <u>الْمَأْثَمِ وَ الْمَغْرَمِ</u>.
Old Hijazi:            al-mātham wal-maghram
Classical Arabic: al-maʾthami wal-maghram
<ref>سنن أبي داود، ج2 ص645، تحقيق شعيب الأرنؤوط
Sunan Abi Dawud, vol.2 p.645, Tahqiq by Shuayb Arnaut</ref>قَالَ أَبُو هُرَيْرَةَ إِنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم كَانَ يَدْعُو ‏ "‏ اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ ا<u>لشِّقَاقِ وَالنِّفَاقِ</u> وَسُوءِ <u>الأَخْلاَقِ ‏</u>"‏ ‏.
OH: min <u>al-shiqāq wal-nifāq</u> wa suww <u>al-akhlāq</u>
CA: mina <u>l-shiqāqi wal-nifāqi</u> wa sūʾi <u>l-ʾakhlāq</u>
<ref>تفسير الطبري في ج12 ص100 دار التربية
Tafsir Al-Tabari, vol.12 p.100, Dar Al-Tarbiyah</ref><span dir="rtl" lang="en">إِذَا دَخَلَ النُّورُ الْقَلْبَ انْفَسَحَ وَانْشَرَحَ.</span>
OH: infasaḥ wa-nsharaḥ
CA: infasaḥa wa-nsharaḥ
((<u>لَبَّيْكَ وَسَعْدَيْكَ</u> وَالْخَيْرُ كُلُّهُ فِي يَدَيْكَ، وَالشَّرُّ لَيْسَ إِلَيْكَ، أَنَا بِكَ وَإِلَيْكَ، ‌تَبَارَكْتَ ‌وَتَعَالَيْتَ، أَسْتَغْفِرُكَ وَأَتُوبُ إِلَيْكَ...اللهُمَّ اغْفِرْ لِي <u>مَا قَدَّمْتُ وَمَا أَخَّرْتُ</u>، <u>وَمَا أَسْرَرْتُ وَمَا أَعْلَنْتُ، وَمَا أَسْرَفْتُ</u>، وَمَا أَنْتَ أَعْلَمُ بِهِ مِنِّي، أَنْتَ الْمُقَدِّمُ وَأَنْتَ الْمُؤَخِّرُ، لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا أَنْتَ)). <ref>صحيح مسلم، ج1 ص534، تحقيق عبد الباقي
Sahih Muslim, vol.1 p.534, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi</ref>
This is a prayer that contains many internal rhymes:
OH: labbayk wa saʕdayk (pause)  tabārakt wa taʕālayt (pause)… mā qaddamt wa mā akhkhart (pause) wa mā asrart wa mā aʕlant (pause) wa mā asraft (pause)
CA: labbayka wa saʕdayk (pause) tabārakta wa taʕālayt (pause)… mā qaddamtu wa mā ʾakhkhart (pause) wa mā ʾasrartu wa mā ʾaʕlant (pause) wa mā ʾasraft (pause)
<ref>سنن ابن ماجه، ج5 ص17، دار الرسالة العلمية
(Sunan Ibn Majah, vol.5 p.17, Dar Al-Risalah Al-ʿilmiyyah)</ref><span dir="rtl" lang="en">اللَّهمَّ إنِّي أسألُكَ مِنَ الخيرِ كلِّهِ <u>عاجلِهِ وآجلِهِ</u> ، ما عَلِمْتُ منهُ وما لم أعلَمْ ، وأعوذُ بِكَ منَ الشَّرِّ كلِّهِ <u>عاجلِهِ وآجلِهِ</u> ، ما عَلِمْتُ منهُ وما لم أعلَمْ.</span>
OH: ʕājilih wa ājilih
CA: ʕājilihī wa ʾājilih
<ref>صحيح مسلم ج2 ص697 تحقيق عبد الباقي
Sahih Muslim, vol.2 p.697, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi</ref><span dir="rtl" lang="en">أَنَّ نَاسًا مِنْ أَصْحَابِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالُوا لِلنَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ: يَا رَسُولَ اللهِ، ذَهَبَ أَهْلُ ‌<u>الدُّثُورِ ‌بِالْأُجُو</u>رِ، يُصَلُّونَ كَمَا نُصَلِّي، وَيَصُومُونَ كَمَا نَصُومُ، وَيَتَصَدَّقُونَ بِفُضُولِ أَمْوَالِهِمْ.</span>
OH: ahlu d-duthūr bil-ujūr
CA: ʾahlu d-duthūri bil-ʾujūr
<ref>الدعوات الكبير للبيهقي، تحقيق بدر البدر، ج2 ص147
Al-Daʕawāt al-kabīr by Albayhaqī, vol.2 p.147, Tahqiq by Badr Al-Badr</ref><span dir="rtl" lang="en">اللَّهُمَّ هَبْ لِي قَلْبًا <u>‌تَقِيًّا ‌نَقِيًّا</u> مِنَ الشَّرِّ بَرِيئا لَا كَافِرًا وَلَا شَقِيًّا.</span>
OH: qalbā <u>taqiyyā naqiyyā</u> (pause) min al-sharr bariyyā (pause) lā kāfirā wa lā shaqiyyā.
CA: qalban <u>taqiyyan naqiyyā</u> (pause) mina l-sharri barīʾā (pause) lā kāfiran wa lā shaqiyyā.
Note how the word “bariyyā” only rhymes without the hamzah.
<ref>الآحاد والمثاني لابن أبي عاصم» (3/ 460)
Al-ʾāḥād wal-mathānī by Ibn Abī ʕāṣim, vol.3 p.460, Dār Al-Rāyah</ref>«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الْهَدْمِ وَالتَّرَدِّي وَالْهَرَمِ ‌<u>وَالْغَرَقِ ‌وَالْحَرَقِ</u> وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ إِنْ يَتَخَبَّطَنِي الشَّيْطَانُ عِنْدَ الْمَوْتِ وَأَنْ أُقْتَلَ فِي سَبِيلِكَ مُدْبِرًا أَوْ أَمُوتَ لَدِيغًا»
OH: wal-gharaq wal-ḥaraq
CA: wal-gharaqi wal-ḥaraq
<ref>مصنف ابن أبي شيبة (6/ 33 تحقيق الحوت)
Al-Musannaf by Ibn Abi Shaybah, vol.6 p.33, Tahqiq by Al-Hout</ref>«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَسْأَلُكَ عِلْمًا نَافِعًا، وَرِزْقًا طَيِّبًا، ‌<u>وَعَمَلًا ‌مُتَقَبَّلًا</u>»
OH: wa ʕamalā mutaqabbalā
CA: wa ʕamalan mutaqabbalā
<ref>مسند أحمد، ج37 ص355 ط الرسالة
Musnad Ahmad, vol.37 p.355, Al-Risalah</ref>" جَاهِدُوا فِي سَبِيلِ اللهِ؛ فَإِنَّ الْجِهَادَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللهِ بَابٌ مِنْ أَبْوَابِ الْجَنَّةِ يُنَجِّي اللهُ بِهِ مِنَ ‌<u>الْهَمِّ ‌وَالْغَمِّ</u> "
OH: min al-hamm wal-ghamm
CA: mina l-hammi wal-ghamm
<ref>مسند أحمد، ج13 ص418 ط الرسالة
Musnad Ahmad, vol.13 p.418, Al-Risalah</ref>" اللهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الْفَقْرِ ‌<u>وَالْقِلَّةِ ‌وَالذِّلَّةِ</u>، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ أَنْ أَظْلِمَ أَوْ أُظْلَمَ "
OH: wal-qillah wal-dhillah
CA: wal-qillati wal-dhillah
<ref>مسند أبي داود الطيالسي، ج2 ص84، دار هجر
Musnad Abi Dawud Al-Tayalisi, vol.2 p.84, Dar Hajr</ref>«اللَّهُمَّ ‌قِنِي <u>‌عَذَابَكَ</u> يَوْمَ ‌تَبْعَثُ <u>‌عِبَادَكَ</u>»
OH: allāhumm qinī <u>ʕadhābak</u> yawm tabʕath <u>ʕibādak</u>
CA: allāhumma qinī <u>ʕadhābaka</u> yawma tabʕathu <u>ʕibādak</u>
<ref>مسند أبي داود الطيالسي، ج2 ص199، دار هجر
Musnad Abi Dawud Al-Tayalisi, vol.2 p.199, Dar Hajr</ref>«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ ‌<u>الْكُفْرِ ‌وَالْفَقْرِ</u>، اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ عَذَابِ الْقَبْرِ لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا أَنْتَ»
OH: min <u>al-kufr wal-faqr</u> (pause)… min ʕadhāb al-qabr (pause)
CA: mina <u>l-kufri wal-faqr</u> (pause)… min ʕadhābi l-qabr (pause)
كان رسول الله صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيهِ وَسَلَّمَ إذا قام من الليل كبَّر، ثم يقول:
"سبحانك اللهم! وبحمدك، وتبارك اسمك، وتعالى جدك، ولا إله غيرك"، ثم يقول: "لا إله إلا الله" ثلاثًا، ثم يقول:
<ref>سنن أبي داود تحقيق الأرنؤوط، ج2 ص82
Sunan Abi Dawud, vol.2 p.82, Tahqiq by Shuayb Arnaut</ref>"الله أكبر كبيرًا" -ثلاثًا- أعوذ بالله السميع العليم من الشيطان الرجيم؛ من ‌<u>همزه ونفخه ونفثه</u>" ثم يقرأ.
OH: min hamzih wa nafkhih wa nafthih
CA: min hamzihī wa nafkhihī wa nafthih
==External Links==
Idris AlArabi--[https://edristhearab.blogspot.com/2023/02/a-list-of-old-hijazi-internal-rhymes-in.html A list of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran and Hadith]
==References==
==References==
<references />
<references />

