Science and the Seven Earths and Magic, Miracles, and the Supernatural in the Qur'an: Difference between pages

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[[File:Sunset from the ISS.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Limb view of the Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.]]
|title=Magic, Miracles, and the Supernatural in the Qur'an
The [[Qur'an]] and a number of [[Sahih]] [[Hadith]] make the claim that there are seven different earths. This concept of multiple different earths or worlds is not unusual in the ancient world; ancient Mesopotamian Cosmology similarly saw seven earths and seven heavens.<ref>''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Mesopotamian_Cosmic_Geography/P8fl8BXpR0MC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=inauthor:%22Wayne+Horowitz%22&printsec=frontcover Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography.]'' Wayne Horowitz. Eisenbrauns. 1998. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/9780931464997|<bdi>9780931464997</bdi>]]. ''Chapter "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths". pp. 208-222.''
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While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in the Qur'an illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Qur'an was composed. Being a product of late antiquity, superstitious beliefs like jinn living among us and people using black magic form a sizeable part of the Qur'an, as does the idea of God interacting with the universe, controlling everything, rather than the universe operating off of scientific laws. Even inanimate things worship Allah, who is a corporeal, anthropomorphic being literally sitting on a throne in the cosmos. While there are many more examples of these found in Islamic literature such as hadith and seerah (biographical) material, the Qur'an is replete with such mythic and legendary accounts of supernatural beings and Allah's supernatural powers.  


Read PDF online for free on internetarchive.org: ''[https://ia800904.us.archive.org/3/items/HorowitzmesopotamianCosmicGeographyMesopotamianCivilizations/horowitzmesopotamian%20cosmic%20geography%20mesopotamian%20civilizations%20-.pdf horowitzmesopotamian cosmic geography mesopotamian civilizations -.pdf]''</ref> By comparison, in Norse mythology there are nine world or realms counting Hel, the underworld.<ref>''[https://www.germanicmythology.com/original/9Worlds.html The Nine Worlds of Norse Mythology].'' Old Norse Cosmology. germanicmythology.com</ref>  
== Magic ==
=== Creatures ===
==== The existence and attributes of Jinn ====
{{Main|Jinn}}The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us. In the [[Qur'an]], satan/devil(s) are also jinn ({{Quran|18|50}}), which like humans are sent prophets and have (''at least some, see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination]]'') free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind ({{Quran|6|130}}). They can interact with us ({{Quran|6|128}}) and even possess humans ({{Quran|2|275}}) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things ({{Quran|18|63}}). As well as create buildings/structures ({{Quran|34|12-13}}). These magical beings have roots in Arabian mythology and make appearences thereing. {{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}}El-Zein (2009) notes the Qur’an mentions only three terms related to the species of jinn: the generic “jinn,” marid, and ‘ifrit. However, Arabic and Islamic literature provides extended descriptions of them as sub-types of jinn (and others not specifically mentioned in the Qur'an).<ref>El-Zein, Amira. Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (p. 139). Syracuse University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>{{Quote|El-Zein, Amira. <i>Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (p. 142).</i> Syracuse University Press. Kindle Edition.|THE ‘IFRIT The term ‘ifrit is mentioned only once in the Qur’an, when the prophet king Solomon asked for the throne of the Queen of Sheba to be brought to him. One ‘ifrit from among the jinn consented to fulfill his request: “An ‘ifrit of the jinn said, ‘I will bring it to thee, before thou risest from thy place; I have strength for it and I am trusty” (Qur’an 27:39). The term ‘ifrit often presents a problem for the scholars trying to classify the jinn. Many commentators on the verse cited above maintain the word ‘ifrit is an adjective referring to a specific powerful jinni rather than a separate and distinct type among the jinn. Later the word came to describe any powerful and cunning man; in which case, it could refer to dark powers within the human psyche.<sup>17</sup><br> THE MARID In the Qur’an, the marid is an unruly force always striving to predict the future by means of astrological hearsay. The term marid is mentioned only once in the Qur’an in the following verse “We have adorned the lower heaven with the adornment of the stars and to preserve against every [rebel satan (shaytan marid)]; they listen not to the High Council, for they are pelted from every side” (Qur’an 37:7–8). This kind of jinn is mostly found in popular medieval literature, in particular in the stories of The Nights dealing with Solomon. Finally, as with the term ‘ifrit, the term marid could also be applied to humans. Used as an adjective, it denotes a rebellious man.<sup>18</sup>}}
==== Iblis/Satan/The Devil ====
{{Main|Iblis (Satan)}}The Qur'an contains the well-known supernatural character of Satan (with a capital "S"), or "The Devil", (al-shayṭān); also called Iblīs, who tempts unbelievers into disobedience against god, furthering them in their sin, and generally causing evil on Earth.<ref name=":023">''shayṭān | devil al-shayṭān | the devil, Satan'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 451). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Similar to later traditions on the book of Genesis (originally the serpent who tempts Eve to eat the fruit in the garden of Eden is not identified with Satan, only in the approximately 4 centuries preceding to the Common Era, known as the intertestamental period does this appear),<ref>Wray, T. J.; Mobley, Gregory. ''The Birth of Satan: Tracing the Devil's Biblical Roots (pp. 68-70, Chapters 5 & 6).'' St. Martin's Publishing Group. Kindle Edition.</ref> he originally lives in paradise. After refusing to obey God’s command to prostrate (sajada) himself to the newly created Adam, Iblīs is expelled from God’s retinue and subsequently retaliates against his nemesis Adam by persuading him and Eve to eat from the forbidden tree (e.g. {{Quran|2|34-39}}, {{Quran|7|11-25}} and {{Quran|20|115-124}}).<ref>''shayṭān | devil al-shayṭān | the devil, Satan'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 453). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>


Some modern du'aah, though, seeking to protect the supposed scientific infallibility of the Qur'an have proposed that this description of seven earths (and also description of seven heavens) actually is a type of scientific miracle whereby the Quran and Sunnah actually predicted the findings of modern earth sciences by over one thousand years. In point of fact no exegete before the modern period ever interpreted the verses this way; such an interpretation is novel and meant to fit the Qur'an into the modern, scientific view of the universe rather than taking the Qur'an and Sunnah as texts of their time and interpreting them in line with their author's intent. Besides ignoring what the texts themselves have to say, these modern apologetic claims themselves ignore or badly mangle the actual earth sciences they are attempting to co-opt in order to justify their claims of an inerrant, scientifically accurate Qur'an and prophetic tradition.  
There are however some differences with Christian-Judeo beliefs, such as him being an evil jinn rather than a 'fallen' angel. Along with him (Iblīs), the term for satans/devils (al-shayāṭīn), “the devils”, usually refer to evil jinn in the Qur'an.<ref name=":023" /> While Iblīs/al-shayṭān is a specific devil who takes on a more defined role in the Qur'an.


==Qur'an and Sunnah==
This Iblīs is in line with late-antique beliefs, with the devil is in some sense to be envisaged as the chief of the evil demons.<ref name=":123">Ibid. Kindle Edition. pp. 459</ref> Sinai (2023) notes for example one verse mentions Iblīs’s “offspring” (dhurriyyah, {{Quran|18|50}}), raising the possibility that the descendants in question are to be identified with wicked demons, and {{Quran|26|95}} speaks of the “hosts (junūd) of Iblīs” being cast into hell, especially since these hosts are mentioned in addition to “those who have gone astray” (al-ghāwūn) {{Quran|26|94}}, who would seem to refer to human sinners, the “hosts of Iblīs” are probably to be understood as the latter’s demonic minions.<ref name=":123" />
==== The existence and attributes of angels ====
Similarly to Judeo-Christian literature, the Quran, Hadith and Sira affirms the existence of angels, traditionally said to be made from light as mentioned in Islamic tradition (such as {{Muslim|42|7134}}),<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/843/angels-in-islam#of-what-are-the-angels-created Angels in Islam.] Of what are the Angels created? Islam Q&A. 2000</ref> while other have asserted they are made from fire like jinn based on (see: {{Quran|38|73-76}} and {{Quran|7|11-12}}),<ref>El-Zein, Amira. ''Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (Kindle Edition. pp. 44-46 ).'' Syracuse University Press.</ref> before humans ({{Quran|2|30}}).


The Qur'an itself makes the claim that there are 7 earths and 7 heavens:
They are also God's messengers like humans ({{Quran|22|75}}), with generally a humanoid shape,<ref>''malak | angel; angels.'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 632). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. ''Despite their wings and their potential invisibility, the default appearance of angels on earth is humanoid: “had we made him”—namely, the Qur’anic Messenger—“an angel, we would have made him a man (rajul),” i.e., endowed him with the appearance of an ordinary human, Q 6:9 affirms. Perhaps one is to understand that angels can exist in two different states of aggregation, as it were: a celestial one involving wings and invisibility to the human eye, and a state of manifestation to humans, in which they appear by and large like humans themselves (see also Burge 2012, 57). It is worth highlighting that Q 6:9, by virtue of employing the word rajul, additionally implies that angels are male. This corresponds to Biblical assumptions (e.g., Matt 16:5) and helps make sense of the Qur’anic polemic against belief in female angels (Q 17:40, 37:149–153, 43:16–19, 53:27–28; see also DTEK 102). A particular aspect of the angels’ humanoid appearance—namely, their possession of hands—is corroborated by Q 6:93, according to which the angels “stretch out their hands” for the wrongdoers when these latter are in the throes of death (DTEK 121). Moreover, it must be on account of the angels’ anthropomorphic appearance that Abraham initially mistook the divinely sent “messengers” (rusul) dispatched to him for ordinary humans, only realising their supernatural—i.e., angelic—status when his guests declined the food offered to them (Q 11:69–70 and 51:26–28; see below and Sinai 2020a, 282–283).26 The generally humanoid shape of Qur’anic angels also emerges from the fact that the female friends of Joseph’s Egyptian mistress so admire him that they exclaim, “This is no human but a noble angel!” (Q 12:31).''</ref> and have at least either two, three or four (pairs of) wings.{{Quote|{{Quran|35|1}}|All praise belongs to Allah, originator of the heavens and the earth, maker of the angels [His] messengers, possessing wings, two, three or four [of them]... He adds to the creation whatever He wishes. Indeed Allah has power over all things.}}They are said to hold God’s throne (in the heavens) {{Quran|69|17}} and some stand around it ({{Quran|40|7}}). Eight angels will carry the throne of God on Judgement Day ({{Quran|69|17}}). Two to the left and right of people write down everyone's deeds for judgment day ({{Quran|50|17-21}}), hovering above people ({{Quran|82|10-12}}). They also ask forgiveness for the faithful on Earth ({{Quran|42|5}}), help fight with believers against non-believers ({{Quran|8|12}}) chastise unbelievers ({{Quran|8|50}}). As well as blow the trumpets on judgement day<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/49009/what-is-meant-by-the-blowing-of-the-trumpet What is meant by the blowing of the Trumpet?] Islam Q&A. 2003.</ref> in e.g. {{Quran|6|73}} {{Quran|18|99}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ سَبْعَ سَمَٰوَٰتٍ وَمِنَ ٱلْأَرْضِ مِثْلَهُنَّ يَتَنَزَّلُ ٱلْأَمْرُ بَيْنَهُنَّ لِتَعْلَمُوٓا۟ أَنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍ قَدِيرٌ وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ قَدْ أَحَاطَ بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عِلْمًۢا
They praise and worship God constantly,<ref>Decharneux, Julien. ''Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (p. 311).'' De Gruyter. Kindle Edition.</ref> e.g. {{Quran|13|13}}, {{Quran|7|206}}, {{Quran|21|19}}, {{Quran|40|7}}, {{Quran|41|38}}, {{Quran|42|5}}, {{Quran|69|17}} and carry out his divine will - and unlike biblical angels, do not seem to be able to disobey god.<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 633). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. ''...“do as they are commanded” (Q 16:50, 66:6: yafʿalūna mā yuʾmarūn; see also 21:27: wa-hum bi-amrihi yaʿmalūn),30 “do not disobey God” (Q 66:6: lā yaʿṣūna llāha), and “do not deem themselves above serving him” (Q 7:206, 21:19: lā yastakbirūna ʿan ʿibādatihi; see also 16:49: wa-hum lā yastakbirūn)...''</ref>


Allah is He Who created seven Firmaments and of the earth a similar number. Through the midst of them (all) descends His Command: that ye may know that Allah has power over all things, and that Allah comprehends, all things in (His) Knowledge.}}
{{Quran|72|8-9}} describes the firmament as being guarded by watchful protectors [ḥaras], who are undoubtedly angels.<ref>Decharneux, Julien. Creation and Contemplation: ''The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (Kindle Edition. pp. 313).'' De Gruyter.</ref> They play an active role in the cosmos by thwarting spying jinn/devils who attempt to eavesdrop on divine decrees from the 'exalted assembly' (''see: [[Shooting Stars in the Quran]]''). These intruders are repelled by stars or meteors ({{Quran|15|16-18}}, {{Quran|37|6-10}}, {{Quran|67|5}}, {{Quran|72|8-9}}.


The tradition of the seven earths is also found in hadith collections of Sahih Al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, and Tirmidhi:
These angelic beings have their roots in the mythology of Hebrew bible tradition, where these angels were lesser deites or messengers of the gods in the tradition of west Asian religion in the bronze age.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|54|418}}|Narrated Salim's father:
===== '''Cherubs''' =====
The Qur'an mentions  'al-muqarrabūn' [Those close to god]. The traditional view of 'al-muqarrabūn' is often a rank of angels.<ref>[https://theoceanofthequran.org/83-21/ The Ocean of the Qur'an: Q 83:21]</ref> Some academics have suggested these are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherub cherubs], which have existed in some classical Islamic cosmologies, such as the famous philosopher Ibn Sīnā's (often known as Avicenna in the West).<ref>Stephen Burge. ''"Angels (malāʾika)." [https://www.saet.ac.uk/Islam/Angels#section4.3 4.3 Angels in classical emanationist cosmologies]'' In St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology, edited by Brendan N. Wolfe et al. University of St Andrews. Article published August 29, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.saet.ac.uk/Islam/Angels</nowiki>. Journal TSAQAFAH ''[https://philarchive.org/archive/ARIDEA Divine Emanation As Cosmic Origin: Ibn Sînâ and His Critics] pp 334.'' Syamsuddin Arif* Institut Studi Islam Darussalam (ISID)</ref>{{Quote|Decharneux, Julien. <i>Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background</i> (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (pp. 306-307). De Gruyter. Kindle Edition.|As for the cherubs, they are designated by the name al-muqarrabūn in a few passages:<br> <i>By no means! Surely the book of the pious is indeed in ‘Illiyīn. And what will make you know what ‘Illiyīn is? A written book. The ones brought near bear witness to it [yashhadu-hu l-muqarrabūna]. (Q 83:18 – 21)</i> <br>Despite the rather cryptic character of these verses, we see here the motif already studied of angels “witnessing” celestial phenomena. In another passage, Jesus and the angels are also called al-muqarrabūn (“the ones brought near”; Q 4:172). This designation is very odd, especially ascribed to Jesus. The word muqarrabūn sounds like a deformation of the Hebrew or Syriac word for “cherubs”, kerūbīm/krūbē. The name kerūbīm in the Bible is an Assyrian loanword and designates “those who pray” but the root KRB is not used otherwise in the Bible. The cherubs are specifically said to support God’s throne in the Bible (1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 1 Ch 13:6; 2 K 19:15; Is 37:16; Ps 80:2, 90:1).713 In light of this function, the Qur’ān seems to distort the original Semitic root KRB into QRB so as to give a new meaning to these angels’ name. The cherubs are now muqarrabūn, “the ones close to God”.}}


The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Any person who takes a piece of land unjustly will sink down the seven earths on the Day of Resurrection."}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|54|417}}|حَدَّثَنَا عَلِيُّ بْنُ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ، أَخْبَرَنَا ابْنُ عُلَيَّةَ، عَنْ عَلِيِّ بْنِ الْمُبَارَكِ، حَدَّثَنَا يَحْيَى بْنُ أَبِي كَثِيرٍ، عَنْ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ إِبْرَاهِيمَ بْنِ الْحَارِثِ، عَنْ أَبِي سَلَمَةَ بْنِ عَبْدِ الرَّحْمَنِ، كَانَتْ بَيْنَهُ وَبَيْنَ أُنَاسٍ خُصُومَةٌ فِي أَرْضٍ، فَدَخَلَ عَلَى عَائِشَةَ فَذَكَرَ لَهَا ذَلِكَ، فَقَالَتْ يَا أَبَا سَلَمَةَ اجْتَنِبِ الأَرْضَ، فَإِنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏
==== Houri's (Heavenly Virgins) ====
{{Main|Houri (Heavenly Virgin)}}There are allegedly heavenly maidens to service righteous men in paradise. No equivalent male version exists for women (although there are indications in Islamic literature of cup-bearer boys for the homosexual enjoyment of men).<ref>[Do academics think there is a sexual connotation to this verse in Quran (76:19)? https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/xjgcsw/do_academics_think_there_is_a_sexual_connotation/].</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|56|22}}|And [for them are] fair women with large, [beautiful] eyes,}}{{Quote|{{Quran|78|33}}|and maidens with swelling breasts, like of age,}}


"‏ مَنْ ظَلَمَ قِيدَ شِبْرٍ طُوِّقَهُ مِنْ سَبْعِ أَرَضِينَ ‏"
==== Gog and Magog (Yājūj and Mājūj) ====
''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Massive wall of iron|Historical Errors in the Quran - Massive wall of iron]]''


Narrated Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Al-Harith:
The Qur'an relates a story where a servant of Allah ([[:en:Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Alexander_Romance|Dhul-Qarnayn]]) traps "Gog and Maggog" behind an iron wall where they will remain until judgment day (essentially making them creatures that live a beyond human lifespan, if not immortal), where they will then swarm the Earth. Most scholars say they are humans, for example Ibn Kathir says they are also descents of Noah through his son Yafith (Japheth), who was the father of the Turks; Turk referring to the group of them who were left behind the barrier which was built by Dhul-Qarnayn.<ref>Ibn Kathir (d 1373.) [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/21.95 ''Commentary on Verse 21:96 (95-97)'']</ref> Though others such as al-Idrisi (d. 1165) say they are monsters, with some 120 cubits high and the same length wide among other non-human descriptions.<ref>van Donzel, Emeri; Schmidt, Andrea. ''Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources: Sallam's Quest for Alexander's Wall''. Leiden: Brill. ''pp. 91-92''. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9789004174160|9789004174160]], 2010. The full book and their analysis of the journey taken by Sallam can be read on the ''[https://archive.org/details/gogandmagoginearlyeasternchristianandislamicsources/page/n109/mode/2up Internet Archive linked here.] (page 110 of 229 the PDF)''</ref> However regardless if they are monsters or humans they are still mythical as clearly they would have been found if trapped behind a giant wall until judgement day given we have explored all the land on Earth.{{Quote|{{Quran|18|94}}|They said, "O Dhul-Qarnayn, indeed Gog and Magog are [great] corrupters in the land. So may we assign for you an expenditure that you might make between us and them a barrier?"}}{{Quote|{{Quran|21|96}}|Until when [the dam of] Gog and Magog has been opened and they, from every elevation, descend}}
==== Buraq, the winged horse ====
{{Main|Buraq}}While it took one week to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem (the location of the alleged 'farthest Mosque') by camel, Islamic scripture states that a magical winged horse, called the Buraq, transported Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem in a matter of minutes. Creatures like the Buraq were common characters in near-East myths.<ref>E.g. Adnan Qureshi, Christmas in North Korea, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2020, pp. 141-142: ''Chollima joins the other mythical flying horses such as the horses of Eos, Helios, Apollo, Sol Invictus, and Pegasus (in Greek mythology), al-Buraq (a winged horse in Islamic tradition), Haizum (a heavenly winged horse, ridden by Gabriel according to Islamic tradition), Ponkhiraj (a flying horse from Bangladesh), and the wind horse (in Mongolian, ancient Turkish, and Tibetan traditions).''


