Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Offensive Jihad and Muhammad ibn Abdullah: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox Person
| name          = Muhammad
| other_names = Rasul Allah (Messenger of God)
| image      =Maome.jpeg
| imagesize  =220px
| birth_name  = Muhammad ibn Abdullah
| birth_date  = c. 570
| birth_place = Mecca, Hijaz, Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia)
| death_date  = 8 June 632 (aged c. 62)
| death_place = Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina
| years_active =123
| notable_works = Constitution of Medina
| successor  =
| spouse      =Khadija bint Khuwaylid
Sawda bint Zamʿa


Offensive jihad, known in Arabic as جهاد الطلب "jihad at-talab" ("the jihad of request", referring to the invitation to Islam which must be sent to the opposing infidels before hostilities may commence), is understood in the classical sources as an offensive struggle against [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar Al-Harb]] (the House of War or the realm of the infidels), is a duty incumbent upon Muslims and the [[Ummah]], and as such is to be carried out in a variety of ways. Outright war and fighting is permitted, and as the prophet himself said (in agreement with many great generals and military leaders throughout history such as Sun Tzu and von Clausewitz) "war is deceit" and as such breaking treaties, oaths, and promises is permittable as a part of Jihad on the path of Allah, and likewise all other forms of misdirection as a part of jihad. Muslim scholars generally agree that the the duty of Jihad is eternal until "the religion is to Allah" yet significant differences exist between scholars about whether Jihad may be validly conducted when the presence of a caliph and commander of the faithful is lacking. This difference constitutes a major point of contention between salafi-jihadis and conservative but quietist salafi factions, with the jihadis believing that a caliph is not a necessary pre-requisite for jihad. Modernist Islamic scholars argue that the traditional interpretations are mistaken, overextend the doctrine of abrogation and were a result of the need to legitimise the emerging empire and Caliphates. They argue that the Quran does not itself sanction expansionist warfare nor reveals an evolution in the extent of its permission to fight, contrary to traditional interpretation. Although differences exist in the modern understanding of when and where jihad may be conducted, the classical sources are generally in agreement that "jihad fi sabil allah" "Jihad-warfare on the path of god" against the unbelievers [[Jihad_as_Obligation_(Fard)|is a duty]] incumbent upon all able-bodied Muslim men when Muslim lands are threatened, or a duty that must be fulfilled by a group from among them for expansionary purposes.
Aisha bint Abi Bakr


{{Main|Jihad in Islamic Law}}
Hafsa bint Umar


==Jihad in the Qur'an and Sunnah==
Zaynab bint Khuzayma


===Qur'an===
Hind bint Abi Umayya
{{Main|Jihad in Islamic Law}}


Known by some scholars as the "sword verse" in Surah at-Tawbah of the Qur'an, verse 9:29 has been interpreted by many Islamic scholars throughout history as a never-ending call for jihad against the [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar-al-Harb]], abrogating a large number of earlier verses. This was not a universal view, however, and is also contested by Islamic modernist scholars today, who argue that the Quran does not sanction expansionist warfare but rather emphasises defensive fighting against aggression and religious persecution, with the expansionist-abrogationist view being linked to the early imperial-political situation (see discussion in the main article).
Zaynab bint Jahsh


===='''Verse 9:29'''====
Juwayriyya bint al-Harith
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|29}}|Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.}}


Here is Quran 9:29 in context, this verse is commonly known as ''the verse of the sword'' and relates to Jews and Christians.
Ramla bint Abi Sufyan


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|29|35}}|Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.
Rayhana bint Zayd


And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allah, and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah. That is their saying with their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved of old. Allah (Himself) fighteth against them. How perverse are they!
Safiyya bint Huyayy


They have taken as lords beside Allah their rabbis and their monks and the Messiah son of Mary, when they were bidden to worship only One Allah. There is no Allah save Him. Be He Glorified from all that they ascribe as partner (unto Him)!
Maymunah bint al-Harith


Fain would they put out the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah disdaineth (aught) save that He shall perfect His light, however much the disbelievers are averse.
Maria al-Qibtiyya
|parents=Abduallah ibn Abdul-Muttalib (father)
Aminah bint Wahb (mother)}}


He it is Who hath sent His messenger with the guidance and the Religion of Truth, that He may cause it to prevail over all religion, however much the idolaters may be averse.
'''Muhammad''' (Arabic: مُحمّد‎; <small>pronounced</small> [muħammad]; c. 570 – c. 8 June 632) was the founder of [[Islam]].<ref>''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017.  