Revision as of 07:41, 18 September 2025

This is a comprehensive list of internal rhymes in the Quran and Hadith that only appear if the text is read in Old Hijazi. This list is taken from a blogpost by Idris Al-Arabi.

Most of the examples include two words that internally rhyme with each other. The second of the two words in the majority of cases comes in a pausal position and thus in classical Arabic it loses its final short vowel and nunation while the first word keeps them. Removing the final short vowel and nunation from the first word reveals that the first word rhymes with the second word which means that the original language of the Quran (Old Hijazi) lacked final short vowels and nunation.

The ending of a verse is a certain pausal position. There are also mid-verse pausal positions. Quranic recitation rules (Tajwīd), as set by Muslim scholars, state that during recitation one should avoid pausing at a non-pausal position except when he runs out of breath. To aid the reciter with this, modern prints of the Quran include marks which show where it’s possible to pause in the middle of a verse. The position of such a mark in a verse is determined by scholars based on the meaning and the grammar of the verse. For example, the following verse has four mid-verse pausal signs. You can notice that the pausal positions fit the meaning and context:

فَإِنْ حَآجُّوكَ فَقُلْ أَسْلَمْتُ وَجْهِىَ لِلَّهِ وَمَنِ ٱتَّبَعَنِ ۗ وَقُل لِّلَّذِينَ أُوتُوا۟ ٱلْكِتَٰبَ وَٱلْأُمِّيِّۦنَ ءَأَسْلَمْتُمْ ۚ فَإِنْ أَسْلَمُوا۟ فَقَدِ ٱهْتَدَوا۟ ۖ وَّإِن تَوَلَّوْا۟ فَإِنَّمَا عَلَيْكَ ٱلْبَلَٰغُ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ بَصِيرٌۢ بِٱلْعِبَادِ

So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." (Pausal position) And say to those who were given the Scripture and [to] the unlearned, "Have you submitted yourselves?" (Pausal position) And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided;(Pausal position) but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. (Pausal position) And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.
Quran 3:20


The four pausal sings and their meanings:

(مـ) pausing is mandatory.

(ج) pausing is allowed.

(صلى) pausing is allowed but continuation is preferred.

(قلى) continuation is allowed but pausing is preferred.


The type of the pause and its position are the work of the scholars. There’s no way to verify if these mid-verse pauses agree with how the Quran used to be recited at the time of Muhammad. It’s also obvious that scholars have missed marking a lot of possible pausal positions. To keep things simple, this article does not count Old Hijazi internal rhymes that come at possible pausal positions if these positions were not marked in modern Qurans with pausal signs.

In some of the examples, none of the two rhyming words comes in a pausal position. Yet the two words only rhyme with each other in Old Hijazi because each word has a different classical Arabic final short vowel or nunation and thus the two words don’t rhyme with each other in classical Arabic. Removing these final short vowels and nunation reveals that the two words in their original forms rhyme with each other. An example of this type:

وَأَنْزَلْنَا ‌الْحَدِيدَ فِيهِ بَأْسٌ شَدِيدٌ وَمَنَافِعُ لِلنَّاسِ

Old Hijazi:           wa anzalna l-ḥadīd fīh bās shadīd wa manāfiʕ lin-nās...

Classical Arabic: wa ʾanzalna l-ḥadīda fīhi baʾsun shadīdun wa manāfiʕu lin-nās...
Quran 57:25


Classes of Old Hijazi internal rhymes

1- Individual instances. This includes 74 unique examples (91 with repetition) where the rhyming words share identical final consonants. As for examples where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants, they were so many that only the strongest 15 unique instances were counted, however there are many more than this.

2- Verse-final attributes of Allah. The majority of internal rhymes in the Quran fall under this type. Of this type, there are 12 (46 with repetition) examples where the rhyming words share identical final consonants. As for examples where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants, there are 24 unique ones, 142 counting repeated occurrences.


A list of Individual Instances of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran

A- Internal rhymes where the rhyming words share identical final consonants:

﴿وَلِلْكَافِرِينَ عَذَابٌ مُهِينٌ۝﴾ Q2:90, 58:5

Old Hijazi:           wa lil-kāfirīn ʕadhāb muhīn.

Classical Arabic: wa lil-kāfirīna ʕadhābun muhīn.


﴿وَاللَّهُ ‌عَلِيمٌ ‌بِالظَّالِمِينَ۝﴾ Q2:95,246 , 9:47, 62:7

Old Hijazi:            wal-lāh ʕalīm biḍh-ḍhālimīn.

Classical Arabic: wal-lāhu ʕalīmun biḍh-ḍhālimīn.

Note: Due to the strong similarity between the "n" and "m" sounds, the Quran doesn't distinguish between the two when it comes to rhymes as seen for example in the first Surah of the Quran whose verse-final words are: al-ʕālamīn, ar-raḥīm, ad-dīn, nastaʕīn, al-mustaqīm, aḍ-ḍāllīn.