from Abu Salama bin `Abdur-Rahman who had a dispute with some people on a piece of land, and so he went to `Aisha and told her about it. She said, "O Abu Salama, avoid the land, for Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, 'Any person who takes even a span of land unjustly, his neck shall be encircled with it down seven earths.' "}}Although the number is not explicitly given, the plural of word for "earth", "أرض" is used here, أرضين meaning "earths". This is used again in conjunction with the plural of the word سماء "sky" or "heavens", سموات, meaning "heavens":{{Quote|{{Bukhari|6|60|335}}| حَدَّثَنَا آدَمُ، حَدَّثَنَا شَيْبَانُ، عَنْ مَنْصُورٍ، عَنْ إِبْرَاهِيمَ، عَنْ عَبِيدَةَ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ ـ رضى الله عنه ـ قَالَ جَاءَ حَبْرٌ مِنَ الأَحْبَارِ إِلَى رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم فَقَالَ يَا مُحَمَّدُ، إِنَّا نَجِدُ أَنَّ اللَّهَ يَجْعَلُ السَّمَوَاتِ عَلَى إِصْبَعٍ وَالأَرَضِينَ عَلَى إِصْبَعٍ، وَالشَّجَرَ عَلَى إِصْبَعٍ، وَالْمَاءَ وَالثَّرَى عَلَى إِصْبَعٍ، وَسَائِرَ الْخَلاَئِقِ عَلَى إِصْبَعٍ، فَيَقُولُ أَنَا الْمَلِكُ‏.‏ فَضَحِكَ النَّبِيُّ صلى الله عليه وسلم حَتَّى بَدَتْ نَوَاجِذُهُ تَصْدِيقًا لِقَوْلِ الْحَبْرِ ثُمَّ قَرَأَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏{‏وَمَا قَدَرُوا اللَّهَ حَقَّ قَدْرِهِ وَالأَرْضُ جَمِيعًا قَبْضَتُهُ يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ وَالسَّمَوَاتُ مَطْوِيَّاتٌ بِيَمِينِهِ سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ‏}‏‏
& khosravi, M., taheri, A. (2018). 'A Comparative Study on the Image of “Buraq” in the Islamic Art with some Motifs of the Luristan Bronze', ''Journal of Archaeological Studies'', 10(2), pp. 67-81. doi: 10.22059/jarcs.2018.226529.142389</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|17|1}}|
Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). }}
===The existence of magic and sorcerers===
''Main article: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult]]''


No evidence has ever proven that magic is real. However, {{Quran|113|4}} ("evil of those who blow on knots") is reported in commentaries as referring to those who practice magic.<ref name=":022223">[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/113.4 Tafsirs for Quran 113:4]</ref> Knots were commonly associated with magic in antiquity.<ref name=":122223">Day, C. L. (1950). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520741 Knots and Knot Lore. Western Folklore], 9(3), 229–256</ref> The next verse, {{Quran|113|5}} ("evil of the envious when he envies), is said to refer to a superstitious belief known as 'The Evil Eye', a physical and mental supernatural condition that affects those who envy. For further explanation see the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult|main article]].{{Quote|{{Quran|113|1-5}}|1. Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn<BR />
Narrated `Abdullah:
2. From the evil of what He has created<BR />
3. And from the evil of the utterly dark night when it comes<BR />
<b>4. And from the evil of those who blow on knots<BR />
5. And from the evil of the envious when he envies</b>}}At least once, humans are taught magic by satans (believed to be jinn) and angels ([[w:Harut and Marut|Harut and Marut]] are named in this verse):{{Quote|{{Quran|2|102}}|and they follow what the Satans recited over Solomon's kingdom. Solomon disbelieved not, but the Satans disbelieved, <b>teaching the people sorcery,</b> and that which was sent down upon Babylon's two angels, Harut and Marut; they taught not any man, without they said, 'We are but a temptation; do not disbelieve.' From them they learned how they might divide a man and his wife, yet they did not hurt any man thereby, save by the leave of God, and they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them, knowing well that whoso buys it shall have no share in the world to come; evil then was that they sold themselves for, if they had but known.}}
=== The Holy Spirit (rūḥ al-qudus) ===
{{Main|Jibreel (Gabriel) and al-Ruh al-Qudus (the Holy Spirit) in the Qur'an}}The holy spirit in the Qur'an is presented sometimes as an angel or quasi-angelic intermediary or agent of God.<ref>''rūḥ | spirit rūḥ al-qudus | the holy spirit'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 355). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Other times as a vivifying or fortifying principle emanating from God.<ref>Ibid. pp. 357</ref> Other times it is more complex to classify.<ref>Ibid. pp. 360</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|87}}|And We did certainly give Moses the Torah and followed up after him with messengers. And We gave Jesus, the son of Mary, clear proofs and supported him with the Pure Spirit. But is it [not] that every time a messenger came to you, [O Children of Israel], with what your souls did not desire, you were arrogant? And a party [of messengers] you denied and another party you killed.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And [the example of] Mary, the daughter of ʿImrān, who guarded her chastity, so We blew into [her garment] through Our angel [i.e., Gabriel], and she believed in the words of her Lord and His scriptures and was of the devoutly obedient.}}


A (Jewish) Rabbi came to Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and he said, "O Muhammad! We learn that Allah will put all the heavens on one finger, and the earths on one finger, and the trees on one finger, and the water and the dust on one finger, and all the other created beings on one finger. Then He will say, 'I am the King.' Thereupon the Prophet (ﷺ) smiled so that his pre-molar teeth became visible, and that was the confirmation of the Rabbi. Then Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) recited: 'No just estimate have they made of Allah such as due to Him.' (Qur'an 39.67)}}
=== Sacred geography ===
Sacred (''ḥaram'')<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/06_H/076_Hrm.html ''ḥā rā mīm'' (ح ر م)] Lane's Lexicon - Quranic Research ''ḥaram'' [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0553.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 553] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0554.pdf 554]</ref> geography is in Qur'anic theology, currently in Mecca, the Ka'ba. The sacred house referred to as the sacred mosque/place of worship (''al-masjidi al-ḥarāmi'') E.g. {{Quran|17|1}} or the sacred house ''al-bayta al-haram'' {{Quran|5|2}}{{Quote|{{Quran|5|97}}|Allah has made the Ka‘bah, the Sacred House, standing for the people and [has sanctified] the sacred months and the sacrificial animals and the garlands [by which they are identified]. That is so you may know that Allah knows what is in the heavens and what is in the earth and that Allah is Knowing of all things.}}Similarly Jerusalem temple referred to as the furthest mosque (''al-masjidi al-aqṣā''), which although not directly called in the Qur'an it is implied at least was sacred, and later tradition was undecided on the matter.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. (2003). ''From the Sacred Mosque to the Remote Temple: Sūrat al-Isrā' between Text and Commentary.'' 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195137279.003.0025. </ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|17|1}}|Immaculate is He who carried His servant on a journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque whose environs We have blessed, that We might show him some of Our signs. Indeed, He is the All-hearing, the All-seeing.}}Israel is described as the holy land (''al-arḍa al-muqadasata'')<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/21_q/037_qds.html ''qāf dāl sīn'' (ق د س)] Lane's Lexicon - Quran research


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|6|60|335}}|Muhammad b. Ibrahim said that Abu Salama reported to him that there was between him and his people dispute over a piece of land, and he came to 'A'isha and mentioned that to her, whereupon she said:
''muqadasata -'' [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2497.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 2497]</ref> by Moses.
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|21}}|O my people, enter the Holy Land which Allah has ordained for you, and do not turn your backs, or you will become losers.’}}
And a sacred valley (see also: {{Quran|79|16}}).


Abu Salama, abstain from getting this land, for Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: He who usurps even a span of land would be made to wear around his neck seven earths.}}{{Quote|{{cite web| url=https://sunnah.com/mishkat:2960 | title=Mishkat al-Masabih 2960. In-book reference: Book 11, Hadith 195}}|He told of hearing God’s Messenger say, “If anyone wrongly takes a span of land God who is great and glorious will make him<b> dig it till he gets to the end of seven earths,</b> and then he will have it tied round his neck till the day of resurrection until men are judged.”
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|12}}|Indeed, I am your Lord, so remove your sandals. Indeed, you are in the sacred valley of Tuwa.}}


Ahmad transmitted it.}}
There is no evidence they are more sacred or special than anywhere else on Earth, therefore this is another superstition.
There is also a da'if/weak chain (graded by Darussalam) of narration hadith referring to this, and so while it may not come from Muhammad, it does show early (and more contemporary) understanding of the verses which was evidently not a mysterious or confusing concept to them:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3298}}|...Then he said: ‘Do you know what is under you?’ They said: ‘Allah and His Messenger know better.’ He said: ‘Indeed it is the earth.’ Then he said: ‘Do you know what is under that?’ They said: ‘Allah and His Messenger know better.’ He said: ‘Verily, below it is another earth, between the two of which is a distance of five-hundred years.’ <b>Until he enumerated seven earths:</b> ‘Between every two earths is a distance of five-hundred years.’ Then he said: ‘By the One in Whose Hand is the soul of Muhammad! If you were to send [a man] down with a rope to the lowest earth, then he would descend upon Allah.’ Then he recited: He is Al-Awwal, Al-Akhir, Az-Zahir Al-Batin, and He has knowledge over all things.”}}


==Apologetic Claims==
=== Sacred months ===
''Main article: [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam#The%20Four%20Sacred%20Months|Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam - The Four Sacred Months]]''


{{Quote||"Allah is He Who Created seven firmaments and of the earth a similar number. Through the midst of them (all) descends His command: that ye may know that Allah has power over all things, and that Allah comprehends all things In (His) Knowledge. (The Noble Quran, 65:12)"
The Quran contains a mention of four sacred (''ḥurum)''<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/06_H/076_Hrm.html ''ḥā rā mīm'' (ح ر م)] Lane's Lexicon - Quranic Research


According to Noble Verse 65:12 above, Allah Almighty created 7 Heavens for form the universe. The new scientific discovery had revealed to us that the earth that we currently live on today is also formed from seven layers. The very bottom layer contains most of the uranium and potonium ("sic") and all the materials that we need to create nuclear weapons and energy. Noble Verse 65:12 above does indeed say that the earth was created with seven layers. <BR>. . .<BR>
''ḥurumun'' [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0555.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 555]</ref> months. These are the lunar-based months Dhul Qadha, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab, from Arabic pagan beliefs (see [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam#The Four Sacred Months|main article]]). {{Quote|{{Quran|9|36-37}}|Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah since the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four months are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him]. Indeed, the postponing [sacred months] is an increase in disbelief by which those who have disbelieved are led [further] astray. They make it lawful one year and unlawful another year to correspond to the number made unlawful by Allah and [thus] make lawful what Allah has made unlawful.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5}}|And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.}}And similarly Ramaḍān is the month of fasting.
The Seven "Heavens" refers to the layers of our atmosphere.
=== Tree of immortality ===
In jannah where Adam lives, there is a tree of immortality Adam is tempted by Satan to eat from.
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|120}}|Then Satan whispered to him; he said, "O Adam, shall I direct you to the tree of eternity and possession that will not deteriorate?"}}


1. troposphere<BR>2. stratosphere<BR>3. ozone layer<BR>4. mesosphere<BR>5. thermosphere<BR>6. ionosphere<BR>7. exosphere
=== Humans agree to worship god before their existence ===
Humans are said to have verbally agreed that Allah is their lord, so they cannot say they were unaware on judgment day, most commonly taken by classical Islamic commentaries (and hadith) as a magical temporary pre-existent creation before the current life that we all forget,<ref>See commentaries such as Al-Jalalyan, Ibn Kathir and Maududi on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/7.172 Q7:172]</ref> though it is hard to know given the forgetting what the purpose of the this agreement is.{{Quote|{{Quran|7|172}}|And when (was) taken (by) your Lord from (the) Children (of) Adam - from their loins - their descendants and made them testify over themselves, "Am I not your Lord?" They said, "Yes we have testified." Lest you say (on the) Day (of) the Resurrection, "Indeed, we were about this unaware."}}
=== The soul is taken away during sleep ===
Like many other religions, the Qur'an affirms the idea that humans have a 'soul' that is separate to the physical body (the concept itself now a controversial idea now we know so much of what would be traditionally ascribed to a soul such as personality and memory comes from physical processes in the brain,<ref>Valk SL, Hoffstaedter F, Camilleri JA, Kochunov P, Yeo BTT, Eickhoff SB. ''Personality and local brain structure: Their shared genetic basis and reproducibility.'' Neuroimage. 2020 Oct 15;220:117067. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117067. Epub 2020 Jun 20. PMID: 32574809; PMCID: PMC10251206.</ref> and can be damaged by physical actions such as brain trauma<ref>[https://www.charliehealth.com/mental-health/trauma/can-trauma-cause-memory-loss Can Trauma Cause Memory Loss?] Charlie Health </ref> and psychoactive drugs<ref>Treatment for Stimulant Use Disorders: Updated 2021 [Internet]. Rockville (MD): ''Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 1999. (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 33.) Chapter 2—How Stimulants Affect the Brain and Behavior.'' Available from: <nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK576548/</nowiki></ref>).  


The Seven "Earths" refer to the layers that literally make up the Earth
According to the Qur'an, humans have souls that are taken away during sleep time.<ref>See classical commentaries on these verses such as Al-Jalalayn on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/39.42 Q39:42], [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/6.60 Q6:60] and Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/39.41 Q39:41-2] and [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/6.60 Q6:60]</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|39|42}}|<b>Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those who have not died, in their sleep.</b> Then He retains those for whom He has ordained death and releases the others until a specified time. There are indeed signs in that for a people who reflect.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|60}}|<b>It is He who takes your souls by night,</b> and He knows what you do by day, then He reanimates you therein so that a specified term may be completed. Then to Him will be your return, whereat He will inform you concerning what you used to do.}}
Because of this, classical Islamic scholars have called sleep 'a lesser death'.<ref>E.g. Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/39.41 Q39:41-2]</ref> Modern science now understands the cause and biological functions that occur during sleep are numerous and complex, and vital to the body for e.g. hormonal regulation, waste clearance, memory, the immune system etc - in highly active processes, in no accurate way comparable to death.<ref>[https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-understanding-sleep Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep]. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (.gov)


1. crust<BR>2. lithosphere<BR>3. upper mantle<BR>4. astenoshpere ("sic")<BR>5. lower mantle<BR>6. outer core<BR>7. inner core
For in depth information about what happens during sleep aimed at the general reader, see Professor Matthew Walker's ''"Why we sleep: unlocking the power of sleep and dreams"''</ref>


OR they could refer to the "7 Continents" (in the context that "al-ard" means ground)
==Miracles and myths==
Miracles and myths, often taken via prophets but other times directly by Allah are listed below. Many are absurd and contradict science.
=== Prophet Miracles ===
=== Noah (Nūḥ) ===
==== Lived to be 950+ years old ====
Noah is said to be be at least 950 years old, with many traditional Islamic commentators taking this to mean he was preaching for this long until the flood came, and was therefore older in total (many exegetes for example say he was granted prophethood at age 40),<ref>See commentaries from [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/29.14 ''Islamic scholars on Q29:14'']</ref> and we are not told how long he lives after these events, but this could easily push him to be over a 1,000 years old in total. The legendary lifespan is typical for prophets and patriarchs in from the first part of the book of Genesis in the bible and is recorded for several other patriarchs there.{{Quote|{{Quran|29|14}}|Certainly We sent Noah to his people, and he remained with them for a thousand-less-fifty years. Then the flood overtook them while they were wrongdoers.}}


1. North America<BR>2. South America<BR>3. Australia<BR>4. Asia<BR>5. Africa<BR>6. Antarctica<BR>7. Europe}}
=== Adam (ʾĀdam) ===
Adam is not said to have performed any miracles directly (or through Allah) in the Qur'an, though he was magically created from clay rather than evolving.<ref>McAuliffe, J. D. (Eds.). (01 Jan. 2001). "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān". In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Retrieved Mar 8, 2025, from <nowiki>https://brill.com/view/serial/ENQU</nowiki> ''Page 24.'' ''Adam and Eve.'' Read for [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran-6-volumes-jane-dammen-mc-auliffe/page/n61/mode/2up free on internet archive, page (62/3956) of the PDF]


==Analysis==
''The Quran mentions several materials from which Adam was created, i.e. earth or dust (twrab, Q 3:59), clay (tan, Q7:12; see cLAy), and sticky clay or mud (tin lazib). More specifically, it is described as “clay from fetid foul mud” (salsal min hama’ masnin) and “clay like earthenware,” 1.e. baked or dry clay (salsal ka-l-fakhkhar). These terms are commonly interpreted as describing the different states of a single material.'' </ref> And [[User:CPO675/Sandbox 1#The Holy Spirit (Rūḥ al-qudus)|the holy spirit]] was made to create him (e.g. {{Quran|15|29}}, {{Quran|32|6-9}} and {{Quran|38|72}}). According to the Qur'an, he lived in paradise amoung the angels (and at least one jinn who turned into 'the devil') "Allah placed Adam in a paradisical Garden. After Adam sinned by eating from the forbidden tree (Tree of Immortality) after God forbade him from doing so, then paradise was declined to him and he was sent down to live on Earth."


===Seven Layers of Earth's Atmosphere===
==== Eve (Ḥawwā') ====
Though not mentioned by name in the Qur'an, the mate miraculously created from Adam is interpreted as Eve, and named in the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=eve hadith] and commentaries. No miracles are directly attributed to her either, but she originally lived in jannah (paradise), and is also miraculously created, as Shock (2006) notes "the early commentators report that she was created from the lowest of Adam’s ribs (qusayra) — which is sometimes also understood as the shortest rib",<ref>McAuliffe, J. D. (Eds.). (01 Jan. 2001). "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān". In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Retrieved Mar 8, 2025, from <nowiki>https://brill.com/view/serial/ENQU</nowiki> ''Page 24.'' ''Adam and Eve.'' Read for [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran-6-volumes-jane-dammen-mc-auliffe/page/n61/mode/2up free on internet archive, page (62/3956) of the PDF]</ref> also [[Scientific Errors in the Quran#Evolution|contradicting evolution]] as the first woman.
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|1}}|O mankind! Be wary of your Lord who created you from a single soul, and created its mate from it, and from the two of them scattered numerous men and women. Be wary of Allah, in whose Name you adjure one another and [of severing ties with] blood relations. Indeed Allah is watchful over you.}}


Before beginning, notice that verse 37:6 says that the stars are in the lowest heaven, and thus the seven heavens cannot mean the Earth's atmosphere.  
=== Abraham (Ibrāhīm) ===
==== Magically cooling fire ====
Abraham is thrown into a fire that magically cools for him and burns only his chains.<ref>Tafsir al-Jalalayn on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/21.69 verse 21:69]</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|21|69}}|We said, ‘O fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham!’}}
==== Cut up birds and bring them back to life ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|260}}|And when Abraham said, ‘My Lord! Show me how You revive the dead,’ He said, ‘Do you not believe?’ He said, ‘Yes indeed, but in order that my heart may be at rest.’ He said, ‘Catch four of the birds. Then cut them into pieces, and place a part of them on every mountain, then call them; they will come to you hastening. And know that Allah is all-mighty and all-wise.’}}
==== '''Shown the universe''' ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|75}}|And thus did We show Abraham the realm of the heavens and the earth that he would be among the certain [in faith].}}
==== Gives Abraham and his old wife a child ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|69-73}}|“There came Our messengers to Abraham with glad tidings. They said, ‘Peace!’ He answered, ‘Peace!’ and hastened to entertain them with a roasted calf. But when he saw their hands went not towards the (meal), he felt some mistrust of them, and conceived a fear of them. They said: ‘Fear not: we have been sent against the people of Lut.’ And his wife was standing (there), and she laughed, but We gave her glad tidings of Isaac, and after him, of Jacob. She said, ‘Alas for me! shall I bear a child, seeing I am an old woman, and my husband here is an old man? That would indeed be a wonderful thing!’ They said, ‘Dost thou wonder at Allah’s decree? The grace of Allah and His blessings on you, O, ye people of the house! For He is indeed worthy of all praise, full of all glory!’”}}
=== Ishmael (ʾIsmāʿīl) ===
Ishmael is Abraham's son, who God originally asks Abraham to sacrifice Ishmael to prove his devotion ({{Quran|37|100-108}}). Ishmael agrees but God swaps him with a ram (according to Islamic commentaries on this verse) before he completes it.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/37.107 verse 37:107]</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|107}}|And We ransomed him with a sacrifice great,}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}}
=== Abel (Hābīl) and Cane (Qābīl) ===
A raven sent from God shows Abel where to bury his brother Cain.{{Quote|{{Quran|5|31}}|Then Allah sent a crow, exploring in the ground, to show him how to bury the corpse of his brother. He said, ‘Woe to me! Am I unable to be [even] like this crow and bury my brother’s corpse?’ Thus he became regretful.}}


=== Jonah (Yunus) ===


Nevertheless, let's look again at the apologetic claim:
==== Living inside a big fish ====
The Quran presents a version of the Biblical tale in which Jonah is swallowed by a whale ('the big Fish') and then lives in the whale for some time while praying. This legendary account is copied from the simiarly fantastic account in the bible's book of Jonah.{{Quote|{{Quran|37|142}}|Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah, He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth, on the naked shore in a state of sickness}}


{{Quote||
=== Joseph (Yūsuf) ===
The Seven "Heavens" refers to the layers of our atmosphere.
==== Dream interpreting ====
Birds are seen in a dream which Joseph interprets in reality.{{Quote|{{Quran|12|36-41}}|There entered the prison two youths along with him. One of them said, ‘I dreamt that I am pressing grapes.’ The other said, ‘I dreamt that I am carrying bread on my head from which the birds are eating.’ ‘Inform us of its interpretation,’ [they said], ‘for indeed we see you to be a virtuous man.’ He said, ‘Before the meals you are served come to you I will inform you of its interpretation. That is among things my Lord has taught me. Indeed, I renounce the creed of the people who have no faith in Allah and who [also] disbelieve in the Hereafter... ...O my prison mates! As for one of you, he will serve wine to his master, and as for the other, he will be crucified and vultures will eat from his head. The matter about which you inquire has been decided.’}}


1. troposphere<BR>2. stratosphere<BR>3. ozone layer<BR>4. mesosphere<BR>5. thermosphere<BR>6. ionosphere<BR>7. exosphere}}
==== A shirt regains his sons sight ====
Here, Jacob (Ya'qūb) (Joseph's son e.g. {{Quran|12|80}}) is blind, and when Joseph arranges for him to be brought to Egypt for their reunion, he instructs his brothers to place the shirt on Jacob's face, miraculously restoring his sight.
{{Quote|{{Quran|12|93-96}}|Take this shirt of mine, and cast it upon my father’s face; he will regain his sight, and bring me all your folks.’ As the caravan set off, their father said, ‘I sense the scent of Joseph, if you will not consider me a dotard.’ They said, ‘By God, you persist in your inveterate error.’ When the bearer of good news arrived, he cast it on his face, and he regained his sight. He said, ‘Did I not tell you, ‘‘I know from Allah what you do not know?’’ ’}}


There is only one atmosphere, but you can classify this one atmosphere by different criteria.
=== Job (Ayyūb) ===
If you partition it by temperature, you get 5 layers. By aerodynamical state 4 layers, by radiophysical state 3 layers and by chemical processes 2 layers. There is no classification into 7 layers.