O ye who believe! Lo! many of the (Jewish) rabbis and the (Christian) monks devour the wealth of mankind wantonly and debar (men) from the way of Allah. They who hoard up gold and silver and spend it not in the way of Allah, unto them give tidings (O Muhammad) of a painful doom,
<q>The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (''rasūl Allāh''), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind.</q>


On the day when it will (all) be heated in the fire of hell, and their foreheads and their flanks and their backs will be branded therewith (and it will be said unto them): Here is that which ye hoarded for yourselves. Now taste of what ye used to hoard.}}
Alford T. Welch, Ahmad S. Moussalli, Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad". In John L. Esposito. </ref> According to [[Islam and Scripture|Islamic scripture]], he was a [[Prophecies|prophe]]<nowiki/>t and [[God]]'s messenger, sent to present and confirm the monotheistic teachings preached in previous Abrahamic religions. He is viewed as the final prophet of God in the main branches of Islam.


The classical commentator Ibn Kathir, who was of the aggressive abrogationist view, gave the following explanation of this verse.
Born to ''‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib'', his family belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, a branch of the Quraysh tribe. Given away by his mother to be raised among Bedouins<ref>Katib al Waquidi p. 20</ref> and fully orphaned at the age of six, he was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib and his wife Fatimah bint Asad.<ref>''A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims''. pp. 165–166.
Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. </ref> Muhammad initially adopted the occupation of a shepherd, later becoming a merchant, baron and eventually a religious ruler and military leader.  


{{Quote|{{cite web quotebox|url=http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2567&Itemid=/ |title= The Order to fight People of the Scriptures until They give the Jizyah|}}<BR>Tafsir ibn Kathir|(Fight against those who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth among the People of the Scripture,)  
The name "Muhammad" (محمد) comes from the root حمد (ha meem daal) which means "praise". The derived word "Muhammad" is a passive participle of the form II version of the basic verb and it means "the praised one". A word from the same root is also used in the Islamic saying (that is also in the Quran) ''al-hamdu li-llah'' (الحمد لله, "all praise is to god").


This honorable Ayah was revealed with the order to fight the People of the Book, after the pagans were defeated, the people entered Allah's religion in large numbers, and the Arabian Peninsula was secured under the Muslims' control. Allah commanded His Messenger to fight the People of the Scriptures, Jews and Christians, on the ninth year of Hijrah, and he prepared his army to fight the Romans and called the people to Jihad announcing his intent and destination. The Messenger sent his intent to various Arab areas around Al-Madinah to gather forces, and he collected an army of thirty thousand. Some people from Al-Madinah and some hypocrites, in and around it, lagged behind, for that year was a year of drought and intense heat. The Messenger of Allah marched, heading towards Ash-Sham to fight the Romans until he reached Tabuk, where he set camp for about twenty days next to its water resources. He then prayed to Allah for a decision and went back to Al-Madinah because it was a hard year and the people were weak, as we will mention, Allah willing.}}
Many claim that in his youth, Muhammad was called by the nickname ''Al-Amin'' (الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.<ref>Esposito(1998), p.6 </ref> However, historian Alford Welch holds that "Al-Amin" was a common Arab name and further suggest that al-Amin might have been Muhammad's given name, a masculine form<ref>Alford Welch - cf. "Muhammad","Encyclopedia of Islam"</ref> from the same root as his mother's name, ''Āmina'' (أمينة).  