﴿وَمَا أُنْزِلَ عَلَى الْمَلَكَيْنِ بِبَابِلَ هَارُوتَ وَمَارُوتَ ۚ وَمَا يُعَلِّمَانِ مِنْ أَحَدٍ حَتَّى...۝﴾ Q2:102

OH: harūt wa mārūt

CA: harūta wa mārūt


﴿إِنَّا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ بِالْحَقِّ بَشِيرًا وَنَذِيرًا ۖ وَلَا تُسْأَلُ عَنْ أَصْحَابِ الْجَحِيمِ۝﴾ Q2:119, 35:24. Plus 3 other attestations where the second word isn’t in a pausal position.

OH: bashīrā wa nadhīrā

CA: bashīran wa nadhīrā


﴿وَلِلْكَافِرِينَ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ۝﴾   Q2:104 Q58:4

OH: wa lil-kāfirīn ʕadhāb alīm

CA: wa lil-kāfirīna ʕadhābun ʾalīm


﴿إِذْ تَبَرَّأَ الَّذِينَ اتُّبِعُوا مِنَ الَّذِينَ اتَّبَعُوا وَرَأَوُا الْعَذَابَ وَتَقَطَّعَتْ بِهِمُ الْأَسْبَابُ ۝﴾  Q2:166

OH: warāu l-ʕadhāb wa taqaṭṭaʕat bihumu l-asbāb

CA: waraʾawu l-ʕadhāba wa taqaṭṭaʕat bihimu l-ʾasbāb


﴿وَمَثَلُ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا كَمَثَلِ الَّذِي يَنْعِقُ بِمَا لَا يَسْمَعُ إِلَّا ‌دُعَاءً وَنِدَاءًۚ صُمٌّ بُكْمٌ عُمْيٌ فَهُمْ لَا يَعْقِلُونَ ۝﴾ Q2:171

OH: duʕāʾā wa nidāʾā

CA: duʕāʾan wa nidāʾā


﴿شَهْرُ رَمَضَانَ الَّذِي أُنْزِلَ فِيهِ الْقُرْآنُ هُدًى لِلنَّاسِ وَبَيِّنَاتٍ مِنَ الْهُدَى وَالْفُرْقَانِۚ فَمَنْ شَهِدَ مِنْكُمُ الشَّهْرَ فَلْيَصُمْهُ وَمَنْ كَانَ مَرِيضًا أَوْ عَلَى سَفَرٍ فَعِدَّةٌ مِنْ أَيَّامٍ أُخَرَۗ يُرِيدُ اللَّهُ بِكُمُ الْيُسْرَ وَلَا يُرِيدُ بِكُمُ الْعُسْرَ وَلِتُكْمِلُوا الْعِدَّةَ وَلِتُكَبِّرُوا اللَّهَ عَلَى مَا هَدَاكُمْ وَلَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ (١٨٥) وَإِذَا سَأَلَكَ عِبَادِي عَنِّي فَإِنِّي قَرِيبٌ ۖ أُجِيبُ دَعْوَةَ الدَّاعِ إِذَا دَعَانِ فَلْيَسْتَجِيبُوا لِي وَلْيُؤْمِنُوا بِي لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْشُدُونَ (١٨٦)﴾

Q2:185,186

OH: shahru ramaḍān al-ladhi unzil fīhu l-qurān hudē lin-nās wabayyināt min al-hudē wal-furqān (pause) faman shahid minkumu sh-shahr fa-liyaṣumh (pause) waman kān marīḍā aw ʕalā safar faʕiddah min ayyām ukhar (pause) yurīd allah bikumu l-yusr walā yurīd bikumu l-ʕusr walitukmilu l-ʕiddah walitukabbiru llāh ʕalā mā hadēkum wa laʕallakum tashkurūn (End of verse 185) waidhā saalak ʕibādī ʕannī fainnī qarīb ujīb daʕwata d-dāʕi idhā daʕān faliyastajībū lī waliyūminū bī laʕallahum yarshudūn.

CA: shahru ramaḍāna l-ladhī ʾunzila fīhi l-qurʾānu hudan lin-nāsi wabayyinātin mina l-hudā wa l-furqān (pause) faman shahida minkumu sh-shahra falyaṣumh (pause) waman kāna marīḍan ʾaw ʕalā safarin faʕiddatun min ʾayyāmin ukhar (pause) yurīdu llahu bikumu l-yusra walā yurīdu bikumu l-ʕusra walitukmilu l-ʕiddata walitukabbiru llāha ʕalā mā hadākum walaʕallakum tashkurūn (End of verse 185) waʾidhā saʾalaka ʕibādī ʕannī faʾinnī qarībun ʾujību daʕwata d-dāʕi ʾdhā daʕān (pause) falyastajībū lī walyūminū bī laʕallahum yarshudūn.


﴿وَزَادَهُ بَسْطَةً فِي الْعِلْمِ وَالْجِسْمِۖ وَاللَّهُ يُؤْتِي مُلْكَهُ مَنْ يَشَاءُ ۚ وَاللَّهُ وَاسِعٌ عَلِيمٌ۝﴾  Q2:247

OH: fil-ʕilm wal-jism.

CA: fil-ʕilmi wal-jism.


﴿وَمَنْ يُؤْتَ الْحِكْمَةَ فَقَدْ أُوتِيَ ‌خَيْرًا ‌كَثِيرًا ۗ وَمَا يَذَّكَّرُ إِلَّا أُولُو الْأَلْبَابِ۝﴾  Q2:269

Q4:19 ﴿ وَيَجْعَلَ اللَّهُ فِيهِ خَيْرًا كَثِيرًا ۝﴾

OH: khayrā kathīrā.

CA: khayran kathīrā.


﴿وَإِنْ كَانَ ذُو ‌عُسْرَةٍ ‌فَنَظِرَةٌ إِلَى مَيْسَرَةٍۚ وَأَنْ تَصَدَّقُوا خَيْرٌ لَكُمْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ ۝﴾ Q2:280

OH: ʕusurah fanaḍhirah ilā maysurah.

CA: ʕusratin fanaḍhiratun ʾilā maysarah.

ʕusrah and maysarah in the dialect of Hijaz are pronounced as ʕusurah and maysurah. (Muʕjam al-qirāʾāt, vol.1 p.407)


﴿تَوَدُّ لَوْ أَنَّ بَيْنَهَا وَبَيْنَهُ ‌أَمَدًا ‌بَعِيدًا ۗ وَيُحَذِّرُكُمُ اللَّهُ نَفْسَهُ... ﴾  Q3:30

OH: amadā baʕīdā

CA: ʾamadan baʕīdā


﴿فَإِنْ تَوَلَّوْا فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ ‌عَلِيمٌ ‌بِالْمُفْسِدِينَ۝﴾  Q3:63

OH: ʕalīm bil-mufsidīn

CA: ʕalīmun bil-mufsidīn


﴿أُولَئِكَ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ ‌وَمَا ‌لَهُمْ ‌مِنْ ‌نَاصِرِينَ ۝﴾   Q3:91

OH: ʕadhāb alīm wamālahum min nāṣirīn

CA: ʕadhābun ʾalīmun wamālahum min nāṣirīn


﴿وَاللَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِالْمُتَّقِينَ ۝﴾  Q3:115, 9:44

OH: ʕalīm bil-muttaqīn

CA: ʕalīmun bil-muttaqīn


﴿إِنَّ الَّذِينَ تَوَلَّوْا مِنْكُمْ يَوْمَ الْتَقَى الْجَمْعَانِ إِنَّمَا اسْتَزَلَّهُمُ الشَّيْطَانُ بِبَعْضِ مَا كَسَبُوا... ﴾  Q3:155

OH: yawm altaqa l-jamʕān innama stazallahum ash-shayṭān bibaʕḍi mā…

CA: yawma ltaqa l-jamʕāni ʾinnama stazallahumu sh-shayṭānu bibaʕḍi mā…


﴿الَّذِينَ قَالُوا إِنَّ اللَّهَ فَقِيرٌ وَنَحْنُ أَغْنِيَاءُ ۘ سَنَكْتُبُ مَا قَالُوا وَقَتْلَهُمُ الْأَنْبِيَاءَ بِغَيْرِ حَقٍّ...﴾  Q3:181

OH: wa naḥn aghniyāʾ (pause) sanaktub mā qālū wa qatlahumu l-anbiyāʾ bighayri ḥaqq.