To reach the needed "seven layers" different criteria are being mixed to reach the desired number 7. For example, Earth's atmosphere is commonly divided into five main layers based on temperature. From highest to lowest, these layers are:
==== Magic water spring ====
Though he doesn't seem to perform any miracles directly like Jesus or Moses in the Qur'an, Allah instructs him to strike the ground with his foot, and a spring of water emerges, which heals him.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/38.42 verse 38:42]</ref> This might be considered a divine blessing or sign rather than a miracle performed by Job himself.


#Exosphere
{{Quote|{{Quran|38|42}}|[We told him:] ‘Stamp your foot on the ground; this [ensuing spring] will be a cooling bath and drink.’}}
#Thermosphere
#Mesosphere
#Stratosphere
#Troposphere


Within the five principal layers which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
=== Moses (Mūsā) ===
==== Sea split in half ====
The Quran present a version of the Biblical story where Moses splits the sea and crosses it with the Israelites. The entire Moses story as we have it both in the bible and derived forms such as the Qur'an is wholy legendary in nature as there's no evidence from the record of Egypt's ancient history that Moses ever existed.
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|50}}|
And remember '''We divided the sea for you''' and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight. }}


#Ozone layer
==== Stick turned serpent ====
#Ionosphere
The Quran states that Moses' staff transformed into a serpent.{{Quote|{{Quran|7|107}}|
#Homosphere and heterosphere
Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }}
#Planetary boundary layer<ref>{{cite web|url= http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth|title= Atmosphere of Earth|publisher= Wikipedia|author= |date= accessed January 2, 2014|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAtmosphere_of_Earth&date=2014-01-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref>
==== Plagues of Egypt ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|133}}|So We sent against them a flood and locusts, lice, frogs and blood, as distinct signs. But they acted arrogantly, and they were a guilty lot.}}
==== Mountain lifted up and dropped in front of him (from Allah) ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|143}}|When Moses arrived at Our tryst and his Lord spoke to him, he said, ‘My Lord, show [Yourself] to me, that I may look at You!’ He said, ‘You shall not see Me. But look at the mountain: if it abides in its place, then you will see Me.’ So when his Lord disclosed Himself to the mountain, He levelled it, and Moses fell down swooning. When he recovered, he said, ‘Immaculate are You! I turn to You in penitence, and I am the first of the faithful.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|2|63}}|And when We took a pledge from you, and raised the Mount above you, [declaring], ‘Hold on with power to what We have given you and remember that which is in it so that you may be Godwary.’}}
==== Moses's magic white hand ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|27|12}}|‘Insert your hand into your shirt. It will emerge white and bright, without any fault—among nine signs meant for Pharaoh and his people. Indeed they are a transgressing lot.’}}
==== 12 Springs magically appear from a rock ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|12|60}}|And when Moses prayed for water for his people, We said, ‘Strike the rock with your staff.’ Thereat twelve fountains gushed forth from it; every tribe came to know its drinking-place. ‘Eat and drink of Allah’s provision, and do not act wickedly on the earth, causing corruption.’}}
==== Dead fish (for food) comes back to life at the junction of the two seas ====
{{Main|A Barrier Between Two Seas and the Cosmic Ocean}}Moses's dead fish comes back to life at the junction of the two seas, in a verse [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature#Moses, his servant and the fish|paralleling late antique Christian literature.]] {{Quote|{{Quran|18|61-63}}|So when they reached the confluence between them, they forgot their fish, which found its way into the sea, sneaking away. Then when they had passed beyond he said to his boy, "Bring us our morning meal. Certainly we have suffered in our journey this, fatigue." He said, 'What thinkest thou? When we took refuge in the rock, then I forgot the fish-and it was Satan himself that made me forget it so that I should not remember it -- and so it took its way into the sea in a manner marvellous.'}}
==== Mooing statue ====
The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}}
==== Testimony of a dead man by slapping a cow ====
The Quran states that Allah instructed a group of people to strike a murdered man with a piece of a heifer (young female cow that has not yet borne a calf) in order to temporarily resurrect him and discover the identity of the murderer.{{Quote|{{Quran|2|73}}|
And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand. }}
==== Korah (Qārūn) swallowed ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|76-82}}|Korah indeed belonged to the people of Moses, but he bullied them. We had given him so much treasures that their chests indeed proved heavy for a band of stalwarts. When his people said to him, ‘Do not boast! Indeed Allah does not like the boasters. Seek the abode of the Hereafter by means of what Allah has given you, while not forgetting your share of this world. Be good [to others] just as Allah has been good to you, and do not try to cause corruption in the land. Indeed Allah does not like the agents of corruption.’... ...So We caused the earth to swallow him and his house, and he had no party that might protect him from Allah, nor could he rescue himself. By dawn those who longed to be in his place the day before were saying, ‘Don’t you see that Allah expands the provision for whomever He wishes of His servants, and tightens it? Had Allah not shown us favour, He might have made the earth swallow us too. Don’t you see that the faithless do not prosper?’}}


[[Apologists]] include all five principle layers in their count, then arbitrarily add the ozone layer (which is contained within the stratosphere) and the ionosphere (which forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere) to reach the desired number 7.
==== His audience are killed by a thunderbolt then brought back to life ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|55}}|And when you said, ‘O Moses, we will not believe you until we see Allah visibly.’ Thereupon a thunderbolt seized you as you looked on. Then We revived you from after your death, so that you may (be) grateful.}}


If two of the secondary layers are included in the total count, there is no logically viable reason to exclude the planetary boundary layer (the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface) or the homosphere and heterosphere (which are contained within all five principle layers).
=== David (Dāwūd) ===
==== Understanding birds ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|27|16}}|Solomon inherited from David, and he said, ‘O people! We have been taught the speech of the birds, and we have been given out of everything. Indeed this is a manifest advantage.’}}
==== Mountains and birds sing psalms ====
The Qur'an states that hills and birds would sing the psalms with David.{{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}|
And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him}}
==== Allah making iron soft for David ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}|Certainly We gave David our grace: ‘O mountains and birds, chime in with him!’ And We made iron soft for him.}}
=== Solomon (Sulaymān) ===
==== Solomon's Army of jinn and birds (controlling them) ====
A story in the Qur'an, drawing on Jewish folklore, states that Solomon commanded a massive army comprised of 'Jinns and men and birds'. Solomon is described as speaking with a Hoopoe bird and thereafter desiring to execute the bird when it is tardy to his assembly. The Hoopoe bird, it is then revealed, was only delayed because it had been spying on a beautiful female ruler, Queen Sheba, who Solomon subsequently insists is misguided and must be conquered. At this point, Solomon assigns a Jinn from his assembly the task of stealing Queen Sheba's magnificent throne. All of these fantastic elements evince the legendary and folkloric origins of the story.


===Seven Layers of the Earth===
{{Quote|{{Quran|27|16-17}}|
And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts― of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|27|20-23}}|
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.}}


{{Quote||
==== Fountain of bronze ====
The Seven "Earths" refer to the layers that literally make up the Earth
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|12}}|And We caused a fount of (molten) brass to flow for him, and there were jinns that worked in front of him, by the Leave of his Lord, and whosoever of them turned aside from Our Command, We shall cause him to taste of the torment of the blazing Fire.}}
==== Solomon speaks to an ant ====
Solomon understands the speech of an ant advising caution to his fellows{{Quote|{{Quran|27|18}}|When they came to the Valley of Ants, an ant said, ‘O ants! Enter your dwellings, lest Solomon and his hosts should trample on you while they are unaware.’}}
==== Solomons dead body doesn't decompose properly ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|14}}|When We decreed death for him, nothing apprised them of his death except a worm which gnawed away at his staff. And when he fell down, [the humans] realized that had the jinn known the Unseen, they would not have remained in a humiliating torment.}}
==== Manipulating the wind ====
The Quran says that Solomon had the power to control the wind and traditional sources elaborate that Solomon could use this wind to fly upon a gigantic wooden carpet to wherever he pleased.{{Quote|{{Quran|38|36}}|
Then We subjected the wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, Whithersoever he willed  }}{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn-Kathir on 21:81 | A flying carpet made from wood, on top of which he could carry everything in his kingdom including chairs, to wherever Solomon wants to go, whilst flocks of birds would fly over to give shade }}
=== Zechariah (Zakariyā) ===
==== Cures his wife barreness ====
This produces John the Baptist (Yaḥyā) in the Qur'an.{{Quote|{{Quran|21|89-90}}|“And (remember) Zakariya, when he cried to his Lord: ‘O, my Lord! leave me not childless, and Thou art the best of inheritors.’ So We responded to him, and We granted him Yahya, We cured his wife’s (barrenness) for him. These (three) were ever quick in emulation in good works; they used to call on Us with love and reverence, and humble themselves before Us.”}}
=== Jesus (ʿĪsā) ===
{{Main|Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)}}
==== Born from Mary (Mariam) who was a virgin ====
Like the bible, and other pagan mythologies,<ref>[https://www.richardcarrier.info/archives/11161 Virgin Birth: It’s Pagan, Guys.] Get Over It. PhD Richard Carrier.  2016.</ref> Jesus is also born from a virgin, provided by the holy spirit; usually taken as a reference the angel Gabriel here. Given he is not the son of God, it is unclear what the purpose of this is.{{Quote|{{Quran|19|17-21}}|Thus did she seclude herself from them, whereupon We sent to her Our Spirit and he became incarnate for her as a well-proportioned human. She said, ‘I seek the protection of the All-beneficent from you, should you be Godwary!’ He said, ‘I am only a messenger of your Lord that I may give you a pure son.’
She said, ‘How shall I have a child seeing that no human being has ever touched me, nor have I been unchaste?’ He said, ‘So shall it be. Your Lord says, ‘‘It is simple for Me.’’ And so that We may make him a sign for mankind and a mercy from Us, and it is a matter [already] decided.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And the example of Maryam the daughter of Imran, who guarded her chastity – We therefore breathed into her a Spirit from Ourselves – and she testified for the Words of her Lord and His Books, and was among the obedient.}}
==== Jesus talking from his Cradle ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|45-46}}|(And remember) when the angels said: O Mary! Lo! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a word from him, whose name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, illustrious in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those brought near (unto Allah). He will speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood, and he is of the righteous.}}
==== Supernatural food ====
The Qur'an states that Jesus received a feast sent down from heaven.{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|114|115}}|
Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! '''Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us''', for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers. Allah said: Lo! I send it down for you. And whoso disbelieveth of you afterward, him surely will I punish with a punishment wherewith I have not punished any of (My) creatures.}}
==== Magically curing the Blind and Lepersy affected ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|49}}|and [he will be] an apostle to the Children of Israel, [and he will declare,] “I have certainly brought you a sign from your Lord: I will create for you the form of a bird out of clay, then I will breathe into it, and it will become a bird by Allah’s leave. I heal the blind and the leper and I revive the dead by Allah’s leave. I will tell you what you have eaten and what you have stored in your houses. There is indeed a sign in that for you, should you be faithful.}}
==== Raising the dead ====
See above {{Quran|3|49}}
==== Clay birds becoming alive ====
See above {{Quran|3|49}}
=== Luqman (Luq'mān) ===
==== Given special wisdom ====
Luq'mān - believed to be a common pre-Islamic sage, though his identity is disputed,<ref name=":1">''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. pp. 242-243.'' A.H.M. Zahniser. 2021.


1. crust<BR>2. lithosphere<BR>3. upper mantle<BR>4. astenoshpere ("sic")<BR>5. lower mantle<BR>6. outer core<BR>7. inner core}}
Pages (1458-1460/3956) of [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran-6-volumes-jane-dammen-mc-auliffe/page/n1457/mode/2up?q=luqman free book on Intranet Archive]</ref> and may simply be an amalgamation of different characters, as local Arabian tales are brought into salvation history.<ref>E.g. like the destruction of Thamūd, see:  Sinai, Nicolai. “[https://almuslih.org/wp-content/uploads/Library/Sinai,%20N%20-%20Religious%20poetry.pdf Religious Poetry from the Quranic Milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Ṣalt on the Fate of the Thamūd.]” ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' 74, no. 3 (2011): 397–416. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X11000309</nowiki>.</ref> In the Qur'an God gives him a special widsom (''al-ḥik'mata)''<ref>''[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/06_H/152_Hkm.html ḥā kāf mīm (ح ك م)]'' root on Qur'anic Research.net


Note the same dishonest approach taken to assign seven layers of the atmosphere - i.e. the ''double counting of layers''.  
See: Lane's Lexicon classical Arabic dictionary Book 1 [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0617.pdf pp.617] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0618.pdf pp.618] </ref> although most classical Islamic scholars agree that he was still not a prophet.<ref name=":1" />


There is also no linguistical evidence or historical examples for 'al-ard meaning or being used for layer(s) of the planet.  
{{Quote|{{Quran|31|12-13}}|And We had certainly given Luqman wisdom [and said], "Be grateful to Allah." And whoever is grateful is grateful for [the benefit of] himself. And whoever denies [His favor] - then indeed, Allah is Free of need and Praiseworthy. And [mention, O Muhammad], when Luqman said to his son while he was instructing him, "O my son, do not associate [anything] with Allah. Indeed, association [with him] is great injustice."}}
=== Saleh (Ṣāliḥ) ===
==== The She-Camel of Saleh (Ṣāliḥ) ====
A camel appears to the people of Thamūd from a rock after the unbelieving people ask for a sign Salih is a prophet.<ref>See commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/7.73 on verse 7:73]</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|7|73}}|And to [the people of] Thamud [We sent] Salih, their brother. He said, ‘O my people, worship Allah! You have no other god besides Him. There has certainly come to you a manifest proof from your Lord. This she-camel of Allah is a sign for you. Let her alone to graze [freely] in Allah’s land, and do not cause her any harm, for then you shall be seized by a painful punishment.}}
=== Allah Miracles - Misc. ===
==== Speaking body parts ====
The Quran states that human organs will, on the Day of Judgement, testify against their own persons.{{Quote|{{Quran|24|24}}|
On the Day when their tongues, their hands, and their feet will bear witness against them as to their actions. }}
==== Army of magic birds attacking Abraha's army ====
''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Surah%20of%20the%20elephant|Historical Errors in the Quran - Surah of the elephant]]''


'''The general scientific view is that the earth is composed of four (the dominant view)<ref>[https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-earth-structure/ ''Earth Structure'']. Education. National Geographic. </ref>'''<ref>''[https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/08/26/4-layers-of-the-earth-made-easy/ 4 Layers Of The Earth Made Easy.]'' Forbes - Innovation - Science. Trevor Nace. 2019</ref> '''or five major layers depending on whether one splits the mantle or not.<ref>Lisa Gardiner - [http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Interior_Structure/interior.html&edu=high Structure of the Interior of Earth] - Windows to the Universe, January 18, 2010</ref><ref>Eugene C. Robertson - [http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/ The Interior of the Earth] - U.S. Geological Survey, May 21, 2007</ref><ref>Maggi Glasscoe - [http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm Structure of the Earth] - Southern California Integrated GPS Network (SCIGN), August 14, 1998</ref>'''
{{Quote|{{Quran|105|1-5}}|Have you not regarded how your Lord dealt with the army of the elephants?<br> Did He not make their stratagems go awry,<br> and send against them flocks of birds <br> hurling against them stones of baked clay <br> Then He made them like straw eaten up.}}
==== Jews transformed into pigs and apes as a punishment ====
The Qur'an records a miraculous event where Sabbath breakers are transformed into apes and pigs.{{Quote|{{Quran|2|65}}|
And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected." }}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|166}}|When they defied [the command pertaining to] what they were forbidden from, We said to them, ‘Be you spurned apes.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|5|60}}|Say, ‘Shall I inform you concerning something worse than that as a requital from Allah? Those whom Allah has cursed and with whom He is wrathful, and turned some of whom into apes and swine, and worshippers of fake deities! Such are in a worse situation and more astray from the right way.’}}
==== Vivifying Rainfall and Resurrection ====
Rainfall is seen as bringing dead back to life, a common belief in antiquity.<ref>''Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context. pp28.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19</nowiki>. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19</nowiki></ref> Hence the Qur'an repeatedly asserts that just as rainfall revives a barren land, people will likewise be resurrected. However, with our current scientific knowledge, this is now a non-sequitur leap as now we can explain the natural process of germination<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/science/germination Germination] - botany - Life Cycle, Processes & Properties - Britannica</ref> rather than magic through God. So as the revival of plant life is a scientific process, and human resurrection is not, the proof of one is not proof of the other.{{Quote|{{Quran|35|9}}|It is Allah Who sends forth the Winds, so that they raise up the Clouds, and We drive them to a land that is dead, and revive the earth therewith after its death: even so (will be) the Resurrection!}}{{Quote|{{Quran|43|11}}|That sends down (from time to time) rain from the sky in due measure;- and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead; even so will ye be raised (from the dead);}}{{Quote|{{Quran|41|39}}|And among His Signs in this: thou seest the earth barren and desolate; but when We send down rain to it, it is stirred to life and yields increase. Truly, He Who gives life to the (dead) earth can surely give life to (men) who are dead. For He has power over all things.}}
==== A man is killed for 100 years then resurrected ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|259}}|Or him who came upon a township as it lay fallen on its trellises. He said, ‘How will Allah revive this after its death?!’ So Allah made him die for a hundred years, then He resurrected him. He said, ‘How long did you remain?’ Said he, ‘I have remained a day or part of a day.’ He said, ‘No, you have remained a hundred years. Now look at your food and drink which have not rotted! Then look at your donkey! [This was done] that We may make you a sign for mankind. And now look at its bones, how We raise them up and clothe them with flesh!’ When it became evident to him, he said, ‘I know that Allah has power over all things.’}}


The five layers are as follows:
===== As is his donkey =====
See above {{Quran|2|259}}


#crust
===== And his food is kept from rotting =====
#upper mantle
See above {{Quran|2|259}}
#lower mantle
#outer core
#inner core


==== Seven people are kept sleeping for three-hundred and nine years ====
{{Main|Seven Sleepers of Ephesus in the Quran}}{{Quote|{{Quran|18|25}}|So they stayed in their Cave three hundred years, and (some) add nine (more).}}And a dog keeps watch over them, presumably also given a supernatural lifespan.
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|18}}|You will suppose them to be awake, although they are asleep. We turn them to the right and to the left, and their dog [lies] stretching its forelegs at the threshold. If you come upon them, you will surely turn to flee from them, and you will surely be filled with a terror of them.}}


<center>[[File:Lithosphere.gif|450px]]</center>
==== The Earth will throw out things on judgement day ====
Classical Islamic commentators explain this can include all kinds of things, including dead people (which in reality would have rotted and not necessarily be in the Earth itself), things to do with their crimes, treasure and metals, and others.<ref>See [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/99.2 commentaries on Quran 99:2]</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|99|2}}|And brings forth the earth its burdens,}}
== Natural processes ascribed to God and magical properties assigned to inanimate objects ==
It could be argued that there is no randomness or natural law in the Qur'an, but rather every single thing including all causal events and interactions are not the results of material conditions and conjunctions, but rather determined by God/Allah's current will; an opinion argued by many Muslim theologians,<ref>Rudolph, Ulrich, 'Occasionalism', in Sabine Schmidtke (ed.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology'', Oxford Handbooks (2016; online edn, Oxford Academic, 3 Mar. 2014), <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.39</nowiki>, accessed 28 Mar. 2025.</ref> such as al-Ghazālī who claims that God is the ultimate cause.<ref>[https://www.ghazali.org/articles/kamali.htm CAUSALITY AND DIVINE ACTION: THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE.] Mohammad Hashim Kamali. Ghazali.org</ref>
Decharneux (2023) highlights that God in the Qur'an is highly active in the cosmos, not just at the beginning of creation to set the world in place.{{Quote|Decharneux, Julien. De Gruyter. 2023. <i>Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (pp. 143).</i>|The text repeatedly ascribes to God the cosmic role of sustaining the world. God continuously provides humans with food and necessary supplies (e. g. Q 6:96, 7:9, 26:75, 28:57, 29:60, 30:40, 34:24, 36:71 – 73). He is also responsible for the regularity of astral motions in the sky (e. g. Q 7:54, 13:2, 14:33, 16:12, 29:61, 31:29, 35:13, 39:5), for the succession of day and night (e. g. Q 14:33, 16:12), as well as any other things that allow humans to live on a daily basis. All these passages show that the Qur’ān grants to the theme of the creatio continua (“continuous creation”; i. e. maintenance of the universe) a prominent place within the overall Qur’ānic cosmological discourse. This is hardly surprising given the natural theological system described in the first chapter. God’s creatorship is observable in the cycles and the regularity of the world.}}And similarly Sinai (2023).{{Quote|<i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 62-63). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|Even after having been fully set up, the natural realm is thus in no way causally independent of its creator, whom Q 55:29 describes as incessantly busy (kulla yawmin huwa fī shaʾn, “everyday he is engaged in something”).}}In similar fashion to the control seen in the doctrine of [[:en:Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Predestination#Qur'an|Predestination in the Qur'an]], events aren't given a somewhat random cause and effect of individual people working within the laws of nature that have been set, but rather God interacts constantly. He (Allāh) regulates affairs from the heaven to the earth {{Quran|32|5}}, gives favour to people {{Quran|16|53}} and chooses when they die {{Quran|32|11}}, as with every nation {{Quran|7|34}} and thing {{Quran|6|67}}. He is seen as deciding the outcome of battles {{Quran|36|74-75}} (which other gods cannot {{Quran|46|28}}) and working through believers to fight unbelievers {{Quran|8|17}}<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 2.4 An Act of God by Human Hands (p. 58-59) (Kindle Edition pp. 165-166)'' Lexington Books. 2018.</ref> and sending invisible angels to Muhammad {{Quran|3|123-126}}, {{Quran|33|9}}, {{Quran|9|26}} (cf: {{Quran|3|123-126}}) etc.