===='''Quran 9:111'''====
Muhammad faced some opposition in his homeland from Meccan polytheists and gained very few followers initially.<ref>''The Life of Muhammad'', p. 145. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The following verse defines fighting in the cause of Allah as killing and being killed.
Ibn Ishaq, ''Sirat Rasul Allah''. Translated by Guillaume, A. (1955).</ref> To escape ongoing persecution he left Mecca for [[Medina]] in 622. This event, the ''Hijra'', marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina.<ref>Serjeant, R. B. (1978). "Sunnah Jāmi'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrīm of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'". ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies''. 41 (1): 1–42. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761</ref> In 629, after years of intermittent wars with Meccan tribes, Muhammad invaded Mecca with 10,000 men and won the city.<ref>Akram 2007, p. 61.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|111}}|Indeed, Allāh has purchased from the believers their lives and their properties [in exchange] for that they will have Paradise. '''They fight in the cause of Allāh, so they kill and are killed.''' [It is] a true promise [binding] upon Him in the Torah and the Gospel and the Qur’ān. And who is truer to his covenant than Allāh? So rejoice in your transaction which you have contracted. And it is that which is the great attainment.}}


===='''Quran 9:5'''====
Muhammad continued to report receiving revelations until his death, in the form of [[ayat]] (verses) of the [[Qur'an]]. Muslims regard the Qur'an as the literal, verbatim "Word of God", around which the religion is based. Besides the Qur'an, other canonical scriptures include Muhammad's [[Sunnah]] (life teachings), which are found in the [[hadith]] and [[sira]] (biography) literature, as written down following oral transmission some two centuries after Muhammad's [[Muhammad's Death|death]]. All three of these sources are upheld and used as sources of [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shariah]] (Islamic law).<ref>"British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 December 2015.</ref>
Quran 9:5 is another verse known as ''the verse of the sword'' (like 9:29 discussed above) and considered by many classical scholars to abrogate earlier defensive verses.


{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5}}|And when the inviolable months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakāh, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allāh is Forgiving and Merciful.}}
==Pre-Islam==


In context, the passage relates to treaty breakers among the mushrikeen.
===Early life and childhood===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|1|8}}|Freedom from obligation (is proclaimed) from Allah and His messenger toward those of the idolaters with whom ye made a treaty.
Muhammad was born to villagers of the Banu Hashim clan, a branch of the Quraysh tribe, and one of Mecca's prominent families. He was reported to have been born in "the year of the Elephant." Although some scholars disagree by one or two years.<ref name=":0">Watt (1974), p. 7.</ref> Muhammad's father died before he was born and Muhammad was given away by his mother after birth to be raised among Bedouin Arabs (allegedly a common practice at the time).<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC Medieval Islamic civilization]''. '''1'''. Routledge. p. 525. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0</nowiki>. Archivedfrom the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
Meri, Josef W. (2004). </ref> He was given to Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb and her husband until he reached the age of 2. At six his mother also passed away, leading Muhammad into orphanage.<ref>Watt, "Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.",


''Encyclopaedia of Islam''.</ref> For the following two years he lived with her paternal grandfather Abdul-Muttalib until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib who had became the leader of the Hashim tribe.<ref name=":0" />


Travel freely in the land four months, and know that ye cannot escape Allah and that Allah will confound the disbelievers (in His Guidance).
===First marriage===
In 595 AD, aged twenty-five, Muhammad married his first wife and employer [[Khadijah]]. She was a wealthy woman, [[Ages of Muhammads Wives at Marriage|some years older than him]], who had three children from two previous marriages. She would eventually bear him two sons (both died in childhood) and four daughters.<ref>"15 Important Muslim Women in History"


And an announcement from Allah and His Messenger, to the people (assembled) on the day of the Great Pilgrimage,- that Allah and His Messenger dissolve (treaty) obligations with the Pagans. If then, ye repent, it were best for you; but if ye turn away, know ye that ye cannot frustrate Allah. And proclaim a grievous penalty to those who reject Faith.
11 March 2014. </ref> Khadijah's mother was a third cousin of Muhammad's mother.<ref>Haq, S.M. ''Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, vol. 1''. p. 54.</ref><ref>''The Women of Madina''.
Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 9.</ref> According to some sources, Khadijah's father, Khuwaylid bin Asad, whose sister was Muhammad's great grandmother,<ref>Muhammad ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' vol. 1. Translated by Haq, S. M. ''Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir'', p. 54. Delhi: Kitab Bhavan.</ref> was opposed to the idea of his affluent daughter marrying such an "insignificant youth". Thus, Khadijah executed a plan to get her father drunk enough to accept the marriage.<ref>LIFE OF MAHOMET. Volume II. Chapter 2,WIlliam Muir, [Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1861], pg. 24</ref>