CA: wa naḥnu ʾaghniyāʾ (pause) sanaktubu mā qālū wa qatlahumu l-ʾanbiyāʾa bighayri ḥaqq.


﴿فَكُلُوهُ هَنِيئًا ‌مَرِيئًا۝﴾ Q4:4

OH: haniyyā mariyyā.

CA: hanīʾan marīʾā.


﴿أَنْ تَقُولُوا مَا جَاءَنَا ‌مِنْ ‌بَشِيرٍ ‌وَلَا نَذِيرٍۖ فَقَدْ جَاءَكُمْ بَشِيرٌ وَنَذِيرٌ ۗ وَاللَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ۝﴾  Q5:19

OH: min bashīr walā nadhīr (pause) faqad jākum bashīr wanadhīr (pause) wal-lāh ʕalā kulli shayy qadīr.

CA: min bashīrin walā nadhīr (pause) faqad jāʾakum bashīrun wanadhīr (pause) wal-lāhu ʕalā kulli shayʾin qadīr.


﴿وَمَا نُرْسِلُ الْمُرْسَلِينَ إِلَّا ‌مُبَشِّرِينَ ‌وَمُنْذِرِينَ ۖ فَمَنْ آمَنَ وَأَصْلَحَ فَلَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ۝﴾  Q6:48 The two words also occur in three other positions, including one in a pausal position Q18:56

OH: mubashshirīn wa mundhirīn.

CA: mubashshirīna wa mundhirīn.


﴿وَيَعْلَمُ مَا فِي ‌الْبَرِّ ‌وَالْبَحْرِۚ وَمَا تَسْقُطُ مِنْ وَرَقَةٍ إِلَّا يَعْلَمُهَا...﴾  Q6:59 The two words also occur in 6 other positions including 2 in pausal positions Q6:97, 10:22

OH: fil-barr wal-baḥr.

CA: fil-barri wal-baḥr.


﴿‌لَهُمْ ‌شَرَابٌ ‌مِنْ ‌حَمِيمٍ وَعَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ بِمَا كَانُوا يَكْفُرُونَ۝﴾  Q6:70 Q10:4

OH: min ḥamīm wa ʕadhāb alīm bimā…

CA: min ḥamīmin wa ʕadhābun ʾalīmun bimā…


﴿وَمَا أَنْزَلْنَا عَلَى عَبْدِنَا ‌يَوْمَ ‌الْفُرْقَانِ يَوْمَ الْتَقَى الْجَمْعَانِۗ وَاللَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ۝﴾ Q8:41

OH: yawma l-furqān yawma ltaqa l-jamʕān.

CA: yawma l-furqāni yawma ltaqa l-jamʕān.


﴿لَهُمْ فِيهَا ‌نَعِيمٌ ‌مُقِيمٌ ۝﴾  Q9:21

OH: naʕīm muqīm.

CA: naʕīmun muqīm.


﴿أَمْ مَنْ أَسَّسَ بُنْيَانَهُ عَلَى شَفَا ‌جُرُفٍ ‌هَارٍ فَانْهَارَ بِهِ فِي نَارِ جَهَنَّمَ...۝﴾   Q9:109

OH: hār fanhār …

CA: hārin fanhāra …


﴿أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا اللَّهَ إِنَّنِي لَكُمْ مِنْهُ ‌نَذِيرٌ ‌وَبَشِيرٌ۝﴾   Q11:2 The two words also occur in a context position in Q7:188

OH: nadhīr wa bashīr.

CA: nadhīrun wa bashīr.


﴿وَلَمَّا بَلَغَ أَشُدَّهُ آتَيْنَاهُ ‌حُكْمًا ‌وَعِلْمًا ۚ وَكَذَلِكَ نَجْزِي الْمُحْسِنِينَ۝﴾  Q12:22 The two words also occur in three other verses including two in pausal positions Q21:79, 28:14.

OH: ḥukmā waʕilmā.

CA: ḥukman waʕilmā.


﴿إِنَّكَ الْيَوْمَ لَدَيْنَا ‌مَكِينٌ ‌أَمِينٌ ۝﴾ Q12:22

OH: makīn amīn

CA: makīnun ʾamīn


﴿ وَسَيَعْلَمُ الْكُفَّارُ لِمَنْ ‌عُقْبَى ‌الدَّارِ۝﴾ Q13:42

OH: wasayaʕlam al-kuffār liman ʕuqba d-dār

CA: wasayaʕlamu l-kuffāru liman ʕuqba d-dār


﴿خَلَقَ الْإِنْسَانَ مِنْ نُطْفَةٍ فَإِذَا هُوَ ‌خَصِيمٌ ‌مُبِينٌ ۝﴾  Q16:4, 36:77

OH: khaṣīm mubīn

CA: khaṣīmun mubīn


﴿ وَمَنْ رَزَقْنَاهُ مِنَّا رِزْقًا حَسَنًا فَهُوَ يُنْفِقُ مِنْهُ ‌سِرًّا ‌وَجَهْرًا ۖ هَلْ يَسْتَوُونَ الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ بَلْ أَكْثَرُهُمْ لَا يَعْلَمُونَ۝﴾  Q16:75

OH: sirrā wajahrā

CA: sirran wajahrā


﴿وَيُبَشِّرُ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ الَّذِينَ يَعْمَلُونَ الصَّالِحَاتِ أَنَّ لَهُمْ ‌أَجْرًا ‌كَبِيرًا۝﴾   Q17:9

OH: ajrā kabīrā

CA: ʾajran kabīrā


﴿وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلَّا ‌مُبَشِّرًا ‌وَنَذِيرًا ۝﴾   Q17:105 The two words also occur at the end of 3 other verses Q25:56, 33:45, 48:8.

OH: mubashshirā wanadhīrā

CA: mubashshiran wanadhīrā


﴿هُوَ خَيْرٌ ثَوَابًا ‌وَخَيْرٌ ‌عُقْبًا ۝﴾   Q18:44

OH: hū khayr thawābā wakhayr ʕuqbā

CA: huwa khayrun thawāban wakhayrun ʕuqbā


﴿قَالَ سَتَجِدُنِي إِنْ شَاءَ اللَّهُ صَابِرًا ‌وَلَا ‌أَعْصِي ‌لَكَ ‌أَمْرًا۝﴾   Q18:69

OH: ṣābirā...amrā

CA: ṣābiran...ʾamrā


﴿قَالُوا يَامَرْيَمُ لَقَدْ جِئْتِ شَيْئًا ‌فَرِيًّا۝﴾ Q19:27

OH: shayyā fariyyā

CA: shayʾan fariyyā


﴿فَلَا يَخَافُ ظُلْمًا وَلَا ‌هَضْمًا ۝﴾  Q20:112

OH: ḍhulmā walā haḍmā

CA: ḍhulman walā haḍmā


﴿إِنَّهُمْ كَانُوا يُسَارِعُونَ فِي الْخَيْرَاتِ وَيَدْعُونَنَا ‌رَغَبًا وَرَهَبًا ۖ وَكَانُوا لَنَا خَاشِعِينَ۝﴾  Q21:90