=== Natural processes explained by science as miracles ===


There are two ways to classify the composition of the geosphere - chemically, into crust, mantle, and core, or functionally, in the case of the outer layers (crust and mantle) into lithosphere and asthenosphere.<ref>Dr. Michael Pidwirny - [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10h.html Fundamentals of Physical Geography/ Structure of the Earth] - 2nd Edition, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.palaeos.com/Earth/Geosphere/structure.htm The history of life on Earth] - Palaeos</ref>
==== Wind & rain ====
Wind is seen as a sign of God {{Quran|35|9}} rather than from heat differences,<ref>[https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/wind/ Wind explained.] U.S Energy information Administration. Last reviewed December 2023. </ref> and God is said to bring down rain, rather than the natural process of water droplets<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/science/water-cycle Water Cycle Entry] - Britannica


[https://scijinks.gov/rain/ What Makes It Rain?] Water and Ice. NOAA SciJinks.gov </ref> condensing onto one another within a cloud, causing the droplets to grow - which when these water droplets get too heavy to stay suspended in the cloud, they fall to Earth as rain (cf: {{Quran|43|11}}). This is in line with the pre-Islamic Arabic poets worldview. <ref>See [https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:977914cb-d783-4949-aed4-f0b6c2eaa562/files/m34f1a166246ec073a79d42ea09d9cc1a Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry], ''pp. 15, pp.18, pp. 27-30: Chapter 6. Allāh as Creator and Provider of Rain.'' New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 2019. Essay 15. Nicolai Sinai. </ref>


<center>[[File:Geosphere.gif]]</center>
==== Lightning ====
The Qur'an states that lighting is a sign shown by god for fear (''khawfan'') and hope (''waṭamaʿan),'' however now we know that lightening is simply an electrical phenomena caused by negative and positive charges in clouds or between the cloud and the ground build up and suddenly discharge, creating a bright flash,<ref name=":0">[https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning-science-overview Understanding Lightning Science.] Safety. National Weather Service.</ref> (i.e. explained by science), it is difficult to see why it would give people hope.
{{Quote|{{Quran|30|24}}|And among His Signs, He shows you the lightning, by way both of fear and of hope, and He sends down rain from the sky and with it gives life to the earth after it is dead}}


==== Ships sailing ====
Allah causes ships to stay afloat (and presumably sink) ({{Quran|55|24}}, {{Quran|17|70}}, {{Quran|17|66}}) rather than the scientific principle of buoyancy<ref>[https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/why-do-ships-float Why do ships float?] Amy McDonald. 2019. STEM Explained. Let's Talk Science</ref> (and essentially randomness of those who's boats do not work).


==== The baby's sex and Infertility ====
Allah is said to cause infertility, which we now know has many medical causes, some of which are preventable.<ref>[https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infertility/symptoms-causes/syc-20354317 Infertility - Symptoms and causes.] Diseases & conditions. Mayo Clinic.org</ref> 
{{Quote|{{Quran|42|49-50}}|He creates whatever He wants and bestows female to whomever He wants and bestows male to whomever He wants. Or He mingles them, males and females, and He makes barren whom He pleases. Lo! He is Knower, Powerful.}}


From the evidence above, one can see the apologetic deceit because they double-count the lithosphere/asthenosphere while they also count the crust and upper mantle. Note that this is dishonest because these are alternative classifications.<ref>''[https://www.snexplores.org/article/explainer-earth-layer-layer#:~:text=Starting%20at%20the%20center%2C%20Earth,12%20kilometers%20(7.6%20miles). Explainer: Earth — layer by layer.]'' Earth. Science News Explores. Beth Geiger. 2019.</ref> One cannot honestly count all lithosphere, asthenosphere, crust, and upper mantle together as one would be recounting the same rocks.  
==== The embryo's sex ====
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran}}
In the same verse as above {{Quran|42|49-50}} God is said to decide who is male and who is female, rather than the sex chromosome of the sperm cell that fertilizes the ovum.<ref>For a simple explanation, see: ''[https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/week2.html#:~:text=Every%20egg%20has%20an%20X,baby%20will%20be%20a%20boy. Pregnancy Calendar: Your Baby's Development] Kidshealth.org'' or ''Pampers: [https://www.pampers.co.uk/pregnancy/pregnancy-symptoms/article/what-determines-the-sex-of-a-baby At What Point is a Baby's Sex Determined? 2023.]''</ref> A sahih hadith clarifies that this is determined by whether the mother or father reaches sexual climax first.<ref>{{Bukhari|4|55|546}}</ref>


Recently new scientific hypotheses proposed by J. Marvin Herndon and Prof Xiaodong Song suggest the inner core may be further subdivided into four layers; the inner core, the innermost core, a sub-shell of fission material and decay products, and a subcore of uranium and plutonium forming the georeactor.<ref>D. F. Hollenbach, and J. M. Herndon - [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/20/11085 Deep-Earth reactor: Nuclear fission, helium, and the geomagnetic field] - PNAS 2001 vol. 98 no. 20 pp 11085-11090</ref> If this new theory is accepted the number of layers of the earth will rise from five to eight.  
=== Inanimate objects and animals worship God ===
Inanimate objects that do not have a consciousness like those with complex brains, so are not capable of worshipping anything.


It should also be noted here that there is overlap between the chemical and physical designations of layers, specifically at the core-mantle boundary,<ref>''An Introduction to Geology'' (Johnson, Affolter, Inkenbrandt, and Mosher) ''[https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt_and_Mosher)/02%3A_Plate_Tectonics/2.02%3A_Layers_of_the_Earth 2.2: Layers of the Earth]. Physical Layers.'' Salt Lake Community College via OpenGeology. Libretexts: Geosciences.</ref> making it more difficult to fully class them as separate distinct 'earths'.
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|13}}|<b>The Thunder celebrates His praise,</b> and the angels [too], in awe of Him, and He releases the thunderbolts and strikes with them whomever He wishes. Yet they dispute concerning Allah, though He is great in might.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|22|18}}|Have you not regarded that whoever is in the heavens and whoever is on the earth prostrates to Allah, as well as the sun, the moon, and the stars, the mountains, the trees, and the animals and many humans? And many have come to deserve the punishment. Whomever Allah humiliates will find no one who may bring him honour. Indeed Allah does whatever He wishes.}}


Apologists sometimes depict the hydrosphere in their diagrams but are themselves inconsistent in counting/not counting it as one of their seven layers. Even on the crust, there are many layers of rocks one below the other.<ref>For example, here are the illustrated layers of [https://www.nps.gov/zion/learn/nature/images/ZionStratColumn_small_1.jpg Zion National Park], [http://www.grandcanyonguide.net/sites/default/files/geologic-cross-section-photo_1000.png Grand Canyon], [https://www.steinmann.uni-bonn.de/arbeitsgruppen/strukturgeologie/lehre/wissen-gratis/Abb.315ProfileNKA.jpg the Alps] and [http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/39076000/gif/_39076834_everest_composition_inf416.gif Himalayas].</ref> Their exact number varies from place to place but they can easily number in dozens, and the diversity of these rock layers forms the very basis of geology. Why are apologists ignoring these layers ( e.g. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum strata]) that could easily mean the Earth could be classified as having many more with a natural creation basis of classification?
Even their shadows do somehow.


===Seven Continents of the Earth===
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|15}}|To Allah prostrates whoever there is in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, and their shadows at sunrise and sunset.}}Everything in the cosmos (presumably covering the vast amounts of near-empty space and elements) worships and prostrates before him, as does every animal and angel, all allegedly fearing God ({{Quran|16|49-50}}, {{Quran|22|18}}), including the birds, which do so while flying ({{Quran|24|41}}), and trees ({{Quran|55|6}}).


The same apologists try to hedge their bets by claiming it is either seven layers or seven continents.
==== Inanimate objects refused the task of being God's followers, but humans accepted ====
It is hard to know what was meant by this or why Allah would offer an inanimate object with no biology for consciousness that he already knew couldn't answer the task, nor how they refused it. Some classical Islamic commentaries say they could speak at the time.<ref>E.g. Al-Jalalayn on verse [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/33.72 33:72]</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|33|72}}|Indeed We presented the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they refused to undertake it and were apprehensive of it; but man undertook it. Indeed he is most unjust and ignorant.}}


{{Quote||OR they could refer to the "7 Continents" (in the context that "al-ard" means ground)<BR>1. North America<BR>2. South America<BR>3. Australia<BR>4. Asia<BR>5. Africa<BR>6. Antarctica<BR>7. Europe}}
=== Allah speaks to the heavens/skies and the earth and they respond ===
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|11}}|Then He turned towards the heaven when it was smoke, saying to it and to the earth, ‘Submit, willingly or unwillingly.’ They both responded, ‘We submit willingly.’"}}
=== Anthropomorphisms of Allāh ===
Allah is not a totally transcendent God, as he is described as having human features in several verses in the Qur'an. Many hadith also support this view.<ref>Holtzman, L. (2018). [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Anthropomorphism_in_Islam/BPdJEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 Anthropomorphism in Islam: The Challenge of Traditionalism (700-1350)]. United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press.  


The former explanation (seven layers) would seem more accurate as all translations refer to "earth" and not ground. Nevertheless, although the number of continents is traditionally considered seven, some geographers and scientists think there are only six as Europe and Asia are technically a single land mass (i.e. Eurasia) and on the same tectonic plate.<ref>Matt Rosenberg - [http://geography.about.com/library/misc/blcont.htm Continents] - About.com</ref> Therefore, the traditional number of seven continents is more a cultural bias than an actual geographical/geological fact stemmed in nature.
See many examples and debates around their authenticity in early Islam in ''Chapters 1, 2 and 3.''</ref>
==== Hands ====
Sinai (2023) notes the parallels with pre-Islamic and contemporary literature suggesting that these verses are to be taken literally.<ref><i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 73-74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.


===Seven Earths===
''...in Q 38:75 God upbraids Iblīs for failing to “prostrate to what I have created with my hands,” bi-yadayya. As recognised by al-Ashʿarī (Gimaret 1990, 326), the point of God’s statement here is presumably to highlight a trait of Adam that endows him with peculiar dignity and elevates him over Iblīs—namely, the fact that God has formed Adam in a more intimate fashion than other creatures. Hence, although the Qur’anic God is perfectly capable of creating by verbal fiat, as maintained in places like Q 2:117 and 3:47 (when God “decides on [creating] something, he merely says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is,” idhā qaḍā amran fa-innamā yaqūlu lahu kun fa-yakūn), he can also create in what is literally a hands-on manner, by making use of his own limbs.<sup>106</sup> In passing, one may note that the claim that humans were fashioned manually has pre-Qur’anic parallels that lend further support to taking it quite literally. According to Aphrahat, Adam alone was created by God’s own hands while everything else was created by God’s word (Demonstrations 13:11 = Parisot 1894, 563–566, identified in BEQ 46). The same idea is developed at length by Jacob of Sarug (Mathews 2020, 46–51, ll. 2157–2194): whereas all other creatures were brought into existence by a divine “signal” (remzā; cf. Decharneux 2019, 244–245), Adam was uniquely created by God’s hands (l. 2169)—an instance of divine self-abasement that prefigures the incarnation of Christ (ll. 2189–2194). The Cave of Treasures also reports that Adam was shaped by God’s “holy hands” (Ri 1987, ch. 2:12; see Zellentin 2017, 109).<sup>107</sup>''</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|38|75}}|He said, ‘O Iblis! What keeps you from prostrating before that which I have created with <b>My [own] two hands?</b> Are you arrogant, or are you one of the exalted ones?’}}
{{Quote|<i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 73-74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|2=...in Q 38:75 God upbraids Iblīs for failing to “prostrate to what I have created with my hands,” bi-yadayya. As recognised by al-Ashʿarī (Gimaret 1990, 326), the point of God’s statement here is presumably to highlight a trait of Adam that endows him with peculiar dignity and elevates him over Iblīs—namely, the fact that God has formed Adam in a more intimate fashion than other creatures. Hence, although the Qur’anic God is perfectly capable of creating by verbal fiat, as maintained in places like Q 2:117 and 3:47 (when God “decides on [creating] something, he merely says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is,” idhā qaḍā amran fa-innamā yaqūlu lahu kun fa-yakūn), he can also create in what is literally a hands-on manner, by making use of his own limbs.<sup>106</sup> In passing, one may note that the claim that humans were fashioned manually has pre-Qur’anic parallels that lend further support to taking it quite literally. According to Aphrahat, Adam alone was created by God’s own hands while everything else was created by God’s word (Demonstrations 13:11 = Parisot 1894, 563–566, identified in BEQ 46). The same idea is developed at length by Jacob of Sarug (Mathews 2020, 46–51, ll. 2157–2194): whereas all other creatures were brought into existence by a divine “signal” (remzā; cf. Decharneux 2019, 244–245), Adam was uniquely created by God’s hands (l. 2169)—an instance of divine self-abasement that prefigures the incarnation of Christ (ll. 2189–2194). The Cave of Treasures also reports that Adam was shaped by God’s “holy hands” (Ri 1987, ch. 2:12; see Zellentin 2017, 109).<sup>107</sup>}}


There are some who claim that Allah created seven earths.<ref>[http://www.justread.20m.com/scientific%20truth.htm Layers of the Earth] - Justread.20m.com</ref> This is in fact the correct understanding of verse 65:12 supported by various [[hadith]]s and [[tafsir]] commentaries. However, we only know of one, our own. To get around this problem, apologists such as Maurice Bucaille claim scientists have just not discovered the other six yet.<ref>Dr. Maurice Bucaille - [http://web.archive.org/web/20030514172921/http://www.masmn.org/Books/Maurice_Bucaille/The_Bible_The_Quran_and_Science/043.htm The Bible, The Qur'an and Science/ Confrontation with the data in the Qur'an concerning the creation]</ref>
==== Eyes ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|37}}|Build the ark before <b>Our eyes</b> and by Our revelation, and do not plead with Me for those who are wrongdoers: they shall indeed be drowned.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|20|39}}|"That cast him in the chest then cast it in the river, then let cast it the river on the bank; will take him an enemy to Me, and an enemy to him." And I cast over you love from Me, and that you may be brought up under <b>My eye.</b>}}{{Quote|{{Quran|52|48}}|So submit patiently to the judgement of your Lord, for indeed you fare before <b>Our eyes.</b> And celebrate the praise of your Lord when you rise [at dawn]}}


To further complicate matters for apologists, Islamic sources state the seven earths being referred to in verse 65:12 are flat islands, one under the other. For example:{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.oocities.org/tirmidhihadith/page8.html|2=2014-01-07}} Al Tirmidhi 5735]|2=Narrated AbuHurayrah:
==== Sitting upright ====
Further adding to the special aspect, Sinai (2023) writes, these anthropomorphisms are further bolstered as literal with him "sitting" on a throne, which angels will carry specifically in the sky, most likely the highest one; i.e. part of the cosmos rather than a separate supernatural "universe" or in a state of indescribable non spatial existence. {{Quote|<i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|Qur’an quite literally understands God to possess a countenance, sensory percipience, and limbs capable of touching, grasping, or imparting movement that the Islamic scripture employs various idioms and formulae involving these features. After all, there is no Qur’anic equivalent to Ephrem’s caveat that God only “put on the names of body parts”—i.e., speaks of himself in anthropomorphic and anthropopathic language—due to the weakness of human understanding (Beck 1955, no. 31:1–4). The Qur’anic God, therefore, is not merely a body but also, at least in some sense, an anthropomorphic body: he is endowed with a face, he is empirically receptive to worldly occurrences (rather than just knowing about them), and he can directly, with his own body, manipulate objects in the world. That the divine body has a fundamentally humanoid shape is further accentuated by the use of the verb istawā, “to stand up straight” or “to sit upright,” which is applied both to God, indicating the modality of his being located on the throne (Q 7:54, 10:3, 13:2, 20:5, 25:59, 32:4, 57:4),<sup>108</sup> and to humans, who are described as “sitting upright” in a boat or on the back of a mount (Q 23:28, 43:13; see CDKA 142).}}
==== Made of light/photons ====
God is described as being made of light, which we now know from modern science would essentially be saying he is made of photons.<ref>[https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/what-is-a-photon?language_content_entity=und What is a photon?] Symmetry Magazine. Amanda Solliday and Kathryn Jepsen. 2021</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|39|69}}|And (will) shine the earth with (the) light (of) its Lord and (will) be placed the Record and (will) be brought the Prophets and the witnesses, and it (will) be judged between them in truth, and they will not be wronged.}}
Similarly in regards to light Sinai (2023) notes:  


While Allah's Prophet (peace be upon him) and his companions were sitting clouds came over them and Allah's Prophet (peace be upon him) asked, "Do you know what these are?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger knew best, he said, "These are the clouds (anan), these are the water-carriers of the Earth, which Allah drives to people who do not thank Him or call upon him." He then asked, "Do you know what is above you?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) knew best, he said, "It is the firmament, a ceiling which is guarded and waves which are kept back." He then asked, "Do you know what is between you and it?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) knew best, he said, "Between you and it are five hundred years." He then asked, "Do you knew what is above that?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) best he said, "Two heavens with a distance of five hundred years between them." He went on speaking like that till he counted seven heavens, the distance between each pair being like between Heaven and Earth. He then asked, "Do you know what is above that?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) knew best, he said, "Above that is the Throne, and the distance between it and the (seventh) heaven is the same as that between each pair of heavens." He then asked, '''"Do you know what is below you?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) knew best, he said, "It is the earth." He then asked, "Do you know what is under that?" On their replying that Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) knew best, he said, "Under it there is another Earth with a journey of five hundred years between them," and so on till he had counted seven earths with a journey of five hundred years between each pair. He then said, "By Him in Whose hand Muhammad's soul is, if you were to drop a rope to the lowest earth it would not pass out of Allah's knowledge."''' He then recited, "He is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward, and He is omniscient." (Tirmidhi commented that Allah's Messenger's recitation of the verse indicates that it would go down within Allah's knowledge, power and authority, for Allah's knowledge, power and authority are everywhere, while He is on the Throne, as He described Himself in His Book.)}}
{{Quote|<i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 71). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|Nonetheless, with regard to Q 39:69 it seems more likely that the verse speaks of literal light, given that the same context also mentions the blowing of the eschatological trumpet (v. 68) and the display of the celestial register of deeds in preparation for the judgement (v. 69). But if reference is to concrete light rather than to the metaphorical light of divine guidance, then it stands to reason that this is light emitted by God, who arrives in order to judge humans and other moral agents.}}


{{Quote|{{Tabari|1|pp. 207-208}}|According to Muhammad b. Sahl b. 'Askar-Isma'il b. 'Abd al-Karim-Wahb, mentioning some of his majesty (as being described as follows): The heavens and the earth and the oceans are in the haykal, and the haykal is in the Footstool. God's feet are upon the Footstool. He carries the Footstool. It became like a sandal on His feet. When Wahb was asked: What is the haykal? He replied: Something on the heavens' extremities that surrounds the earth and the oceans like ropes that are used to fasten a tent. And when Wahb was asked how earths are (constituted), he replied: '''They are seven earths that are flat and islands'''. Between each two earths, there is an ocean. All that is surrounded by the (surrounding) ocean, and the haykal is behind the ocean.}}With many classical commentators identifying the word 'sijjinn' in verses {{Quran|83|7-8}} with the lowest Earth (or just below it in hell), or as a place where the book of bad deeds of humans is kept and devils live.<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/83.9 ''Verse 83.9.''] Tafsir Ibn Abbas - Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs. (Unknown date)</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/83.7 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on verse 87:3.]'' Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and as-Suyuti. Published 1505.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/83.7 Tafsir Ibn Kathir on verse 83.7.]'' Ibn Kathir. d. 1373.</ref>
And:


===Seven Universes===
{{Quote|<i>allāh {{!}} God</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 69). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|The obvious reading of the material just surveyed is that the Qur’an considers God to be at least in principle visible and to be spatially located. The Qur’anic God cannot, therefore, be immaterial in any strict sense.}}
The word that in English is translated for heaven(s) in these verses is samā'/سَماء, which can also be translated as sky (which is essentially its modern meaning in Arabic),<ref>[https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english-arabic/sky ''Sky.''] Translation English to Arabic. Cambridge dictionary.</ref> or samāwāt/ السماوات (plural). This is separate to 'jannah/جَنَّة', which refers to the paradise supposedly in the afterlife for righteous Muslims - which readers may mistake as being the same given the double meaning (of heaven) in English. However, unlike paradise (jannah), the heaven(s)/skies (samā') are part of the cosmos, with the moon being described as in them ({{Quran|71|15-16}}), clouds ({{Quran|2|164}}), along with the stars ({{Quran|41|12}}) etc.


Modern astronomy and technology has allowed us to see, understand, map and even explore the wider Universe, but never found these 7 skies, nor 7 Earths, which as far as we can tell are listed only as 7 was a superstitious number in antiquity.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/number-symbolism/7 7. Number Symbolism.]'' Britannica Entry. </ref> Another common apologetic claim is that these seven skies/heavens are actually seven universes which we are yet to discover, and that we know only our one universe so far, often referred to as the lowest/closest heaven.
==== Human emotions ====
'''Anger and wrath'''


This is due to the Quran stating the nearest/lowest heaven is adorned with stars which cover the known visible universe (such as {{Quran|41|12}}), rather than any philological analysis and ignoring all historical context of the word, which has always meant a 'firmament', or solid layer in the sky to Islamic scholars.<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/13.2 ''Tafsir on Verse 13:2.''] Ibn Kathir. d. 1373. </ref> Using the term 'heavens/skies' was common to refer to this in pre-Islamic Christian literature too.<ref>''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110794083/html?lang=en Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background] (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47)''. Decharneux, Julien. 2023. (pp. 255 - 257). De Gruyter. </ref>  
God is said to have human emotions in the Qur'an such as anger (''ghadab'') (Q 1:7; cf. 4:93; 5:60; 7:71, 152; 8:16; 16:106; 20:81; 42:16; 48:6; 58:14; 60:13), and we see for example in Q 4:93,which deals with those who commit murder, we see that God does not simply send murderers to hell; he also grows angry with them.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 162).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|4|93}}|Should anyone kill a believer intentionally, his requital shall be hell, to remain in it [forever]; <b>Allah shall be wrathful at him</b> and curse him and He shall prepare for him a great punishment.}}This anger frequently causes Allah to actively take vengeance on them.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 176-202). Chapter 8: The Avenger.''  Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>


However, by looking at the [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=smw >200 times] they are mentioned in the Quran, there are many problems substituting this meaning as we will see below, '''with all verses using a form of the word al-samā'/السماء''' (whether translated as 'the sky/skies' or the 'heaven/heavens').
'''Loving'''


====Gates and water of the universe====
{{Quran|60|8}} Durie (2018) notes that in contrast to the bible, the title ''al-wadūd'' “one who loves” is used of Allah only twice (Q85:14; Q11:90).<ref>''The Qurʾan and its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.107.'' Durie, Mark. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018.</ref>
The following verse contradicts such a claim since it says rain was made to fall from heaven. Certainly, rain does not come from outer space, let alone from gates at the edge of the universe which would be ~46.5 billion light years away.<ref>[https://www.mos.org/mos-at-home/pulsar/how-far-away-is-the-edge-of-the-universe#:~:text=We're%20looking%20back%20in,again%2C%20is%20what%20cosmologists%20do. ''How Far Away is the Edge of the Universe?''] Museum of Science Podcast. Janine Myszka. </ref> The word used for heaven here is ''samā''', the same as that for the seven heavens.


{{Quote|{{Quran|54|11}}|So We opened the gates of heaven, with water pouring forth. }}The gates of the heavens are mentioned elsewhere such as below, saying even if God opened a gate so the disbelievers could climb up it, they would still not believe.
'''Not loving'''
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|14-15}}|And if We open for them a gate in the heavens, to ascend it through the day – Even then they would say, “Our sights have been hypnotised – in fact, a magic spell has been cast upon us.”}}


Reynolds (2020) notes{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. <i>Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 167).</i> Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. |There are indeed those whom the God of the Qur’an does not love. “God does not love any sinful unbeliever” (Q 2:276). “God does not love the faithless” (Q 3:32; cf. 30:45).9 God also does not love the wrongdoers (Q 3:57, 140; 42:40), the transgressors (Q 2:190, 5:87, 7:55), the arrogant (Q 4:36, 16:23, 31:18, 57:23), the proud (Q 4:36, 31:18, 57:23), the wasteful (Q 6:141, 7:31), the treacherous (Q 8:58, 22:38), the corrupt (Q 5:64, 28:77), and the boastful (Q 28:76).}}'''Hating'''


God is also described as having the keys to these:
{{Quran|40|10}} even speaks of God’s “hate” (maqt) of unbelievers.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 167-168).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|42|12}}|To Him belong the keys of the heavens and the earth: He expands the provision for whomever He wishes, and tightens it [for whomever He wishes]. Indeed He has knowledge of all things.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|39|63}}|To Him belong the keys of the heavens and the earth, and those who disbelieve in the signs of Allah—it is they who are the losers.}}
It seems that once resurrected, it appears that righteous Muslims will ascend the cosmos to the upper heavens, which are on top of/above each other (Quran 67:3, Quran 71:15) on judgement day, for whom God will open the gates of the skies (so that they can pass the firmament - gates would not be needed if they were simply layers rather than solid objects):
{{Quote|{{Quran|78|19}}|And the heavens will be opened and become gates}}
And similarly in Q7:40.


{{Quote|{{Quran|7|40}}|Indeed, those who deny Our signs and are disdainful of them—the gates of the heaven will not be opened for them, nor shall they enter paradise until the camel passes through the needle’s eye, and thus do We requite the guilty.}}
'''Pleasure'''


Which likely then connect to actual paradise (jannah) as they leave the cosmos via ascension (as mentioned above in Q15:14), as paradise (jannah) is also separately described as having its own gates (e.g. {{Quran|38|50}}, {{Quran|39|73}}), a common motif in antiquity as Dr Sean W Anthony explains:
Alongside other human emotions God can feel pleasure ({{Quran|98|8}}).  
{{Quote|Anthony, Sean W., Dr.. Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. Kindle Edition. Location 1134 - 1145.|The cosmological notion of humankind being blocked from accessing Paradise by gates and, thus, the existence of a heavenly gatekeeper is quite an ancient one and by no means exclusive to Jewish, Christian, or Muslim sacred cosmology. Indeed, where “the keys to heaven” as opposed to “the keys of Paradise” motif appears first in the Islamic tradition is in the Qurʾan itself. According the Qurʾan, however, it is God alone who possesses “the keys to the Heavens and Earth [maqālīd al-samāwāt wa-l-arḍ]” (Q. Zumar 39:63, Shūrā 42:12). In the Qurʾān, the keys to the Heavens and Earth are cosmological and do not assume an explicitly eschatological function—rather the emphasis falls on God’s unrivaled sovereignty over the cosmos as its sole Creator. Yet the Qurʾan does speak of the doors of heaven in a strikingly eschatological vein. Most illustrative of this is the sole verse in which both Paradise (al-jannah) and heaven (al-samāʾ; lit., “the sky”) are mentioned together: “Truly, as for those who disbelieve and spurn our signs, the doors of heaven will not be opened for them nor will they enter Paradise until the camel passes through the eye of a needle” (Q, Aʿrāf 7:40). If a distinction is to be drawn between heaven (al-samāʾ) and Paradise (al-jannah) in qurʾānic cosmology, Paradise appears to be the felicitous abode that lies beyond the sky canopy of the heavens above the Earth.}}


====Earth created before the universe====
'''Other'''
The Quran also has the Earth created before the heavens (universes) are created, while the heaven is 'smoke' (''see [[Quran and a Universe from Smoke]]''). Obviously the Earth cannot be created before the Universe is made:
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|9-12}}|Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the earth, and measure therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days, in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (Sustenance).
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We decked the nether heaven with lamps, and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower.}}Nor was the universe ever smoke.


====The universe as a roof/ceiling/canopy====
Both God and Humans are said to have a sunnah<ref>See verses in the Qur'an in the Noun section of the root [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=snn ''sīn nūn nūn'' (س ن ن)] on Quran Corpus.</ref> or "customary way" of acting<ref>''The Qurʾan and its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.177.'' Durie, Mark.</ref> (e.g. {{Quran|35|43}}).
The sky/heavens are also repeatedly called a roof/ceiling/canopy/building/edifice etc. in multiple verses using multiple words,<ref>Samk [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/12_s/201_smk.html سمك] - Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_1430.pdf pp 1430]
 
Safq [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/12_s/144_sqf.html سقف] - Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_1382.pdf pp 1382]
 
Bina [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/02_b/198_bne.html بنى] - Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0261.pdf pp 261]</ref> which even being generous as a metaphorical interpretation does not match the description of a complex universe, with the majority in a gaseous state of almost entirely empty space, with structures like stars and planets being extremely sparse throughout the 'void' of space.<ref>''[https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/deep-space/a44050735/the-universe-is-mostly-empty-space/ Most of the Universe Is a Void. Here’s How That Emptiness Will Eventually Gobble Up All of Space.]'' Paul M. Sutter. 2023. Space. Popular Mechanics. A Part of Hearst Digital Media.
 
''P.M. Sutter is a science educator and a theoretical cosmologist at the Institute for Advanced Computational Science at Stony Brook University'' </ref>
 
However this description does perfectly match the antiquity view of the sky being a literal solid object, made up of 'firmaments':
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}|who assigned to you the earth for a couch, and heaven for an edifice (binā) , and sent down out of heaven water, wherewith He brought forth fruits for your provision; so set not up compeers to God wittingly.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|52|5}}|And by the canopy (safq) raised ˹high˺!}}{{Quote|{{Quran|79|28}}|He raised its ceiling (samk) and proportioned it.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|40|64}}|It is Allah Who made for you the earth your resting place and the sky a building (binā), and moulded you so gave you the best shape, and gave you pure things for sustenance; such is Allah, your Lord; so Most Auspicious is Allah, the Lord Of The Creation.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|And We made the sky a protected roof (saqf), but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}
 
=====A raised universe=====
Raising the roof/canopy in Q52:5 and Q79:28 (above, and see also Q55:7 below) also makes no sense in the context of our modern understanding of the Universe, where there is no scientific theory that our visible Universe was 'raised'. But does match the idea of the physical sky being broken from Earth and raised.
{{Quote|{{Quran|55|7}}|He raised the heaven (samā') high and set up the balance,}}
 
=====The solid universe=====
Expanding on the descriptions of the sky as a solid object (and the upper skies), like a roof/canopy/ceiling etc; this concept is backed up repeatedly in descriptions from other verses, which unanimously support the solid firmament(s) view. The mostly gaseous empty state of the universe is in no way reflected in the Qur'an, with the sky(s):
 
*Raised without pillars that we can see - {{Quran|13|2}}
 
*The sky would fall otherwise - {{Quran|22|65}}
*A piece of the sky would fall otherwise - {{Quran|52|44}}, {{Quran|34|9}} or could fall - {{Quran|17|92}}
*They are strong - {{Quran|78|12}}
*And stacked above each other - {{Quran|67|3}} and {{Quran|71|15}}
*Can be split open - {{Quran|25|25}} and {{Quran|42|5}}
 
*And can be rolled up {{Quran|21|104}} and {{Quran|39|67}}
 
Which is why the debates around the sky(s) among classical mufassirūn have centred around whether the 'firmament' is flat or domed,<ref>E.g. see: [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/13.2 ''Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 13:2''] and [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/36.37 ''verse 36:37-40'']. Ibn Kathir d. 1373</ref> not solid or gas. And none have come up with a picture of the universe like we now know based off their studying of the Qur'an.
 
====The universe as day and night ====
''Main page: [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]''
 
The Quran also states that the night and morning are said to be an attribute of the heaven (l-samā'u) which God built (banāhā) and raised (rafaʿa) as a ceiling (samkahā) and ordered it (fasawwāhā) when he created the heaven and earth. The possessive hā suffix in laylahā (its night) and ḍuḥāhā (its morning light (translated as 'forenoon' below) relates night and day to the heaven - which does not apply at all to the whole universe.
 
In reality, the night and day we experience is a feature of the earth's rotation on its axis and is only applicable to Earth itself. There is no sense in which the earth's night and day apply across the wider cosmos as it would need to to be able to substitute the word/modern concept 'universe' with heaven/heavens (samā').
{{Quote|{{Quran|79|27-29}}|Is your creation more prodigious or that of the heaven He has built? He raised its vault and fashioned it, and <b>darkened its night</b>, and <b>brought forth its forenoon</b>.}}
 
====The universe split from the Earth====
The ancient concept of the sky splitting from the Earth can be traced back to Mesopotamian<ref>''[https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm Mesopotamian Creation Myths.]'' Ira Spar. 2009. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Met Musuem. </ref> and Egyptian<ref>''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338646511_Skyscapes_Landscapes_and_the_drama_of_Proto-Indo-European_myth Skyscapes, Landscapes, and the drama of Proto-Indo-European myth.]'' John Grigsby PhD Synthesis. 2020.
 
''The relevant section can be viewed [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Egyptian-myth-of-the-creation-of-earth-and-sky-has-the-sky-Goddess-Nut-separated-from_fig4_338646511 here].''</ref> creation myths in which heaven was separated from earth. This myth which was wide-spread at the time of Islam's emergence, did not puzzle contemporary Muslims, as can be seen by the many classical tafsirs on this (and other relevant) verses.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/21.30 Tafsir Ibn Kathir on verse 21:30.]'' Ibn Kathir d 1373</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/21.30 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on Verse 21:30]''. Al-Jalalayn/ al-Maḥalli and as-Suyuti. Published 1505.</ref>
 
There is no scientific theory in which the much larger universe, (i.e. for context our home galaxy, the Milky Way, containing at least 100 billion much larger stars, and the observable universe containing at least 100 billion galaxies)<ref>''[https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/what-is-an-exoplanet/what-is-the-universe/ What is the universe?]'' NASA’s Astrophysics Division. NASA.</ref> was pulled apart from Earth. Instead current scientific theories support the belief it was formed from when the solar system settled into its current layout about 4.5 billion years ago (billions of years after the universe was created), with Earth specifically forming when gravity pulled swirling gas and dust particles of different sizes orbited the sun at slightly different speeds, allowing them to bump into each other and stick together. Eventually, they grew from tiny dust grains into boulders, then into larger “planetesimals”, with one eventually becoming the third planet from the Sun.<ref>''[https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/formation-earth-and-moon-explained How the Earth and moon formed, explained.]'' Explainer Series. University of Chicago News. University of Chicago.</ref><ref>''[https://science.nasa.gov/earth/facts/ Facts about Earth.]'' Earth facts. NASA Science. NASA</ref>
 
The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا]</ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state, let alone a singularity. Mirroring this is the word fataqnāhumā<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000115.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2331 فتق]</ref> ("parted them"/"rent/clove them asunder"/), which means to slit, rent asunder, divide, unstitch.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Have not those who disbelieve known that the heavens and the earth were joined together as one united piece, then We parted them? And We have made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?}}Some Muslim apologists ''(such as Zakir Naik, as can be see in 3:27 of this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OvG-606KqwU&t=120s YouTube video] - along with a response to him)'' have even claimed that this verse shows scientific foreknowledge of the Big Bang. His claim seems to be that the verse stating the skies and Earth "joined together/ratqan" is referring to the fact that during the big bang all the mass that went on to form the rest of the universe originated from the same point of singularity. There are many issues with this interpretation. These are discussed more in-depth in the page ''[[Quran and a Universe from Smoke]]'' and the main ''[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]'' section''.'' But some of the obvious issues are:
* If this is supposed to be the big bang itself as Naik claims (with the same mass/atoms from one singularity going on to form others) then this is does not match what actually happened, with the Earth not even existing for another 9.3 billion years after the Universe began.<ref>''[https://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html How old is the universe?]'' Keith Cooper. 2023. Space.com.
 
''The Universe is listed as ~13.8bn years old and the Earth ~4.5bn  which leaves Earth created ~9.4bn years ago.''</ref>
*Therefore to match the essence of what he is saying you would have to essentially take a metaphorical view of the verse, which there appears to be no real justification for other than trying to avoid the scientific error of its literal meaning - no major tafsir does this before modern times. If God simply meant from the same matter, surely he could have said so.
*If one holds that Q21:30 describes the big bang/substances of the heavens and Earth, the atomic particles that would later form the Earth would at the beginning would have to be separated from those that would go on to form everything else in the universe. This, however, bears no resemblance to modern scientific cosmology, wherein the material that forms the Earth passed through at least one earlier generation of stars,<ref>''[https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/the-universe/stars/a-spectacular-stellar-finale/we-are-stardust We Are Stardust.]'' Part of Hall of the Universe. American Museum of Natural History. </ref> and more recently was part of various asteroids, comets and planetesimals orbiting the sun (which could all be described as being in or part of/making up the 'heavens') that sometimes collided and merged with each other, sometimes split apart, and gradually coalesced under gravity to form the Earth and other planets.
*The language and context used, with the verse taking the word 'al-samā' (but plural ''al-samawati''), and 'al-ard' (the Earth), uses them in a way that does not match any other verses, despite having he definite 'al' particle implying they are a specific single thing. For example to say the sky can refer to the substance of the universe contradicts the verse Q79:27-29 which puts night and day as a property of the sky. The very next verse Quran 21:31 speaks of mountains being placed on the Earth, where here, 'the Earth' must mean the actual world, yet Naik is claiming 'the Earth/ 'al-ard' refers merely to atomic particles around the time of the big bang to the creation of our solar system.
*He also completely ignores that this is referring to 'skies' plural, which must mean multiple universes to match the description of stars being in the closest universe in e.g. Q41:12, which is not supported by current scientific theory. In another speech he changes the definition of al-samā' again, this time to mean the atmosphere of the Earth ''(see 16:11 of this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3ewI1YXc-c&t=1229s YouTube video])'', which contradicts too many verses (and the universe definition) to name, but many can be seen throughout this article.
 
=====The Universe as a separate entity to Earth=====
Verses in the Quran always describe the heaven and the Earth as separate entities, such as the above verse (Q21:30) describing them as split, with the verse stating that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and skies are distinct after the cloving. Along with things like the moon being described as in them ({{Quran|71|15-16}}), the clouds ''between'' the skies and the Earth ({{Quran|2|164}}), along with the stars being in the nearest sky ({{Quran|41|12}}) etc.
 
The Quran never indicates that the Earth itself is simply within this lowest/nearest heaven along with the other planets, stars and heavenly objects. When in reality Earth is the 3rd planet in our Inner Solar System, of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, which is part of the Virgo Supercluster within the wider Laniakea Supercluster, itself one of many,<ref>[https://aaa.org/2022/08/01/our-cosmic-address-where-is-earth-situated-in-the-univers ''Our Cosmic Address: Where is Earth Situated in the Universe?''] - Simone Lilavois - Amateur Astronomers Association, 1 August 2022</ref> making the description odd in light off modern science, but again matching the 'firmament torn from the Earth' view of antiquity.
 
====Between the Universe and the Earth====
 
God is said to have dominion/sovereignty of the heavens and Earth and all that is ''between them (baynahum بينهم).''
 
There is nothing between the Earth and the rest of the universe, so substituting the 'heavens' with the modern definition of the universe does not make sense here. Yet once again matches the ancient view of the heavens as 'firmaments' in the sky with space between them. 
 
This idea is also backed up in many hadith ''(see: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation]]),'' such as {{Bukhari|9|93|608}}, describing Muhammad's alleged night journey through the heavens, and {{Bukhari|9|93|519}} comparing distances of degree between those in paradise to the distance between the sky (samā', i.e. Universe as apologists claim) and the Earth to show how large they are.  
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|18}}|Say the Jews and the Christians: "We are sons of God and beloved of Him." Say: "Why does He punish you then for your sins? No: You are only mortals, of His creation." He can punish whom He pleases and pardon whom He wills, <b>for God's is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth and all that lies between them,</b> and everything will go back to Him.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|And verily We created <b>the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them,</b> in six Days, and naught of weariness touched Us.}}And repeated in {{Quran|15|85}}, {{Quran|19|65}}, {{Quran|21|16}} and {{Quran|25|59}}.
 