OH: raghabā warahabā

CA: raghaban warahabā


﴿وَالْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ الَّذِي جَعَلْنَاهُ لِلنَّاسِ سَوَاءً الْعَاكِفُ فِيهِ وَالْبَادِۚ وَمَنْ يُرِدْ فِيهِ ‌بِإِلْحَادٍ بِظُلْمٍ نُذِقْهُ مِنْ عَذَابٍ أَلِيمٍ ۝﴾  Q22:25

OH: fīh wal-bād (pause) wa man yurid fīh biilḥād biḍhulm…

CA: fīhi wal-bād (pause) wa man yurid fīhi biʾilḥādin biḍhulmin…


﴿لَا تَدْعُوا الْيَوْمَ ثُبُورًا وَاحِدًا وَادْعُوا ‌ثُبُورًا ‌كَثِيرًا۝﴾   Q25:14

OH: thubūrā kathīrā

CA: thubūran kathīrā


﴿‌وَبُرِّزَتِ الْجَحِيمُ لِلْغَاوِينَ۝﴾   Q26:91

OH: wa burrizat al-jaḥīm lil-ghāwīn

CA: wa burrizati l-jaḥīmu lil-ghāwīn


﴿قَالَ هَذَا مِنْ فَضْلِ رَبِّي لِيَبْلُوَنِي أَأَشْكُرُ أَمْ أَكْفُرُ ۖ ‌وَمَنْ ‌شَكَرَ فَإِنَّمَا يَشْكُرُ لِنَفْسِهِ ۖ ... ﴾  Q27:40

OH: aashkur am akfur

CA: ʾaʾashkuru ʾam ʾakfur


﴿وَإِنَّ أَوْهَنَ الْبُيُوتِ لَبَيْتُ ‌الْعَنْكَبُوتِۚ لَوْ كَانُوا يَعْلَمُونَ ۝﴾   Q29:41

OH: wa inn awhan al-buyūt labayt al-ʕankabūt

CA: wa ʾinna ʾawhana l-buyūti labaytu l-ʕankabūt


﴿وَإِذَا تُتْلَى عَلَيْهِ آيَاتُنَا ‌وَلَّى ‌مُسْتَكْبِرًا كَأَنْ لَمْ يَسْمَعْهَا كَأَنَّ فِي أُذُنَيْهِ وَقْرًا ۖ فَبَشِّرْهُ بِعَذَابٍ أَلِيمٍ۝﴾ Q31:7

OH: wallē mustakbirā kaan lam yasmaʕhā kaan fī udhunayh waqrā

CA: wallā mustakbiran kaʾan lam yasmaʕhā kaʾanna fī ʾudhunayhi waqrā


﴿وَاقْصِدْ فِي مَشْيِكَ ‌وَاغْضُضْ مِنْ صَوْتِكَ ۚ إِنَّ أَنْكَرَ الْأَصْوَاتِ لَصَوْتُ الْحَمِيرِ ۝﴾   Q31:19

OH: waqṣid fī mashyik waghḍuḍ min ṣawtik

CA: waqṣid fī mashyika waghḍuḍ min ṣawtik


﴿وَكَانَ أَمْرُ اللَّهِ قَدَرًا ‌مَقْدُورًا۝﴾   Q33:38

OH: qadarā maqdūrā

CA: qadaran maqdūrā


﴿اذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ ‌ذِكْرًا ‌كَثِيرًا ۝﴾  Q33:41  

OH: dhikrā kathīrā

CA: dhikran kathīrā


﴿أَمْ أَنَا خَيْرٌ مِنْ هَذَا الَّذِي ‌هُوَ ‌مَهِينٌ وَلَا يَكَادُ يُبِينُ ۝﴾  Q43:52 “mahīn” is the ending of a verse according to some readings so this instance in those readings doesn't count as an internal rhyme.

OH: hū mahīn walā yakād yabīn

CA: huwa mahīnun walā yakādu yabīn


﴿خَافِضَةٌ رَافِعَةٌ۝﴾  Q56:3

OH: khāfiḍah rāfiʕah

CA: khāfiḍatun rāfiʕah


﴿‌إِلَّا ‌قِيلًا سَلَامًا سَلَامًا۝﴾   Q56:26 Discovered by Van Putten And Phillip Stokes

OH: illā qīlā salāmā salāmā

CA: illā qīlan salāman salāmā


﴿لَا ‌مَقْطُوعَةٍ وَلَا مَمْنُوعَةٍ ۝﴾   Q56:33

OH: lā maqṭūʕah walā mamnūʕah

CA: lā maqṭūʕatin walā mamnūʕah


﴿‌عُرُبًا أَتْرَابًا۝﴾  Q56:37

OH: ʕurubā atrābā

CA: ʕuruban ʾatrābā


﴿‌وَأَنْزَلْنَا ‌الْحَدِيدَ فِيهِ بَأْسٌ شَدِيدٌ وَمَنَافِعُ لِلنَّاسِ... ﴾   Q57:25

OH: wa anzalna l-ḥadīd fīh bās shadīd wa manāfiʕ…

CA: wa ʾanzalna l-ḥadīda fīhi baʾsun shadīdun wa manāfiʕu…


﴿وَإِنَّهُمْ لَيَقُولُونَ ‌مُنْكَرًا ‌مِنَ ‌الْقَوْلِ وَزُورًا ۚ وَإِنَّ اللَّهَ لَعَفُوٌّ غَفُورٌ ۝﴾  Q58:2

OH: munkarā min al-qawl wa zūrā

CA: munkaran mina l-qawli wa zūrā


﴿وَمَكَرُوا مَكْرًا ‌كُبَّارًا ۝﴾  Q71:22

OH: makrā kubbārā

CA: makran kubbārā


﴿وَلَا يَلِدُوا إِلَّا فَاجِرًا ‌كَفَّارًا ۝﴾   Q71:27

OH: fājirā kaffārā

CA: fājiran kaffārā


﴿إِنَّا سَنُلْقِي عَلَيْكَ قَوْلًا ‌ثَقِيلًا ۝﴾ Q73:5

OH: qawlā thaqīlā

CA: qawlan thaqīlā


﴿تَجِدُوهُ عِنْدَ اللَّهِ هُوَ خَيْرًا ‌وَأَعْظَمَ ‌أَجْرًا ۚ وَاسْتَغْفِرُوا اللَّهَ... ﴾  Q73:20

OH: hū khayrā wa aʕḍham ajrā    

CA: huwa khayran wa ʾaʕḍhamu ʾajrā


﴿إِنَّهُ فَكَّرَ وَقَدَّرَ۝﴾  Q74:18

OH: innah fakkar waqaddar

CA: innahū fakkara waqaddar


﴿ثُمَّ أَدْبَرَ وَاسْتَكْبَرَ۝﴾  Q74:23

OH: thumm adbar wastakbar

CA: thumma ʾadbara wastakbar


﴿إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا ۝﴾ Q76:3

OH: immā shākirā wa immā kafūrā

CA: ʾimmā shākiran wa ʾimmā kafūrā


﴿‌وَمِنَ ‌اللَّيْلِ فَاسْجُدْ لَهُ وَسَبِّحْهُ لَيْلًا طَوِيلًا۝﴾   Q76:26

OH: laylā ṭawīlā

CA: laylan ṭawīlā


﴿‌عُذْرًا ‌أَوْ ‌نُذْرًا۝﴾   Q77:6

OH: ʕudhrā aw nudhrā

CA: ʕudhran ʾaw nudhrā


﴿إِنَّهَا تَرْمِي ‌بِشَرَرٍ كَالْقَصْرِ۝﴾  Q77:32

OH: bisharar kal-qaṣar

CA: bishararin kal-qaṣar

In the canonical readings, the final word is read as “kal-qaṣr”. But a number of non-canonical readings read it as “kal-qaṣar” which makes it a perfect rhyming fit for the preceding word “bisharar”. The final word of the next verse is non-canonically read as ṣufur instead of the canonical ṣufr. (Muʕjam al-qirāʾāt, vol.10 p.248, 251)