Clouds are also distinctly said to be ''between'' the heavens and the Earth, again preventing the interpretation of the 'samā'/heavens/skies as our whole/visible universe.
 
''Note: This also separately contradicts Zakir Naik's definition of the heaven(s) as the Earths atmosphere which the clouds are also in, and not between.''{{Quote|{{Quran|2|164}}|Indeed in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day, and the ships that sail at sea with profit to men, and the water that Allah sends down from the sky—with which He revives the earth after its death, and scatters therein every kind of animal—and the changing of the winds, <b>and the clouds disposed between the sky (samā') and the earth,</b> there are surely signs for a people who exercise their reason.}}
 
==See Also==
 
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]
{{Hub4|Harun Yahya|Harun Yahya}}{{Hub4|Cosmology|Cosmology}}
 
==External Links==
 
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org./Quran/Science/seven_earths.html|2=2011-12-05}} Qur'an & Science Problem: The Seven Earths] ''- Answering Islam''


== External Links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QvRSAAHjlo Yasir Qadhi on Ya'juj & Ma'Juj (Gog and Magog)] - YouTube video by Hassan Radwan
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ty_2G_esUvI The lost tribes of Gog & Magog in Islam] -  YouTube video by The Masked Arab
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN8rSybXBaw Stories in the Qur'an] - YouTube video by Abdullah Sameer (now [https://www.youtube.com/@FriendlyExmuslim Friendly ExMuslim])
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
<references />
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Harun Yahya]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]<!-- ==To Do==
 
Expand to include the claim that the "seven layers" applies to the [http://www.miraclesofthequran.com/scientific_19.html http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miraclesofthequran.com%2Fscientific_19.html&date=2014-01-03 earth's atmosphere]. There are only 5 not 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|earth's atmosphere]] http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAtmosphere_of_Earth&date=2014-01-03  determined by temperature. Within the five principal layers there are several more layers determined by other properties. Also see [http://councilofexmuslims.com/index.php?topic=5823.0 http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fcouncilofexmuslims.com%2Findex.php%3Ftopic%3D5823.0&date=2014-01-03  here] for a little more info. Once complete, rename the article, "Earth or its Atmosphere Made of Seven Layers" -->

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While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in the Qur'an illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Qur'an was composed. Being a product of late antiquity, superstitious beliefs like jinn living among us and people using black magic form a sizeable part of the Qur'an, as does the idea of God interacting with the universe, controlling everything, rather than the universe operating off of scientific laws. Even inanimate things worship Allah, who is a corporeal, anthropomorphic being literally sitting on a throne in the cosmos. While there are many more examples of these found in Islamic literature such as hadith and seerah (biographical) material, the Qur'an is replete with such mythic and legendary accounts of supernatural beings and Allah's supernatural powers.

Magic

Creatures

The existence and attributes of Jinn

Main Article: Jinn

The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ǧinn, singular جني ǧinnī ; variant spelling djinn) living among us. In the Qur'an, satan/devil(s) are also jinn (Quran 18:50), which like humans are sent prophets and have (at least some, see Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination) free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind (Quran 6:130). They can interact with us (Quran 6:128) and even possess humans (Quran 2:275) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things (Quran 18:63). As well as create buildings/structures (Quran 34:12-13). These magical beings have roots in Arabian mythology and make appearences thereing.

Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.
Quran 72:1

El-Zein (2009) notes the Qur’an mentions only three terms related to the species of jinn: the generic “jinn,” marid, and ‘ifrit. However, Arabic and Islamic literature provides extended descriptions of them as sub-types of jinn (and others not specifically mentioned in the Qur'an).[1]

THE ‘IFRIT The term ‘ifrit is mentioned only once in the Qur’an, when the prophet king Solomon asked for the throne of the Queen of Sheba to be brought to him. One ‘ifrit from among the jinn consented to fulfill his request: “An ‘ifrit of the jinn said, ‘I will bring it to thee, before thou risest from thy place; I have strength for it and I am trusty” (Qur’an 27:39). The term ‘ifrit often presents a problem for the scholars trying to classify the jinn. Many commentators on the verse cited above maintain the word ‘ifrit is an adjective referring to a specific powerful jinni rather than a separate and distinct type among the jinn. Later the word came to describe any powerful and cunning man; in which case, it could refer to dark powers within the human psyche.17
THE MARID In the Qur’an, the marid is an unruly force always striving to predict the future by means of astrological hearsay. The term marid is mentioned only once in the Qur’an in the following verse “We have adorned the lower heaven with the adornment of the stars and to preserve against every [rebel satan (shaytan marid)]; they listen not to the High Council, for they are pelted from every side” (Qur’an 37:7–8). This kind of jinn is mostly found in popular medieval literature, in particular in the stories of The Nights dealing with Solomon. Finally, as with the term ‘ifrit, the term marid could also be applied to humans. Used as an adjective, it denotes a rebellious man.18
El-Zein, Amira. Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (p. 142). Syracuse University Press. Kindle Edition.

Iblis/Satan/The Devil

Main Article: Iblis (Satan)

The Qur'an contains the well-known supernatural character of Satan (with a capital "S"), or "The Devil", (al-shayṭān); also called Iblīs, who tempts unbelievers into disobedience against god, furthering them in their sin, and generally causing evil on Earth.[2] Similar to later traditions on the book of Genesis (originally the serpent who tempts Eve to eat the fruit in the garden of Eden is not identified with Satan, only in the approximately 4 centuries preceding to the Common Era, known as the intertestamental period does this appear),[3] he originally lives in paradise. After refusing to obey God’s command to prostrate (sajada) himself to the newly created Adam, Iblīs is expelled from God’s retinue and subsequently retaliates against his nemesis Adam by persuading him and Eve to eat from the forbidden tree (e.g. Quran 2:34-39, Quran 7:11-25 and Quran 20:115-124).[4]

There are however some differences with Christian-Judeo beliefs, such as him being an evil jinn rather than a 'fallen' angel. Along with him (Iblīs), the term for satans/devils (al-shayāṭīn), “the devils”, usually refer to evil jinn in the Qur'an.[2] While Iblīs/al-shayṭān is a specific devil who takes on a more defined role in the Qur'an.

This Iblīs is in line with late-antique beliefs, with the devil is in some sense to be envisaged as the chief of the evil demons.[5] Sinai (2023) notes for example one verse mentions Iblīs’s “offspring” (dhurriyyah, Quran 18:50), raising the possibility that the descendants in question are to be identified with wicked demons, and Quran 26:95 speaks of the “hosts (junūd) of Iblīs” being cast into hell, especially since these hosts are mentioned in addition to “those who have gone astray” (al-ghāwūn) Quran 26:94, who would seem to refer to human sinners, the “hosts of Iblīs” are probably to be understood as the latter’s demonic minions.[5]

The existence and attributes of angels

Similarly to Judeo-Christian literature, the Quran, Hadith and Sira affirms the existence of angels, traditionally said to be made from light as mentioned in Islamic tradition (such as Sahih Muslim 42:7134),[6] while other have asserted they are made from fire like jinn based on (see: Quran 38:73-76 and Quran 7:11-12),[7] before humans (Quran 2:30).

They are also God's messengers like humans (Quran 22:75), with generally a humanoid shape,[8] and have at least either two, three or four (pairs of) wings.

All praise belongs to Allah, originator of the heavens and the earth, maker of the angels [His] messengers, possessing wings, two, three or four [of them]... He adds to the creation whatever He wishes. Indeed Allah has power over all things.
Quran 35:1

They are said to hold God’s throne (in the heavens) Quran 69:17 and some stand around it (Quran 40:7). Eight angels will carry the throne of God on Judgement Day (Quran 69:17). Two to the left and right of people write down everyone's deeds for judgment day (Quran 50:17-21), hovering above people (Quran 82:10-12). They also ask forgiveness for the faithful on Earth (Quran 42:5), help fight with believers against non-believers (Quran 8:12) chastise unbelievers (Quran 8:50). As well as blow the trumpets on judgement day[9] in e.g. Quran 6:73 Quran 18:99

They praise and worship God constantly,[10] e.g. Quran 13:13, Quran 7:206, Quran 21:19, Quran 40:7, Quran 41:38, Quran 42:5, Quran 69:17 and carry out his divine will - and unlike biblical angels, do not seem to be able to disobey god.[11]

Quran 72:8-9 describes the firmament as being guarded by watchful protectors [ḥaras], who are undoubtedly angels.[12] They play an active role in the cosmos by thwarting spying jinn/devils who attempt to eavesdrop on divine decrees from the 'exalted assembly' (see: Shooting Stars in the Quran). These intruders are repelled by stars or meteors (Quran 15:16-18, Quran 37:6-10, Quran 67:5, Quran 72:8-9.

These angelic beings have their roots in the mythology of Hebrew bible tradition, where these angels were lesser deites or messengers of the gods in the tradition of west Asian religion in the bronze age.

Cherubs

The Qur'an mentions 'al-muqarrabūn' [Those close to god]. The traditional view of 'al-muqarrabūn' is often a rank of angels.[13] Some academics have suggested these are cherubs, which have existed in some classical Islamic cosmologies, such as the famous philosopher Ibn Sīnā's (often known as Avicenna in the West).[14]

As for the cherubs, they are designated by the name al-muqarrabūn in a few passages:
By no means! Surely the book of the pious is indeed in ‘Illiyīn. And what will make you know what ‘Illiyīn is? A written book. The ones brought near bear witness to it [yashhadu-hu l-muqarrabūna]. (Q 83:18 – 21)
Despite the rather cryptic character of these verses, we see here the motif already studied of angels “witnessing” celestial phenomena. In another passage, Jesus and the angels are also called al-muqarrabūn (“the ones brought near”; Q 4:172). This designation is very odd, especially ascribed to Jesus. The word muqarrabūn sounds like a deformation of the Hebrew or Syriac word for “cherubs”, kerūbīm/krūbē. The name kerūbīm in the Bible is an Assyrian loanword and designates “those who pray” but the root KRB is not used otherwise in the Bible. The cherubs are specifically said to support God’s throne in the Bible (1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 1 Ch 13:6; 2 K 19:15; Is 37:16; Ps 80:2, 90:1).713 In light of this function, the Qur’ān seems to distort the original Semitic root KRB into QRB so as to give a new meaning to these angels’ name. The cherubs are now muqarrabūn, “the ones close to God”.
Decharneux, Julien. Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (pp. 306-307). De Gruyter. Kindle Edition.

Houri's (Heavenly Virgins)

Main Article: Houri (Heavenly Virgin)

There are allegedly heavenly maidens to service righteous men in paradise. No equivalent male version exists for women (although there are indications in Islamic literature of cup-bearer boys for the homosexual enjoyment of men).[15]

And [for them are] fair women with large, [beautiful] eyes,
Quran 56:22
and maidens with swelling breasts, like of age,
Quran 78:33

Gog and Magog (Yājūj and Mājūj)

Main article: Historical Errors in the Quran - Massive wall of iron

The Qur'an relates a story where a servant of Allah (Dhul-Qarnayn) traps "Gog and Maggog" behind an iron wall where they will remain until judgment day (essentially making them creatures that live a beyond human lifespan, if not immortal), where they will then swarm the Earth. Most scholars say they are humans, for example Ibn Kathir says they are also descents of Noah through his son Yafith (Japheth), who was the father of the Turks; Turk referring to the group of them who were left behind the barrier which was built by Dhul-Qarnayn.[16] Though others such as al-Idrisi (d. 1165) say they are monsters, with some 120 cubits high and the same length wide among other non-human descriptions.[17] However regardless if they are monsters or humans they are still mythical as clearly they would have been found if trapped behind a giant wall until judgement day given we have explored all the land on Earth.

They said, "O Dhul-Qarnayn, indeed Gog and Magog are [great] corrupters in the land. So may we assign for you an expenditure that you might make between us and them a barrier?"
Quran 18:94
Until when [the dam of] Gog and Magog has been opened and they, from every elevation, descend
Quran 21:96

Buraq, the winged horse

Main Article: Buraq

While it took one week to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem (the location of the alleged 'farthest Mosque') by camel, Islamic scripture states that a magical winged horse, called the Buraq, transported Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem in a matter of minutes. Creatures like the Buraq were common characters in near-East myths.[18]

Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things).
Quran 17:1

The existence of magic and sorcerers

Main article: Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult

No evidence has ever proven that magic is real. However, Quran 113:4 ("evil of those who blow on knots") is reported in commentaries as referring to those who practice magic.[19] Knots were commonly associated with magic in antiquity.[20] The next verse, Quran 113:5 ("evil of the envious when he envies), is said to refer to a superstitious belief known as 'The Evil Eye', a physical and mental supernatural condition that affects those who envy. For further explanation see the main article.

1. Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn

2. From the evil of what He has created
3. And from the evil of the utterly dark night when it comes
4. And from the evil of those who blow on knots

5. And from the evil of the envious when he envies
Quran 113:1-5

At least once, humans are taught magic by satans (believed to be jinn) and angels (Harut and Marut are named in this verse):

and they follow what the Satans recited over Solomon's kingdom. Solomon disbelieved not, but the Satans disbelieved, teaching the people sorcery, and that which was sent down upon Babylon's two angels, Harut and Marut; they taught not any man, without they said, 'We are but a temptation; do not disbelieve.' From them they learned how they might divide a man and his wife, yet they did not hurt any man thereby, save by the leave of God, and they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them, knowing well that whoso buys it shall have no share in the world to come; evil then was that they sold themselves for, if they had but known.
Quran 2:102

The Holy Spirit (rūḥ al-qudus)

Main Article: Jibreel (Gabriel) and al-Ruh al-Qudus (the Holy Spirit) in the Qur'an

The holy spirit in the Qur'an is presented sometimes as an angel or quasi-angelic intermediary or agent of God.[21] Other times as a vivifying or fortifying principle emanating from God.[22] Other times it is more complex to classify.[23]

And We did certainly give Moses the Torah and followed up after him with messengers. And We gave Jesus, the son of Mary, clear proofs and supported him with the Pure Spirit. But is it [not] that every time a messenger came to you, [O Children of Israel], with what your souls did not desire, you were arrogant? And a party [of messengers] you denied and another party you killed.
Quran 2:87
And [the example of] Mary, the daughter of ʿImrān, who guarded her chastity, so We blew into [her garment] through Our angel [i.e., Gabriel], and she believed in the words of her Lord and His scriptures and was of the devoutly obedient.
Quran 66:12

Sacred geography

Sacred (ḥaram)[24] geography is in Qur'anic theology, currently in Mecca, the Ka'ba. The sacred house referred to as the sacred mosque/place of worship (al-masjidi al-ḥarāmi) E.g. Quran 17:1 or the sacred house al-bayta al-haram Quran 5:2

Allah has made the Ka‘bah, the Sacred House, standing for the people and [has sanctified] the sacred months and the sacrificial animals and the garlands [by which they are identified]. That is so you may know that Allah knows what is in the heavens and what is in the earth and that Allah is Knowing of all things.
Quran 5:97

Similarly Jerusalem temple referred to as the furthest mosque (al-masjidi al-aqṣā), which although not directly called in the Qur'an it is implied at least was sacred, and later tradition was undecided on the matter.[25]

Immaculate is He who carried His servant on a journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque whose environs We have blessed, that We might show him some of Our signs. Indeed, He is the All-hearing, the All-seeing.
Quran 17:1

Israel is described as the holy land (al-arḍa al-muqadasata)[26] by Moses.

O my people, enter the Holy Land which Allah has ordained for you, and do not turn your backs, or you will become losers.’
Quran 5:21

And a sacred valley (see also: Quran 79:16).

Indeed, I am your Lord, so remove your sandals. Indeed, you are in the sacred valley of Tuwa.
Quran 20:12

There is no evidence they are more sacred or special than anywhere else on Earth, therefore this is another superstition.

Sacred months

Main article: Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam - The Four Sacred Months

The Quran contains a mention of four sacred (ḥurum)[27] months. These are the lunar-based months Dhul Qadha, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab, from Arabic pagan beliefs (see main article).

Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah since the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four months are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him]. Indeed, the postponing [sacred months] is an increase in disbelief by which those who have disbelieved are led [further] astray. They make it lawful one year and unlawful another year to correspond to the number made unlawful by Allah and [thus] make lawful what Allah has made unlawful.
Quran 9:36-37
And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.
Quran 9:5

And similarly Ramaḍān is the month of fasting.

Tree of immortality

In jannah where Adam lives, there is a tree of immortality Adam is tempted by Satan to eat from.

Then Satan whispered to him; he said, "O Adam, shall I direct you to the tree of eternity and possession that will not deteriorate?"
Quran 20:120

Humans agree to worship god before their existence

Humans are said to have verbally agreed that Allah is their lord, so they cannot say they were unaware on judgment day, most commonly taken by classical Islamic commentaries (and hadith) as a magical temporary pre-existent creation before the current life that we all forget,[28] though it is hard to know given the forgetting what the purpose of the this agreement is.

And when (was) taken (by) your Lord from (the) Children (of) Adam - from their loins - their descendants and made them testify over themselves, "Am I not your Lord?" They said, "Yes we have testified." Lest you say (on the) Day (of) the Resurrection, "Indeed, we were about this unaware."
Quran 7:172

The soul is taken away during sleep

Like many other religions, the Qur'an affirms the idea that humans have a 'soul' that is separate to the physical body (the concept itself now a controversial idea now we know so much of what would be traditionally ascribed to a soul such as personality and memory comes from physical processes in the brain,[29] and can be damaged by physical actions such as brain trauma[30] and psychoactive drugs[31]).

According to the Qur'an, humans have souls that are taken away during sleep time.[32]

Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those who have not died, in their sleep. Then He retains those for whom He has ordained death and releases the others until a specified time. There are indeed signs in that for a people who reflect.
Quran 39:42
It is He who takes your souls by night, and He knows what you do by day, then He reanimates you therein so that a specified term may be completed. Then to Him will be your return, whereat He will inform you concerning what you used to do.
Quran 6:60

Because of this, classical Islamic scholars have called sleep 'a lesser death'.[33] Modern science now understands the cause and biological functions that occur during sleep are numerous and complex, and vital to the body for e.g. hormonal regulation, waste clearance, memory, the immune system etc - in highly active processes, in no accurate way comparable to death.[34]

Miracles and myths

Miracles and myths, often taken via prophets but other times directly by Allah are listed below. Many are absurd and contradict science.

Prophet Miracles

Noah (Nūḥ)

Lived to be 950+ years old

Noah is said to be be at least 950 years old, with many traditional Islamic commentators taking this to mean he was preaching for this long until the flood came, and was therefore older in total (many exegetes for example say he was granted prophethood at age 40),[35] and we are not told how long he lives after these events, but this could easily push him to be over a 1,000 years old in total. The legendary lifespan is typical for prophets and patriarchs in from the first part of the book of Genesis in the bible and is recorded for several other patriarchs there.

Certainly We sent Noah to his people, and he remained with them for a thousand-less-fifty years. Then the flood overtook them while they were wrongdoers.
Quran 29:14

Adam (ʾĀdam)

Adam is not said to have performed any miracles directly (or through Allah) in the Qur'an, though he was magically created from clay rather than evolving.[36] And the holy spirit was made to create him (e.g. Quran 15:29, Quran 32:6-9 and Quran 38:72). According to the Qur'an, he lived in paradise amoung the angels (and at least one jinn who turned into 'the devil') "Allah placed Adam in a paradisical Garden. After Adam sinned by eating from the forbidden tree (Tree of Immortality) after God forbade him from doing so, then paradise was declined to him and he was sent down to live on Earth."

Eve (Ḥawwā')

Though not mentioned by name in the Qur'an, the mate miraculously created from Adam is interpreted as Eve, and named in the hadith and commentaries. No miracles are directly attributed to her either, but she originally lived in jannah (paradise), and is also miraculously created, as Shock (2006) notes "the early commentators report that she was created from the lowest of Adam’s ribs (qusayra) — which is sometimes also understood as the shortest rib",[37] also contradicting evolution as the first woman.