﴿وَجَعَلْنَا سِرَاجًا وَهَّاجًا ۝﴾  Q78:13

OH: sirājā wahhājā

CA: sirājan wahhājā


﴿إِنَّا أَنْذَرْنَاكُمْ عَذَابًا قَرِيبًا يَوْمَ يَنْظُرُ الْمَرْءُ مَا قَدَّمَتْ يَدَاهُ وَيَقُولُ الْكَافِرُ يَالَيْتَنِي كُنْتُ تُرَابًا ۝﴾ Q78:40

OH: ʕadhābā qarībā

CA: ʕadhāban qarībā (This position is an end of a verse in the Baṣran and some Makkan readings. In the readings where this position isn't counted as an end of a verse, the two words are read as ʕadhāban qarīban)


﴿وَعِنَبًا وَقَضْبًا ۝﴾  Q80:28

OH: waʕinabā waqaḍbā

CA: wa inaban waqaḍbā


﴿ أُولَئِكَ هُمُ الْكَفَرَةُ الْفَجَرَةُ۝﴾  Q80:42

OH: humu l-kafarah al-fajarah

CA: humu l-kafaratu l-fajarah


﴿عَامِلَةٌ نَاصِبَةٌ۝﴾  Q88:3

OH: ʕāmilah nāṣibah

CA: ʕāmilatun nāṣibah


﴿‌نَاصِيَةٍ كَاذِبَةٍ خَاطِئَةٍ ۝﴾  Q96:16 discovered by Larcher

OH: nāṣiyah kādhibah khāṭiyah

CA: nāṣiyatin kādhibatin khāṭiyah


﴿وَيْلٌ لِكُلِّ ‌هُمَزَةٍ لُمَزَةٍ ۝﴾   Q104:1

OH: humazah lumazah

CA: humazatin lumazah


﴿تَبَّتْ يَدَا ‌أَبِي ‌لَهَبٍ وَتَبَّ۝﴾   Q111:1

OH: tabbat yadā abī lahab watab

CA: tabbat yadā ʾabī lahabin watab


B- Internal rhymes where the rhyming words don't share identical final consonants.

Due to the large number of examples of this type, not all of them were counted. Here are some of the notable examples:


﴿وَهُدًى وَبُشْرَى لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ۝﴾ Q2:97 The two words also occur at 16:102 and 27:2

Old Hijazi:            wa hudē wa bushrē lil-mūminīn

Classical Arabic: wa hudan wa bushrā lil-muʾminīn


﴿‌نَذِيرٌ ‌مُبِينٌ۝﴾  Q7:184 The two words also occur at the end of 10 other verses such as 11:25, 22:49.

OH: nadhīr mubīn

CA: nadhīrun mubīn


﴿‌لَيَئُوسٌ ‌كَفُورٌ۝﴾   Q11:9

OH: layaūs kafūr

CA: layaʾūsun kafūr


﴿‌إِنَّ ‌أَخْذَهُ ‌أَلِيمٌ ‌شَدِيدٌ۝﴾   Q11:102

OH: alīm shadīd

CA: ʾalīmun shadīd


﴿‌لَهُمْ ‌فِيهَا ‌زَفِيرٌ ‌وَشَهِيقٌ۝﴾   Q11:106

OH: zafīr wa shahīq

CA: zafīrun wa shahīq


﴿قَالَ اجْعَلْنِي عَلَى خَزَائِنِ الْأَرْضِ ‌إِنِّي ‌حَفِيظٌ ‌عَلِيمٌ ۝﴾  Q12:55

OH: ḥafīḍh ʕalīm

CA: ḥafīḍhun ʕalīm


﴿‌مَذْمُومًا ‌مَدْحُورًا۝﴾   Q17:18

OH: madhmūmā madḥūrā

CA: madhmūman madḥūrā


﴿‌مَذْمُومًا ‌مَخْذُولًا۝﴾   Q17:22

OH: madhmūmā makhdhūlā

CA: madhmūman makhdhūlā


﴿ إِنَّهُ كَانَ ظَلُومًا ‌جَهُولًا ۝﴾  Q33:72

OH: ḍhalūmā jahūlā

CA: ḍhalūman jahūlā


﴿وَإِنْ مَسَّهُ الشَّرُّ فَيَئُوسٌ ‌قَنُوطٌ ۝﴾   Q41:49

OH: fa yaūs qanūṭ

CA: fa yaʾūsun qanūṭ


﴿مَا يَلْفِظُ مِنْ قَوْلٍ إِلَّا لَدَيْهِ رَقِيبٌ عَتِيدٌ ۝﴾  Q50:18

OH: raqīb ʕatīd

CA: raqībun ʕatīd


﴿وَيَبْقَى وَجْهُ رَبِّكَ ذُو الْجَلَالِ وَالْإِكْرَامِ ۝﴾  Q55:27

﴿ذِي الْجَلَالِ وَالْإِكْرَامِ ۝﴾  Q55:78

OH: l-jalāl wal-ikram

CA: l-jalāli wal-ʾikram


﴿وَكَانَتِ الْجِبَالُ ‌كَثِيبًا ‌مَهِيلًا۝﴾  Q73:14

OH: kathībā mahīlā

CA: kathīban mahīlā


Q89:19-22

﴿وَتَأْكُلُونَ التُّرَاثَ أَكْلًا لَمًّا (١٩) وَتُحِبُّونَ الْمَالَ حُبًّا جَمًّا (٢٠) كَلَّا إِذَا دُكَّتِ الْأَرْضُ دَكًّا دَكًّا (٢١) وَجَاءَ رَبُّكَ وَالْمَلَكُ صَفًّا صَفًّا (٢٢) ﴾

OH: …aklā lammā۝…ḥubbā jammā۝…dakkā dakkā۝…ṣaffā ṣaffā۝

CA: …aklan lammā۝…ḥubban jammā۝…dakkan dakkā۝…ṣaffan ṣaffā۝

C- Some examples of Internal rhymes where the rhyming words don't share identical final long vowels.


﴿فَقَالَ رَبِّ إِنِّي لِمَا أَنْزَلْتَ إِلَيَّ ‌مِنْ ‌خَيْرٍ ‌فَقِيرٌ ۝﴾   Q28:24

OH: khayr faqīr

CA: khayrin faqīr


﴿ مِنْ كُلِّ ‌زَوْجٍ ‌بَهِيجٍ۝﴾  Q22:5, 50:7

OH: zawj bahīj

CA: zawjin bahīj


﴿فِي سَمُومٍ وَحَمِيمٍ۝﴾  Q56:42

OH: samūm waḥamīm

CA: samūmin waḥamīm

A list of All Verse-Final Attributes of Allah that Form Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes

A- The two words share an identical final consonant.