O mankind! Be wary of your Lord who created you from a single soul, and created its mate from it, and from the two of them scattered numerous men and women. Be wary of Allah, in whose Name you adjure one another and [of severing ties with] blood relations. Indeed Allah is watchful over you.
Quran 4:1

Abraham (Ibrāhīm)

Magically cooling fire

Abraham is thrown into a fire that magically cools for him and burns only his chains.[38]

We said, ‘O fire! Be cool and safe for Abraham!’
Quran 21:69

Cut up birds and bring them back to life

And when Abraham said, ‘My Lord! Show me how You revive the dead,’ He said, ‘Do you not believe?’ He said, ‘Yes indeed, but in order that my heart may be at rest.’ He said, ‘Catch four of the birds. Then cut them into pieces, and place a part of them on every mountain, then call them; they will come to you hastening. And know that Allah is all-mighty and all-wise.’
Quran 2:260

Shown the universe

And thus did We show Abraham the realm of the heavens and the earth that he would be among the certain [in faith].
Quran 6:75

Gives Abraham and his old wife a child

“There came Our messengers to Abraham with glad tidings. They said, ‘Peace!’ He answered, ‘Peace!’ and hastened to entertain them with a roasted calf. But when he saw their hands went not towards the (meal), he felt some mistrust of them, and conceived a fear of them. They said: ‘Fear not: we have been sent against the people of Lut.’ And his wife was standing (there), and she laughed, but We gave her glad tidings of Isaac, and after him, of Jacob. She said, ‘Alas for me! shall I bear a child, seeing I am an old woman, and my husband here is an old man? That would indeed be a wonderful thing!’ They said, ‘Dost thou wonder at Allah’s decree? The grace of Allah and His blessings on you, O, ye people of the house! For He is indeed worthy of all praise, full of all glory!’”
Quran 11:69-73

Ishmael (ʾIsmāʿīl)

Ishmael is Abraham's son, who God originally asks Abraham to sacrifice Ishmael to prove his devotion (Quran 37:100-108). Ishmael agrees but God swaps him with a ram (according to Islamic commentaries on this verse) before he completes it.[39]

And We ransomed him with a sacrifice great,
Quran 37:107

Abel (Hābīl) and Cane (Qābīl)

A raven sent from God shows Abel where to bury his brother Cain.

Then Allah sent a crow, exploring in the ground, to show him how to bury the corpse of his brother. He said, ‘Woe to me! Am I unable to be [even] like this crow and bury my brother’s corpse?’ Thus he became regretful.
Quran 5:31

Jonah (Yunus)

Living inside a big fish

The Quran presents a version of the Biblical tale in which Jonah is swallowed by a whale ('the big Fish') and then lives in the whale for some time while praying. This legendary account is copied from the simiarly fantastic account in the bible's book of Jonah.

Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah, He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth, on the naked shore in a state of sickness
Quran 37:142

Joseph (Yūsuf)

Dream interpreting

Birds are seen in a dream which Joseph interprets in reality.

There entered the prison two youths along with him. One of them said, ‘I dreamt that I am pressing grapes.’ The other said, ‘I dreamt that I am carrying bread on my head from which the birds are eating.’ ‘Inform us of its interpretation,’ [they said], ‘for indeed we see you to be a virtuous man.’ He said, ‘Before the meals you are served come to you I will inform you of its interpretation. That is among things my Lord has taught me. Indeed, I renounce the creed of the people who have no faith in Allah and who [also] disbelieve in the Hereafter... ...O my prison mates! As for one of you, he will serve wine to his master, and as for the other, he will be crucified and vultures will eat from his head. The matter about which you inquire has been decided.’
Quran 12:36-41

A shirt regains his sons sight

Here, Jacob (Ya'qūb) (Joseph's son e.g. Quran 12:80) is blind, and when Joseph arranges for him to be brought to Egypt for their reunion, he instructs his brothers to place the shirt on Jacob's face, miraculously restoring his sight.

Take this shirt of mine, and cast it upon my father’s face; he will regain his sight, and bring me all your folks.’ As the caravan set off, their father said, ‘I sense the scent of Joseph, if you will not consider me a dotard.’ They said, ‘By God, you persist in your inveterate error.’ When the bearer of good news arrived, he cast it on his face, and he regained his sight. He said, ‘Did I not tell you, ‘‘I know from Allah what you do not know?’’ ’
Quran 12:93-96

Job (Ayyūb)

Magic water spring

Though he doesn't seem to perform any miracles directly like Jesus or Moses in the Qur'an, Allah instructs him to strike the ground with his foot, and a spring of water emerges, which heals him.[40] This might be considered a divine blessing or sign rather than a miracle performed by Job himself.

[We told him:] ‘Stamp your foot on the ground; this [ensuing spring] will be a cooling bath and drink.’
Quran 38:42

Moses (Mūsā)

Sea split in half

The Quran present a version of the Biblical story where Moses splits the sea and crosses it with the Israelites. The entire Moses story as we have it both in the bible and derived forms such as the Qur'an is wholy legendary in nature as there's no evidence from the record of Egypt's ancient history that Moses ever existed.

And remember We divided the sea for you and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight.
Quran 2:50

Stick turned serpent

The Quran states that Moses' staff transformed into a serpent.

Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)!
Quran 7:107

Plagues of Egypt

So We sent against them a flood and locusts, lice, frogs and blood, as distinct signs. But they acted arrogantly, and they were a guilty lot.
Quran 7:133

Mountain lifted up and dropped in front of him (from Allah)

When Moses arrived at Our tryst and his Lord spoke to him, he said, ‘My Lord, show [Yourself] to me, that I may look at You!’ He said, ‘You shall not see Me. But look at the mountain: if it abides in its place, then you will see Me.’ So when his Lord disclosed Himself to the mountain, He levelled it, and Moses fell down swooning. When he recovered, he said, ‘Immaculate are You! I turn to You in penitence, and I am the first of the faithful.’
Quran 7:143
And when We took a pledge from you, and raised the Mount above you, [declaring], ‘Hold on with power to what We have given you and remember that which is in it so that you may be Godwary.’
Quran 2:63

Moses's magic white hand

‘Insert your hand into your shirt. It will emerge white and bright, without any fault—among nine signs meant for Pharaoh and his people. Indeed they are a transgressing lot.’
Quran 27:12

12 Springs magically appear from a rock

And when Moses prayed for water for his people, We said, ‘Strike the rock with your staff.’ Thereat twelve fountains gushed forth from it; every tribe came to know its drinking-place. ‘Eat and drink of Allah’s provision, and do not act wickedly on the earth, causing corruption.’
Quran 12:60

Dead fish (for food) comes back to life at the junction of the two seas

Main Article: A Barrier Between Two Seas and the Cosmic Ocean

Moses's dead fish comes back to life at the junction of the two seas, in a verse paralleling late antique Christian literature.

So when they reached the confluence between them, they forgot their fish, which found its way into the sea, sneaking away. Then when they had passed beyond he said to his boy, "Bring us our morning meal. Certainly we have suffered in our journey this, fatigue." He said, 'What thinkest thou? When we took refuge in the rock, then I forgot the fish-and it was Satan himself that made me forget it so that I should not remember it -- and so it took its way into the sea in a manner marvellous.'
Quran 18:61-63

Mooing statue

The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.

So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.
Quran 20:88

Testimony of a dead man by slapping a cow

The Quran states that Allah instructed a group of people to strike a murdered man with a piece of a heifer (young female cow that has not yet borne a calf) in order to temporarily resurrect him and discover the identity of the murderer.

And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand.
Quran 2:73

Korah (Qārūn) swallowed

Korah indeed belonged to the people of Moses, but he bullied them. We had given him so much treasures that their chests indeed proved heavy for a band of stalwarts. When his people said to him, ‘Do not boast! Indeed Allah does not like the boasters. Seek the abode of the Hereafter by means of what Allah has given you, while not forgetting your share of this world. Be good [to others] just as Allah has been good to you, and do not try to cause corruption in the land. Indeed Allah does not like the agents of corruption.’... ...So We caused the earth to swallow him and his house, and he had no party that might protect him from Allah, nor could he rescue himself. By dawn those who longed to be in his place the day before were saying, ‘Don’t you see that Allah expands the provision for whomever He wishes of His servants, and tightens it? Had Allah not shown us favour, He might have made the earth swallow us too. Don’t you see that the faithless do not prosper?’
Quran 28:76-82

His audience are killed by a thunderbolt then brought back to life

And when you said, ‘O Moses, we will not believe you until we see Allah visibly.’ Thereupon a thunderbolt seized you as you looked on. Then We revived you from after your death, so that you may (be) grateful.
Quran 2:55

David (Dāwūd)

Understanding birds

Solomon inherited from David, and he said, ‘O people! We have been taught the speech of the birds, and we have been given out of everything. Indeed this is a manifest advantage.’
Quran 27:16

Mountains and birds sing psalms

The Qur'an states that hills and birds would sing the psalms with David.

And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him
Quran 34:10

Allah making iron soft for David

Certainly We gave David our grace: ‘O mountains and birds, chime in with him!’ And We made iron soft for him.
Quran 34:10

Solomon (Sulaymān)

Solomon's Army of jinn and birds (controlling them)

A story in the Qur'an, drawing on Jewish folklore, states that Solomon commanded a massive army comprised of 'Jinns and men and birds'. Solomon is described as speaking with a Hoopoe bird and thereafter desiring to execute the bird when it is tardy to his assembly. The Hoopoe bird, it is then revealed, was only delayed because it had been spying on a beautiful female ruler, Queen Sheba, who Solomon subsequently insists is misguided and must be conquered. At this point, Solomon assigns a Jinn from his assembly the task of stealing Queen Sheba's magnificent throne. All of these fantastic elements evince the legendary and folkloric origins of the story.

And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts― of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks.
Quran 27:16-17
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.
Quran 27:20-23

Fountain of bronze

And We caused a fount of (molten) brass to flow for him, and there were jinns that worked in front of him, by the Leave of his Lord, and whosoever of them turned aside from Our Command, We shall cause him to taste of the torment of the blazing Fire.
Quran 34:12

Solomon speaks to an ant

Solomon understands the speech of an ant advising caution to his fellows

When they came to the Valley of Ants, an ant said, ‘O ants! Enter your dwellings, lest Solomon and his hosts should trample on you while they are unaware.’
Quran 27:18

Solomons dead body doesn't decompose properly

When We decreed death for him, nothing apprised them of his death except a worm which gnawed away at his staff. And when he fell down, [the humans] realized that had the jinn known the Unseen, they would not have remained in a humiliating torment.
Quran 34:14

Manipulating the wind

The Quran says that Solomon had the power to control the wind and traditional sources elaborate that Solomon could use this wind to fly upon a gigantic wooden carpet to wherever he pleased.

Then We subjected the wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, Whithersoever he willed
Quran 38:36
A flying carpet made from wood, on top of which he could carry everything in his kingdom including chairs, to wherever Solomon wants to go, whilst flocks of birds would fly over to give shade
Tafsir Ibn-Kathir on 21:81

Zechariah (Zakariyā)

Cures his wife barreness

This produces John the Baptist (Yaḥyā) in the Qur'an.

“And (remember) Zakariya, when he cried to his Lord: ‘O, my Lord! leave me not childless, and Thou art the best of inheritors.’ So We responded to him, and We granted him Yahya, We cured his wife’s (barrenness) for him. These (three) were ever quick in emulation in good works; they used to call on Us with love and reverence, and humble themselves before Us.”
Quran 21:89-90

Jesus (ʿĪsā)

Main Article: Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)

Born from Mary (Mariam) who was a virgin

Like the bible, and other pagan mythologies,[41] Jesus is also born from a virgin, provided by the holy spirit; usually taken as a reference the angel Gabriel here. Given he is not the son of God, it is unclear what the purpose of this is.

Thus did she seclude herself from them, whereupon We sent to her Our Spirit and he became incarnate for her as a well-proportioned human. She said, ‘I seek the protection of the All-beneficent from you, should you be Godwary!’ He said, ‘I am only a messenger of your Lord that I may give you a pure son.’ She said, ‘How shall I have a child seeing that no human being has ever touched me, nor have I been unchaste?’ He said, ‘So shall it be. Your Lord says, ‘‘It is simple for Me.’’ And so that We may make him a sign for mankind and a mercy from Us, and it is a matter [already] decided.’
Quran 19:17-21
And the example of Maryam the daughter of Imran, who guarded her chastity – We therefore breathed into her a Spirit from Ourselves – and she testified for the Words of her Lord and His Books, and was among the obedient.
Quran 66:12

Jesus talking from his Cradle

(And remember) when the angels said: O Mary! Lo! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a word from him, whose name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, illustrious in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those brought near (unto Allah). He will speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood, and he is of the righteous.
Quran 3:45-46

Supernatural food

The Qur'an states that Jesus received a feast sent down from heaven.

Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us, for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers. Allah said: Lo! I send it down for you. And whoso disbelieveth of you afterward, him surely will I punish with a punishment wherewith I have not punished any of (My) creatures.
Quran 5:114-115

Magically curing the Blind and Lepersy affected

and [he will be] an apostle to the Children of Israel, [and he will declare,] “I have certainly brought you a sign from your Lord: I will create for you the form of a bird out of clay, then I will breathe into it, and it will become a bird by Allah’s leave. I heal the blind and the leper and I revive the dead by Allah’s leave. I will tell you what you have eaten and what you have stored in your houses. There is indeed a sign in that for you, should you be faithful.
Quran 3:49

Raising the dead

See above Quran 3:49

Clay birds becoming alive

See above Quran 3:49

Luqman (Luq'mān)

Given special wisdom

Luq'mān - believed to be a common pre-Islamic sage, though his identity is disputed,[42] and may simply be an amalgamation of different characters, as local Arabian tales are brought into salvation history.[43] In the Qur'an God gives him a special widsom (al-ḥik'mata)[44] although most classical Islamic scholars agree that he was still not a prophet.[42]

And We had certainly given Luqman wisdom [and said], "Be grateful to Allah." And whoever is grateful is grateful for [the benefit of] himself. And whoever denies [His favor] - then indeed, Allah is Free of need and Praiseworthy. And [mention, O Muhammad], when Luqman said to his son while he was instructing him, "O my son, do not associate [anything] with Allah. Indeed, association [with him] is great injustice."
Quran 31:12-13

Saleh (Ṣāliḥ)

The She-Camel of Saleh (Ṣāliḥ)

A camel appears to the people of Thamūd from a rock after the unbelieving people ask for a sign Salih is a prophet.[45]

And to [the people of] Thamud [We sent] Salih, their brother. He said, ‘O my people, worship Allah! You have no other god besides Him. There has certainly come to you a manifest proof from your Lord. This she-camel of Allah is a sign for you. Let her alone to graze [freely] in Allah’s land, and do not cause her any harm, for then you shall be seized by a painful punishment.
Quran 7:73

Allah Miracles - Misc.

Speaking body parts

The Quran states that human organs will, on the Day of Judgement, testify against their own persons.

On the Day when their tongues, their hands, and their feet will bear witness against them as to their actions.
Quran 24:24

Army of magic birds attacking Abraha's army

Main article: Historical Errors in the Quran - Surah of the elephant

Have you not regarded how your Lord dealt with the army of the elephants?
Did He not make their stratagems go awry,
and send against them flocks of birds
hurling against them stones of baked clay
Then He made them like straw eaten up.
Quran 105:1-5

Jews transformed into pigs and apes as a punishment

The Qur'an records a miraculous event where Sabbath breakers are transformed into apes and pigs.

And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected."
Quran 2:65
When they defied [the command pertaining to] what they were forbidden from, We said to them, ‘Be you spurned apes.’
Quran 7:166
Say, ‘Shall I inform you concerning something worse than that as a requital from Allah? Those whom Allah has cursed and with whom He is wrathful, and turned some of whom into apes and swine, and worshippers of fake deities! Such are in a worse situation and more astray from the right way.’
Quran 5:60

Vivifying Rainfall and Resurrection

Rainfall is seen as bringing dead back to life, a common belief in antiquity.[46] Hence the Qur'an repeatedly asserts that just as rainfall revives a barren land, people will likewise be resurrected. However, with our current scientific knowledge, this is now a non-sequitur leap as now we can explain the natural process of germination[47] rather than magic through God. So as the revival of plant life is a scientific process, and human resurrection is not, the proof of one is not proof of the other.

It is Allah Who sends forth the Winds, so that they raise up the Clouds, and We drive them to a land that is dead, and revive the earth therewith after its death: even so (will be) the Resurrection!
Quran 35:9
That sends down (from time to time) rain from the sky in due measure;- and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead; even so will ye be raised (from the dead);
Quran 43:11
And among His Signs in this: thou seest the earth barren and desolate; but when We send down rain to it, it is stirred to life and yields increase. Truly, He Who gives life to the (dead) earth can surely give life to (men) who are dead. For He has power over all things.
Quran 41:39

A man is killed for 100 years then resurrected

Or him who came upon a township as it lay fallen on its trellises. He said, ‘How will Allah revive this after its death?!’ So Allah made him die for a hundred years, then He resurrected him. He said, ‘How long did you remain?’ Said he, ‘I have remained a day or part of a day.’ He said, ‘No, you have remained a hundred years. Now look at your food and drink which have not rotted! Then look at your donkey! [This was done] that We may make you a sign for mankind. And now look at its bones, how We raise them up and clothe them with flesh!’ When it became evident to him, he said, ‘I know that Allah has power over all things.’
Quran 2:259
As is his donkey

See above Quran 2:259

And his food is kept from rotting

See above Quran 2:259

Seven people are kept sleeping for three-hundred and nine years

Main Article: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus in the Quran
So they stayed in their Cave three hundred years, and (some) add nine (more).
Quran 18:25

And a dog keeps watch over them, presumably also given a supernatural lifespan.

You will suppose them to be awake, although they are asleep. We turn them to the right and to the left, and their dog [lies] stretching its forelegs at the threshold. If you come upon them, you will surely turn to flee from them, and you will surely be filled with a terror of them.
Quran 18:18

The Earth will throw out things on judgement day

Classical Islamic commentators explain this can include all kinds of things, including dead people (which in reality would have rotted and not necessarily be in the Earth itself), things to do with their crimes, treasure and metals, and others.[48]

And brings forth the earth its burdens,
Quran 99:2

Natural processes ascribed to God and magical properties assigned to inanimate objects

It could be argued that there is no randomness or natural law in the Qur'an, but rather every single thing including all causal events and interactions are not the results of material conditions and conjunctions, but rather determined by God/Allah's current will; an opinion argued by many Muslim theologians,[49] such as al-Ghazālī who claims that God is the ultimate cause.[50]

Decharneux (2023) highlights that God in the Qur'an is highly active in the cosmos, not just at the beginning of creation to set the world in place.

The text repeatedly ascribes to God the cosmic role of sustaining the world. God continuously provides humans with food and necessary supplies (e. g. Q 6:96, 7:9, 26:75, 28:57, 29:60, 30:40, 34:24, 36:71 – 73). He is also responsible for the regularity of astral motions in the sky (e. g. Q 7:54, 13:2, 14:33, 16:12, 29:61, 31:29, 35:13, 39:5), for the succession of day and night (e. g. Q 14:33, 16:12), as well as any other things that allow humans to live on a daily basis. All these passages show that the Qur’ān grants to the theme of the creatio continua (“continuous creation”; i. e. maintenance of the universe) a prominent place within the overall Qur’ānic cosmological discourse. This is hardly surprising given the natural theological system described in the first chapter. God’s creatorship is observable in the cycles and the regularity of the world.
Decharneux, Julien. De Gruyter. 2023. Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (pp. 143).

And similarly Sinai (2023).

Even after having been fully set up, the natural realm is thus in no way causally independent of its creator, whom Q 55:29 describes as incessantly busy (kulla yawmin huwa fī shaʾn, “everyday he is engaged in something”).
allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 62-63). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

In similar fashion to the control seen in the doctrine of Predestination in the Qur'an, events aren't given a somewhat random cause and effect of individual people working within the laws of nature that have been set, but rather God interacts constantly. He (Allāh) regulates affairs from the heaven to the earth Quran 32:5, gives favour to people Quran 16:53 and chooses when they die Quran 32:11, as with every nation Quran 7:34 and thing Quran 6:67. He is seen as deciding the outcome of battles Quran 36:74-75 (which other gods cannot Quran 46:28) and working through believers to fight unbelievers Quran 8:17[51] and sending invisible angels to Muhammad Quran 3:123-126, Quran 33:9, Quran 9:26 (cf: Quran 3:123-126) etc.

Natural processes explained by science as miracles

Wind & rain

Wind is seen as a sign of God Quran 35:9 rather than from heat differences,[52] and God is said to bring down rain, rather than the natural process of water droplets[53] condensing onto one another within a cloud, causing the droplets to grow - which when these water droplets get too heavy to stay suspended in the cloud, they fall to Earth as rain (cf: Quran 43:11). This is in line with the pre-Islamic Arabic poets worldview. [54]

Lightning

The Qur'an states that lighting is a sign shown by god for fear (khawfan) and hope (waṭamaʿan), however now we know that lightening is simply an electrical phenomena caused by negative and positive charges in clouds or between the cloud and the ground build up and suddenly discharge, creating a bright flash,[55] (i.e. explained by science), it is difficult to see why it would give people hope.

And among His Signs, He shows you the lightning, by way both of fear and of hope, and He sends down rain from the sky and with it gives life to the earth after it is dead
Quran 30:24

Ships sailing

Allah causes ships to stay afloat (and presumably sink) (Quran 55:24, Quran 17:70, Quran 17:66) rather than the scientific principle of buoyancy[56] (and essentially randomness of those who's boats do not work).

The baby's sex and Infertility

Allah is said to cause infertility, which we now know has many medical causes, some of which are preventable.[57]

He creates whatever He wants and bestows female to whomever He wants and bestows male to whomever He wants. Or He mingles them, males and females, and He makes barren whom He pleases. Lo! He is Knower, Powerful.
Quran 42:49-50

The embryo's sex

Main Article: Embryology in the Quran

In the same verse as above Quran 42:49-50 God is said to decide who is male and who is female, rather than the sex chromosome of the sperm cell that fertilizes the ovum.[58] A sahih hadith clarifies that this is determined by whether the mother or father reaches sexual climax first.[59]

Inanimate objects and animals worship God

Inanimate objects that do not have a consciousness like those with complex brains, so are not capable of worshipping anything.

The Thunder celebrates His praise, and the angels [too], in awe of Him, and He releases the thunderbolts and strikes with them whomever He wishes. Yet they dispute concerning Allah, though He is great in might.
Quran 13:13
Have you not regarded that whoever is in the heavens and whoever is on the earth prostrates to Allah, as well as the sun, the moon, and the stars, the mountains, the trees, and the animals and many humans? And many have come to deserve the punishment. Whomever Allah humiliates will find no one who may bring him honour. Indeed Allah does whatever He wishes.
Quran 22:18

Even their shadows do somehow.

To Allah prostrates whoever there is in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, and their shadows at sunrise and sunset.
Quran 13:15

Everything in the cosmos (presumably covering the vast amounts of near-empty space and elements) worships and prostrates before him, as does every animal and angel, all allegedly fearing God (Quran 16:49-50, Quran 22:18), including the birds, which do so while flying (Quran 24:41), and trees (Quran 55:6).

Inanimate objects refused the task of being God's followers, but humans accepted

It is hard to know what was meant by this or why Allah would offer an inanimate object with no biology for consciousness that he already knew couldn't answer the task, nor how they refused it. Some classical Islamic commentaries say they could speak at the time.[60]

Indeed We presented the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they refused to undertake it and were apprehensive of it; but man undertook it. Indeed he is most unjust and ignorant.
Quran 33:72

Allah speaks to the heavens/skies and the earth and they respond

Then He turned towards the heaven when it was smoke, saying to it and to the earth, ‘Submit, willingly or unwillingly.’ They both responded, ‘We submit willingly.’"
Quran 41:11

Anthropomorphisms of Allāh

Allah is not a totally transcendent God, as he is described as having human features in several verses in the Qur'an. Many hadith also support this view.[61]

Hands

Sinai (2023) notes the parallels with pre-Islamic and contemporary literature suggesting that these verses are to be taken literally.[62]

He said, ‘O Iblis! What keeps you from prostrating before that which I have created with My [own] two hands? Are you arrogant, or are you one of the exalted ones?’
Quran 38:75
...in Q 38:75 God upbraids Iblīs for failing to “prostrate to what I have created with my hands,” bi-yadayya. As recognised by al-Ashʿarī (Gimaret 1990, 326), the point of God’s statement here is presumably to highlight a trait of Adam that endows him with peculiar dignity and elevates him over Iblīs—namely, the fact that God has formed Adam in a more intimate fashion than other creatures. Hence, although the Qur’anic God is perfectly capable of creating by verbal fiat, as maintained in places like Q 2:117 and 3:47 (when God “decides on [creating] something, he merely says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is,” idhā qaḍā amran fa-innamā yaqūlu lahu kun fa-yakūn), he can also create in what is literally a hands-on manner, by making use of his own limbs.106 In passing, one may note that the claim that humans were fashioned manually has pre-Qur’anic parallels that lend further support to taking it quite literally. According to Aphrahat, Adam alone was created by God’s own hands while everything else was created by God’s word (Demonstrations 13:11 = Parisot 1894, 563–566, identified in BEQ 46). The same idea is developed at length by Jacob of Sarug (Mathews 2020, 46–51, ll. 2157–2194): whereas all other creatures were brought into existence by a divine “signal” (remzā; cf. Decharneux 2019, 244–245), Adam was uniquely created by God’s hands (l. 2169)—an instance of divine self-abasement that prefigures the incarnation of Christ (ll. 2189–2194). The Cave of Treasures also reports that Adam was shaped by God’s “holy hands” (Ri 1987, ch. 2:12; see Zellentin 2017, 109).107
allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 73-74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

Eyes

Build the ark before Our eyes and by Our revelation, and do not plead with Me for those who are wrongdoers: they shall indeed be drowned.’
Quran 11:37
"That cast him in the chest then cast it in the river, then let cast it the river on the bank; will take him an enemy to Me, and an enemy to him." And I cast over you love from Me, and that you may be brought up under My eye.
Quran 20:39
So submit patiently to the judgement of your Lord, for indeed you fare before Our eyes. And celebrate the praise of your Lord when you rise [at dawn]
Quran 52:48

Sitting upright

Further adding to the special aspect, Sinai (2023) writes, these anthropomorphisms are further bolstered as literal with him "sitting" on a throne, which angels will carry specifically in the sky, most likely the highest one; i.e. part of the cosmos rather than a separate supernatural "universe" or in a state of indescribable non spatial existence.

Qur’an quite literally understands God to possess a countenance, sensory percipience, and limbs capable of touching, grasping, or imparting movement that the Islamic scripture employs various idioms and formulae involving these features. After all, there is no Qur’anic equivalent to Ephrem’s caveat that God only “put on the names of body parts”—i.e., speaks of himself in anthropomorphic and anthropopathic language—due to the weakness of human understanding (Beck 1955, no. 31:1–4). The Qur’anic God, therefore, is not merely a body but also, at least in some sense, an anthropomorphic body: he is endowed with a face, he is empirically receptive to worldly occurrences (rather than just knowing about them), and he can directly, with his own body, manipulate objects in the world. That the divine body has a fundamentally humanoid shape is further accentuated by the use of the verb istawā, “to stand up straight” or “to sit upright,” which is applied both to God, indicating the modality of his being located on the throne (Q 7:54, 10:3, 13:2, 20:5, 25:59, 32:4, 57:4),108 and to humans, who are described as “sitting upright” in a boat or on the back of a mount (Q 23:28, 43:13; see CDKA 142).
allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

Made of light/photons

God is described as being made of light, which we now know from modern science would essentially be saying he is made of photons.[63]

And (will) shine the earth with (the) light (of) its Lord and (will) be placed the Record and (will) be brought the Prophets and the witnesses, and it (will) be judged between them in truth, and they will not be wronged.
Quran 39:69

Similarly in regards to light Sinai (2023) notes:

Nonetheless, with regard to Q 39:69 it seems more likely that the verse speaks of literal light, given that the same context also mentions the blowing of the eschatological trumpet (v. 68) and the display of the celestial register of deeds in preparation for the judgement (v. 69). But if reference is to concrete light rather than to the metaphorical light of divine guidance, then it stands to reason that this is light emitted by God, who arrives in order to judge humans and other moral agents.
allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 71). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

And:

The obvious reading of the material just surveyed is that the Qur’an considers God to be at least in principle visible and to be spatially located. The Qur’anic God cannot, therefore, be immaterial in any strict sense.
allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 69). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

Human emotions

Anger and wrath

God is said to have human emotions in the Qur'an such as anger (ghadab) (Q 1:7; cf. 4:93; 5:60; 7:71, 152; 8:16; 16:106; 20:81; 42:16; 48:6; 58:14; 60:13), and we see for example in Q 4:93,which deals with those who commit murder, we see that God does not simply send murderers to hell; he also grows angry with them.[64]

Should anyone kill a believer intentionally, his requital shall be hell, to remain in it [forever]; Allah shall be wrathful at him and curse him and He shall prepare for him a great punishment.
Quran 4:93

This anger frequently causes Allah to actively take vengeance on them.[65]

Loving

Quran 60:8 Durie (2018) notes that in contrast to the bible, the title al-wadūd “one who loves” is used of Allah only twice (Q85:14; Q11:90).[66]

Not loving

Reynolds (2020) notes

There are indeed those whom the God of the Qur’an does not love. “God does not love any sinful unbeliever” (Q 2:276). “God does not love the faithless” (Q 3:32; cf. 30:45).9 God also does not love the wrongdoers (Q 3:57, 140; 42:40), the transgressors (Q 2:190, 5:87, 7:55), the arrogant (Q 4:36, 16:23, 31:18, 57:23), the proud (Q 4:36, 31:18, 57:23), the wasteful (Q 6:141, 7:31), the treacherous (Q 8:58, 22:38), the corrupt (Q 5:64, 28:77), and the boastful (Q 28:76).
Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 167). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Hating

Quran 40:10 even speaks of God’s “hate” (maqt) of unbelievers.[67]

Pleasure

Alongside other human emotions God can feel pleasure (Quran 98:8).

Other

Both God and Humans are said to have a sunnah[68] or "customary way" of acting[69] (e.g. Quran 35:43).

External Links

References

  1. ↑ El-Zein, Amira. Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (p. 139). Syracuse University Press. Kindle Edition.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 shayṭān | devil al-shayṭān | the devil, Satan Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 451). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.
  3. ↑ Wray, T. J.; Mobley, Gregory. The Birth of Satan: Tracing the Devil's Biblical Roots (pp. 68-70, Chapters 5 & 6). St. Martin's Publishing Group. Kindle Edition.
  4. ↑ shayṭān | devil al-shayṭān | the devil, Satan Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 453). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Ibid. Kindle Edition. pp. 459
  6. ↑ Angels in Islam. Of what are the Angels created? Islam Q&A. 2000
  7. ↑ El-Zein, Amira. Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East) (Kindle Edition. pp. 44-46 ). Syracuse University Press.
  8. ↑ malak | angel; angels. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 632). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. Despite their wings and their potential invisibility, the default appearance of angels on earth is humanoid: “had we made him”—namely, the Qur’anic Messenger—“an angel, we would have made him a man (rajul),” i.e., endowed him with the appearance of an ordinary human, Q 6:9 affirms. Perhaps one is to understand that angels can exist in two different states of aggregation, as it were: a celestial one involving wings and invisibility to the human eye, and a state of manifestation to humans, in which they appear by and large like humans themselves (see also Burge 2012, 57). It is worth highlighting that Q 6:9, by virtue of employing the word rajul, additionally implies that angels are male. This corresponds to Biblical assumptions (e.g., Matt 16:5) and helps make sense of the Qur’anic polemic against belief in female angels (Q 17:40, 37:149–153, 43:16–19, 53:27–28; see also DTEK 102). A particular aspect of the angels’ humanoid appearance—namely, their possession of hands—is corroborated by Q 6:93, according to which the angels “stretch out their hands” for the wrongdoers when these latter are in the throes of death (DTEK 121). Moreover, it must be on account of the angels’ anthropomorphic appearance that Abraham initially mistook the divinely sent “messengers” (rusul) dispatched to him for ordinary humans, only realising their supernatural—i.e., angelic—status when his guests declined the food offered to them (Q 11:69–70 and 51:26–28; see below and Sinai 2020a, 282–283).26 The generally humanoid shape of Qur’anic angels also emerges from the fact that the female friends of Joseph’s Egyptian mistress so admire him that they exclaim, “This is no human but a noble angel!” (Q 12:31).
  9. ↑ What is meant by the blowing of the Trumpet? Islam Q&A. 2003.
  10. ↑ Decharneux, Julien. Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (p. 311). De Gruyter. Kindle Edition.
  11. ↑ Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 633). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. ...“do as they are commanded” (Q 16:50, 66:6: yafʿalūna mā yuʾmarūn; see also 21:27: wa-hum bi-amrihi yaʿmalūn),30 “do not disobey God” (Q 66:6: lā yaʿṣūna llāha), and “do not deem themselves above serving him” (Q 7:206, 21:19: lā yastakbirūna ʿan ʿibādatihi; see also 16:49: wa-hum lā yastakbirūn)...
  12. ↑ Decharneux, Julien. Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) (Kindle Edition. pp. 313). De Gruyter.
  13. ↑ The Ocean of the Qur'an: Q 83:21
  14. ↑ Stephen Burge. "Angels (malāʾika)." 4.3 Angels in classical emanationist cosmologies In St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology, edited by Brendan N. Wolfe et al. University of St Andrews. Article published August 29, 2024. https://www.saet.ac.uk/Islam/Angels. Journal TSAQAFAH Divine Emanation As Cosmic Origin: Ibn Sînâ and His Critics pp 334. Syamsuddin Arif* Institut Studi Islam Darussalam (ISID)
  15. ↑ [Do academics think there is a sexual connotation to this verse in Quran (76:19)? https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/xjgcsw/do_academics_think_there_is_a_sexual_connotation/].
  16. ↑ Ibn Kathir (d 1373.) Commentary on Verse 21:96 (95-97)
  17. ↑ van Donzel, Emeri; Schmidt, Andrea. Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources: Sallam's Quest for Alexander's Wall. Leiden: Brill. pp. 91-92. ISBN 9789004174160, 2010. The full book and their analysis of the journey taken by Sallam can be read on the Internet Archive linked here. (page 110 of 229 the PDF)
  18. ↑ E.g. Adnan Qureshi, Christmas in North Korea, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2020, pp. 141-142: Chollima joins the other mythical flying horses such as the horses of Eos, Helios, Apollo, Sol Invictus, and Pegasus (in Greek mythology), al-Buraq (a winged horse in Islamic tradition), Haizum (a heavenly winged horse, ridden by Gabriel according to Islamic tradition), Ponkhiraj (a flying horse from Bangladesh), and the wind horse (in Mongolian, ancient Turkish, and Tibetan traditions). & khosravi, M., taheri, A. (2018). 'A Comparative Study on the Image of “Buraq” in the Islamic Art with some Motifs of the Luristan Bronze', Journal of Archaeological Studies, 10(2), pp. 67-81. doi: 10.22059/jarcs.2018.226529.142389
  19. ↑ Tafsirs for Quran 113:4
  20. ↑ Day, C. L. (1950). Knots and Knot Lore. Western Folklore, 9(3), 229–256
  21. ↑ rūḥ | spirit rūḥ al-qudus | the holy spirit Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 355). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.
  22. ↑ Ibid. pp. 357
  23. ↑ Ibid. pp. 360
  24. ↑ ḥā rā mīm (ح ر م) Lane's Lexicon - Quranic Research ḥaram Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 553 & 554
  25. ↑ Neuwirth, Angelika. (2003). From the Sacred Mosque to the Remote Temple: Sūrat al-Isrā' between Text and Commentary. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195137279.003.0025.
  26. ↑ qāf dāl sīn (ق د س) Lane's Lexicon - Quran research muqadasata - Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 2497
  27. ↑ ḥā rā mīm (ح ر م) Lane's Lexicon - Quranic Research ḥurumun Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 555
  28. ↑ See commentaries such as Al-Jalalyan, Ibn Kathir and Maududi on Q7:172
  29. ↑ Valk SL, Hoffstaedter F, Camilleri JA, Kochunov P, Yeo BTT, Eickhoff SB. Personality and local brain structure: Their shared genetic basis and reproducibility. Neuroimage. 2020 Oct 15;220:117067. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117067. Epub 2020 Jun 20. PMID: 32574809; PMCID: PMC10251206.
  30. ↑ Can Trauma Cause Memory Loss? Charlie Health
  31. ↑ Treatment for Stimulant Use Disorders: Updated 2021 [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 1999. (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 33.) Chapter 2—How Stimulants Affect the Brain and Behavior. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK576548/
  32. ↑ See classical commentaries on these verses such as Al-Jalalayn on Q39:42, Q6:60 and Ibn Kathir on Q39:41-2 and Q6:60
  33. ↑ E.g. Ibn Kathir on Q39:41-2
  34. ↑ Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (.gov) For in depth information about what happens during sleep aimed at the general reader, see Professor Matthew Walker's "Why we sleep: unlocking the power of sleep and dreams"
  35. ↑ See commentaries from Islamic scholars on Q29:14
  36. ↑ McAuliffe, J. D. (Eds.). (01 Jan. 2001). "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān". In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Retrieved Mar 8, 2025, from https://brill.com/view/serial/ENQU Page 24. Adam and Eve. Read for free on internet archive, page (62/3956) of the PDF The Quran mentions several materials from which Adam was created, i.e. earth or dust (twrab, Q 3:59), clay (tan, Q7:12; see cLAy), and sticky clay or mud (tin lazib). More specifically, it is described as “clay from fetid foul mud” (salsal min hama’ masnin) and “clay like earthenware,” 1.e. baked or dry clay (salsal ka-l-fakhkhar). These terms are commonly interpreted as describing the different states of a single material.
  37. ↑ McAuliffe, J. D. (Eds.). (01 Jan. 2001). "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān". In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Retrieved Mar 8, 2025, from https://brill.com/view/serial/ENQU Page 24. Adam and Eve. Read for free on internet archive, page (62/3956) of the PDF
  38. ↑ Tafsir al-Jalalayn on verse 21:69
  39. ↑ See commentaries on verse 37:107
  40. ↑ See commentaries on verse 38:42
  41. ↑ Virgin Birth: It’s Pagan, Guys. Get Over It. PhD Richard Carrier. 2016.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. pp. 242-243. A.H.M. Zahniser. 2021. Pages (1458-1460/3956) of free book on Intranet Archive
  43. ↑ E.g. like the destruction of Thamūd, see: Sinai, Nicolai. “Religious Poetry from the Quranic Milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Ṣalt on the Fate of the Thamūd.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 74, no. 3 (2011): 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X11000309.
  44. ↑ ḥā kāf mīm (ح ك م) root on Qur'anic Research.net See: Lane's Lexicon classical Arabic dictionary Book 1 pp.617 & pp.618
  45. ↑ See commentaries on verse 7:73
  46. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context. pp28. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19
  47. ↑ Germination - botany - Life Cycle, Processes & Properties - Britannica
  48. ↑ See commentaries on Quran 99:2
  49. ↑ Rudolph, Ulrich, 'Occasionalism', in Sabine Schmidtke (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology, Oxford Handbooks (2016; online edn, Oxford Academic, 3 Mar. 2014), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.39, accessed 28 Mar. 2025.
  50. ↑ CAUSALITY AND DIVINE ACTION: THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE. Mohammad Hashim Kamali. Ghazali.org
  51. ↑ Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 2.4 An Act of God by Human Hands (p. 58-59) (Kindle Edition pp. 165-166) Lexington Books. 2018.
  52. ↑ Wind explained. U.S Energy information Administration. Last reviewed December 2023.
  53. ↑ Water Cycle Entry - Britannica What Makes It Rain? Water and Ice. NOAA SciJinks.gov
  54. ↑ See Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry, pp. 15, pp.18, pp. 27-30: Chapter 6. Allāh as Creator and Provider of Rain. New Haven, Connecticut: American Oriental Society, 2019. Essay 15. Nicolai Sinai.
  55. ↑ Understanding Lightning Science. Safety. National Weather Service.
  56. ↑ Why do ships float? Amy McDonald. 2019. STEM Explained. Let's Talk Science
  57. ↑ Infertility - Symptoms and causes. Diseases & conditions. Mayo Clinic.org
  58. ↑ For a simple explanation, see: Pregnancy Calendar: Your Baby's Development Kidshealth.org or Pampers: At What Point is a Baby's Sex Determined? 2023.
  59. ↑ Sahih Bukhari 4:55:546
  60. ↑ E.g. Al-Jalalayn on verse 33:72
  61. ↑ Holtzman, L. (2018). Anthropomorphism in Islam: The Challenge of Traditionalism (700-1350). United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. See many examples and debates around their authenticity in early Islam in Chapters 1, 2 and 3.
  62. ↑ allāh | God Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 73-74). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. ...in Q 38:75 God upbraids Iblīs for failing to “prostrate to what I have created with my hands,” bi-yadayya. As recognised by al-Ashʿarī (Gimaret 1990, 326), the point of God’s statement here is presumably to highlight a trait of Adam that endows him with peculiar dignity and elevates him over Iblīs—namely, the fact that God has formed Adam in a more intimate fashion than other creatures. Hence, although the Qur’anic God is perfectly capable of creating by verbal fiat, as maintained in places like Q 2:117 and 3:47 (when God “decides on [creating] something, he merely says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is,” idhā qaḍā amran fa-innamā yaqūlu lahu kun fa-yakūn), he can also create in what is literally a hands-on manner, by making use of his own limbs.106 In passing, one may note that the claim that humans were fashioned manually has pre-Qur’anic parallels that lend further support to taking it quite literally. According to Aphrahat, Adam alone was created by God’s own hands while everything else was created by God’s word (Demonstrations 13:11 = Parisot 1894, 563–566, identified in BEQ 46). The same idea is developed at length by Jacob of Sarug (Mathews 2020, 46–51, ll. 2157–2194): whereas all other creatures were brought into existence by a divine “signal” (remzā; cf. Decharneux 2019, 244–245), Adam was uniquely created by God’s hands (l. 2169)—an instance of divine self-abasement that prefigures the incarnation of Christ (ll. 2189–2194). The Cave of Treasures also reports that Adam was shaped by God’s “holy hands” (Ri 1987, ch. 2:12; see Zellentin 2017, 109).107
  63. ↑ What is a photon? Symmetry Magazine. Amanda Solliday and Kathryn Jepsen. 2021
  64. ↑ Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 162). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
  65. ↑ Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 176-202). Chapter 8: The Avenger. Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
  66. ↑ The Qurʾan and its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.107. Durie, Mark. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018.
  67. ↑ Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 167-168). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
  68. ↑ See verses in the Qur'an in the Noun section of the root sīn nūn nūn (س ن ن) on Quran Corpus.
  69. ↑ The Qurʾan and its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.177. Durie, Mark.
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