ʕalīm ḥakīm عليم حكيم “Knower, Wise” (15 attestations, such as 9:15,28,60,97,106,110)

    ʕalīmā ḥakīmā عليما حكيما (10 attestations, such as 4:11,17,24,92,104,111,170)

  ḥakīm ʕalīm حكيم عليم “Wise, Knower”  (5, such as 6:83,128,139)

ghafūr shakūr غفور شكور “Forgiving, Appreciative” (35:30,34 , 42:23)

ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم “Knower, ­Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)

    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā عليما حليما (33:51)

khabīr baṣīr خبير بصير “Aware, Seeing” (35:31, 42:27)

    khabīrā baṣīrā خبيرا بصيرا(17:17,30,96)

ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم  “Knower, Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)

    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā عليما حليما (33:51)

qarīb mujīb قريب مجيب  “Near, Responsive” (11:61)

ḥamīd majīd حميد مجيد “Owner of Praise, Owner of Glory” (11:73)

B- The two words don't share an identical final consonant.

Note that in the rhyming of verse-final words (external rhymes), the Quran usually alternates between ūn and īn, which means that in the language of the Quran, ū rhymes with ī. Thus it’s natural to see internal rhymes such as غفور رحيم ghafūr raḥīm.

ghafūr raḥīm  غفور رحيم “Forgiving, Merciful” (49 attestations, such as 2:173,182,192)

      ghafūrā raḥīmā غفورا رحيما (15, such as 4:23,96,100,106)

ʕazīz ḥakīm عزيز حكيم “Mighty, Wise” (13, such as 8:10,49,63)

      ʕazīzā ḥakīmā عزيزا حكيما (5, such as 4:56,158,165)

samīʕ ʕalīm  سميع عليم “Hearer, Knower “(16, such as 8:17,42,53)

raūf raḥīm  رؤوف رحيم “Kind, Merciful” (9, such as 16:7,47)

ghafūr ḥalīm  غفور حليم “Forgiving, Forbearing” (4, such as 5:101)

ḥalīmā ghafūrā حليما غفورا “Forbearing, Forgiving” (17:44, 35:41)

ʕalīm khabīr عليم خبير “Knower, Aware” (31:34, 49:13)

    ʕalīma khabīrā عليما خبيرا (4:35)

ḥakīm khabīr حكيم خبير “Wise, Aware” (11:1)

laṭīf khabīr  لطيف خبير  “Subtle, Aware” (22:63, 31:16)

     laṭīfā khabīrā   لطيفا خبيرا  (33:34)

samīʕ baṣīr سميع بصير “Hearer, Seer” (4, such as 22:61)

    samīʕā baṣīrā سميعا بصيرا (3, such as 4:58)

ʕalīm qadīr  عليم قدير  “Knower, Powerful” (16:70, 42:50)

   ʕalīmā qadīrā عليما قديرا  (35:44)

ʕalīm ḥalīm عليم حليم  “Knower, Forbearing” (4:12, 22:59)

    ʕalīmā ḥalīmā عليما حليما (33:51)

ʕazīz ghafūr  عزيز غفور “Mighty, Forgiving” (35:28)

raḥīm wadūd رحيم ودود “Merciful, Loving” (11:90)

ḥakīm ḥamīd حكيم حميد “Wise, Owner of Praise” (41:42)

shakūr ḥalīm شكور حليم “Appreciative, Forbearing” (64:17)

samīʕ qarīb سميع قريب “Hearer, Near” (34:50)

Examples of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in Hadith

Due to the vast size of the Hadith corpus, it wasn’t possible for Idris Al-Arabi to scan the entirety of it for internal rhymes the same way he did with the Quran. Since that prayers tend to be poetic, Idris looked into Hadith collections of prayers and found most of the following internal rhymes.


The first internal rhyme is from the seven aḥruf Hadith listed in a huge number of Hadith sources. The two rhyming words in this Hadith always come at a possible pausal position and sometimes at the end of the Hadith, such as:

[1]«نَزَلَ الْقُرْآنُ عَلَى سَبْعَةِ أَحْرُفٍ كُلٌّ ‌شَافٍ ‌كَافٍ»

Old Hijazi:            shāf kāf

Classical Arabic: shāfin kāf, or shāfin kāfī


The second example is from a popular prayer that’s said after the call of prayer (adhān):

أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ: " مَنْ قَالَ حِينَ يَسْمَعُ النِّدَاءَ: اللَّهُمَّ رَبَّ هَذِهِ الدَّعْوَةِ التَّامَّةِ، وَالصَّلَاةِ القَائِمَةِ آتِ مُحَمَّدًا ‌الوَسِيلَةَ ‌وَالفَضِيلَةَ، وَابْعَثْهُ مَقَامًا مَحْمُودًا الَّذِي وَعَدْتَهُ، حَلَّتْ لَهُ شَفَاعَتِي يَوْمَ القِيَامَةِ "[2]

Old Hijazi:           al-wasīlah wal-faḍīlah

Classical Arabic: al-wasīlata wal-faḍīlah


[3]أَنَّ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ كَانَ يَدْعُو فِي الصَّلَاةِ اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ عَذَابِ الْقَبْرِ ، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ فِتْنَةِ الْمَسِيحِ الدَّجَّالِ ، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ فِتْنَةِ الْمَحْيَا وَالْمَمَاتِ ، اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الْمَأْثَمِ وَ الْمَغْرَمِ.

Old Hijazi:            al-mātham wal-maghram

Classical Arabic: al-maʾthami wal-maghram


[4]قَالَ أَبُو هُرَيْرَةَ إِنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم كَانَ يَدْعُو ‏ "‏ اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الشِّقَاقِ وَالنِّفَاقِ وَسُوءِ الأَخْلاَقِ ‏"‏ ‏.

OH: min al-shiqāq wal-nifāq wa suww al-akhlāq

CA: mina l-shiqāqi wal-nifāqi wa sūʾi l-ʾakhlāq


[5]إِذَا دَخَلَ النُّورُ الْقَلْبَ انْفَسَحَ وَانْشَرَحَ.

OH: infasaḥ wa-nsharaḥ

CA: infasaḥa wa-nsharaḥ


((لَبَّيْكَ وَسَعْدَيْكَ وَالْخَيْرُ كُلُّهُ فِي يَدَيْكَ، وَالشَّرُّ لَيْسَ إِلَيْكَ، أَنَا بِكَ وَإِلَيْكَ، ‌تَبَارَكْتَ ‌وَتَعَالَيْتَ، أَسْتَغْفِرُكَ وَأَتُوبُ إِلَيْكَ...اللهُمَّ اغْفِرْ لِي مَا قَدَّمْتُ وَمَا أَخَّرْتُ، وَمَا أَسْرَرْتُ وَمَا أَعْلَنْتُ، وَمَا أَسْرَفْتُ، وَمَا أَنْتَ أَعْلَمُ بِهِ مِنِّي، أَنْتَ الْمُقَدِّمُ وَأَنْتَ الْمُؤَخِّرُ، لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا أَنْتَ)). [6]

This is a prayer that contains many internal rhymes:

OH: labbayk wa saʕdayk (pause) tabārakt wa taʕālayt (pause)… mā qaddamt wa mā akhkhart (pause) wa mā asrart wa mā aʕlant (pause) wa mā asraft (pause)

CA: labbayka wa saʕdayk (pause) tabārakta wa taʕālayt (pause)… mā qaddamtu wa mā ʾakhkhart (pause) wa mā ʾasrartu wa mā ʾaʕlant (pause) wa mā ʾasraft (pause)


[7]اللَّهمَّ إنِّي أسألُكَ مِنَ الخيرِ كلِّهِ عاجلِهِ وآجلِهِ ، ما عَلِمْتُ منهُ وما لم أعلَمْ ، وأعوذُ بِكَ منَ الشَّرِّ كلِّهِ عاجلِهِ وآجلِهِ ، ما عَلِمْتُ منهُ وما لم أعلَمْ.

OH: ʕājilih wa ājilih

CA: ʕājilihī wa ʾājilih


[8]أَنَّ نَاسًا مِنْ أَصْحَابِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالُوا لِلنَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ: يَا رَسُولَ اللهِ، ذَهَبَ أَهْلُ ‌الدُّثُورِ ‌بِالْأُجُورِ، يُصَلُّونَ كَمَا نُصَلِّي، وَيَصُومُونَ كَمَا نَصُومُ، وَيَتَصَدَّقُونَ بِفُضُولِ أَمْوَالِهِمْ.

OH: ahlu d-duthūr bil-ujūr

CA: ʾahlu d-duthūri bil-ʾujūr


[9]اللَّهُمَّ هَبْ لِي قَلْبًا ‌تَقِيًّا ‌نَقِيًّا مِنَ الشَّرِّ بَرِيئا لَا كَافِرًا وَلَا شَقِيًّا.

OH: qalbā taqiyyā naqiyyā (pause) min al-sharr bariyyā (pause) lā kāfirā wa lā shaqiyyā.

CA: qalban taqiyyan naqiyyā (pause) mina l-sharri barīʾā (pause) lā kāfiran wa lā shaqiyyā.

Note how the word “bariyyā” only rhymes without the hamzah.


[10]«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الْهَدْمِ وَالتَّرَدِّي وَالْهَرَمِ ‌وَالْغَرَقِ ‌وَالْحَرَقِ وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ إِنْ يَتَخَبَّطَنِي الشَّيْطَانُ عِنْدَ الْمَوْتِ وَأَنْ أُقْتَلَ فِي سَبِيلِكَ مُدْبِرًا أَوْ أَمُوتَ لَدِيغًا»

OH: wal-gharaq wal-ḥaraq

CA: wal-gharaqi wal-ḥaraq


[11]«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَسْأَلُكَ عِلْمًا نَافِعًا، وَرِزْقًا طَيِّبًا، ‌وَعَمَلًا ‌مُتَقَبَّلًا»

OH: wa ʕamalā mutaqabbalā

CA: wa ʕamalan mutaqabbalā


[12]" جَاهِدُوا فِي سَبِيلِ اللهِ؛ فَإِنَّ الْجِهَادَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللهِ بَابٌ مِنْ أَبْوَابِ الْجَنَّةِ يُنَجِّي اللهُ بِهِ مِنَ ‌الْهَمِّ ‌وَالْغَمِّ "

OH: min al-hamm wal-ghamm

CA: mina l-hammi wal-ghamm


[13]" اللهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ الْفَقْرِ ‌وَالْقِلَّةِ ‌وَالذِّلَّةِ، وَأَعُوذُ بِكَ أَنْ أَظْلِمَ أَوْ أُظْلَمَ "

OH: wal-qillah wal-dhillah

CA: wal-qillati wal-dhillah


[14]«اللَّهُمَّ ‌قِنِي ‌عَذَابَكَ يَوْمَ ‌تَبْعَثُ ‌عِبَادَكَ»

OH: allāhumm qinī ʕadhābak yawm tabʕath ʕibādak

CA: allāhumma qinī ʕadhābaka yawma tabʕathu ʕibādak


[15]«اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنَ ‌الْكُفْرِ ‌وَالْفَقْرِ، اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أَعُوذُ بِكَ مِنْ عَذَابِ الْقَبْرِ لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا أَنْتَ»

OH: min al-kufr wal-faqr (pause)… min ʕadhāb al-qabr (pause)

CA: mina l-kufri wal-faqr (pause)… min ʕadhābi l-qabr (pause)


كان رسول الله صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيهِ وَسَلَّمَ إذا قام من الليل كبَّر، ثم يقول:

"سبحانك اللهم! وبحمدك، وتبارك اسمك، وتعالى جدك، ولا إله غيرك"، ثم يقول: "لا إله إلا الله" ثلاثًا، ثم يقول:

[16]"الله أكبر كبيرًا" -ثلاثًا- أعوذ بالله السميع العليم من الشيطان الرجيم؛ من ‌همزه ونفخه ونفثه" ثم يقرأ.

OH: min hamzih wa nafkhih wa nafthih

CA: min hamzihī wa nafkhihī wa nafthih

External Links

Idris AlArabi--A list of Old Hijazi Internal Rhymes in the Quran and Hadith

References

  1. ↑ مصنف ابن أبي شيبة، ج6 ص137، دار التاج Musannaf of Ibn Abi Shaybah, vol.6 p.137, Dar Al-Taj
  2. ↑ صحيح البخاري، ج1 ص126، ط السلطانية Sahih Al-Bukhari, Vol.1 p.126, published by Al-Sultaniah
  3. ↑ صحيح مسلم، ج1 ص412، تحقيق عبد الباقي Sahih Muslim, vol.1 p.412, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi
  4. ↑ سنن أبي داود، ج2 ص645، تحقيق شعيب الأرنؤوط Sunan Abi Dawud, vol.2 p.645, Tahqiq by Shuayb Arnaut
  5. ↑ تفسير الطبري في ج12 ص100 دار التربية Tafsir Al-Tabari, vol.12 p.100, Dar Al-Tarbiyah
  6. ↑ صحيح مسلم، ج1 ص534، تحقيق عبد الباقي Sahih Muslim, vol.1 p.534, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi
  7. ↑ سنن ابن ماجه، ج5 ص17، دار الرسالة العلمية (Sunan Ibn Majah, vol.5 p.17, Dar Al-Risalah Al-ʿilmiyyah)
  8. ↑ صحيح مسلم ج2 ص697 تحقيق عبد الباقي Sahih Muslim, vol.2 p.697, Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi
  9. ↑ الدعوات الكبير للبيهقي، تحقيق بدر البدر، ج2 ص147 Al-Daʕawāt al-kabīr by Albayhaqī, vol.2 p.147, Tahqiq by Badr Al-Badr
  10. ↑ الآحاد والمثاني لابن أبي عاصم» (3/ 460) Al-ʾāḥād wal-mathānī by Ibn Abī ʕāṣim, vol.3 p.460, Dār Al-Rāyah
  11. ↑ مصنف ابن أبي شيبة (6/ 33 تحقيق الحوت) Al-Musannaf by Ibn Abi Shaybah, vol.6 p.33, Tahqiq by Al-Hout
  12. ↑ مسند أحمد، ج37 ص355 ط الرسالة Musnad Ahmad, vol.37 p.355, Al-Risalah
  13. ↑ مسند أحمد، ج13 ص418 ط الرسالة Musnad Ahmad, vol.13 p.418, Al-Risalah
  14. ↑ مسند أبي داود الطيالسي، ج2 ص84، دار هجر Musnad Abi Dawud Al-Tayalisi, vol.2 p.84, Dar Hajr
  15. ↑ مسند أبي داود الطيالسي، ج2 ص199، دار هجر Musnad Abi Dawud Al-Tayalisi, vol.2 p.199, Dar Hajr
  16. ↑ سنن أبي داود تحقيق الأرنؤوط، ج2 ص82 Sunan Abi Dawud, vol.2 p.82, Tahqiq by Shuayb Arnaut
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