Excepting those of the idolaters with whom ye (Muslims) have a treaty, and who have since abated nothing of your right nor have supported anyone against you. (As for these), fulfil their treaty to them till their term. Lo! Allah loveth those who keep their duty (unto Him).
==Muhammad in Mecca==


Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them, and take them (captive), and besiege them, and prepare for them each ambush. But if they repent and establish worship and pay the poor-due, then leave their way free. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.
===Revelation===
The beginnings of the Qur'an were conceived as Muhammad began to leave his wife and children to pray alone in a cave several weeks each year.<ref>Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 6</ref><ref>John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p. 83</ref> According to Islamic belief, when he was about forty years old (610 AD) he was visited by the angel [[Gabriel]] (جبريل ''Jibreel'') and commanded to recite verses sent by Allah.<ref>Brown (2003), pp. 72–73</ref> These verses would later become what is believed to be the first part of Sura 96.<ref>Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''. '''11''' (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p. 54. <nowiki>ISBN 90-04-12756-9</nowiki>.</ref> This experience frightened him, and originally thinking he was possessed by a demon, he became suicidal and repeatedly attempted to jump off of a cliff, according to [[Sahih Bukhari]].<ref>...But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet (Mohammad) became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went up the top of a mountain in order to throw himself down, Gabriel would appear before him and say, "O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah's Apostle in truth" whereupon his heart would become quiet and he would calm down and would return home. And whenever the period of the coming of the inspiration used to become long, he would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before.


And if anyone of the idolaters seeketh thy protection (O Muhammad), then protect him so that he may hear the Word of Allah, and afterward convey him to his place of safety. That is because they are a folk who know not.
[https://quranx.com/Hadith/Bukhari/USC-MSA/Volume-9/Book-87/Hadith-111 Sahih Bukhari 9:87:111]</ref> After this first '[[revelation]]' no new ones came for a time, but then after a long period they started up again and continued at a steady rate till his death. The collection of these verses is known as the [[Qur'an]].<ref>Uri Rubin, ''Muhammad'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an</ref>


How can there be a treaty with Allah and with His messenger for the idolaters save those with whom ye made a treaty at the Inviolable Place of Worship? So long as they are true to you, be true to them. Lo! Allah loveth those who keep their duty.
Read in [[Chronological Order of the Qur'an|chronological order]] some scholars note over time the revelations change in style from a poetic to a more straightforward and aggressive form in the later years.<ref name=":1">Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition (2007)


How (can there be any treaty for the others) when, if they have the upper hand of you, they regard not pact nor honour in respect of you? They satisfy you with their mouths the while their hearts refuse. And most of them are wrongdoers.}}
Vincent J. Cornell Page 77</ref> The messages of the later revelations also changed and [[Abrogation (Naskh)|abrogated]] the earlier ones. Typically from the place of the now famous '[[Forced Conversion|no compulsion verse]]' to direction of the 'verse of the sword'. These alterations followed Muhammad's place in society. What are known as the "early revelations" were recorded in Mecca while Muhammad had only a few followers. The later "Medinan verses" were revealed once Muhammad had gained more followers and became the head of the first Islamic state in [[Medina]].<ref name=":1" />


===='''Quran 9:123'''====
These revelations continued until his death twenty-three years later. According to Sahih Bukhari, these divine revelations would sometimes come to him while he was having sex with his child bride, [[Aisha]].<ref>"...''He [Muhammad]went around to her and she spoke to him. He said to her, “'''Do not injure me regarding 'A'isha. The revelation does not come to me when I am in the garment of any woman except 'A'isha'''.” She said, "I repent to Allah from injuring you, Messenger of Allah.”''..." - [http://bewley.virtualave.net/bukhari20.html#gifts Sahih Bukhari 2442]</ref> Sahih Bukhari also describes how the revelations appear, describing them sometimes as the "ringing of a bell" and "sometimes the angel comes in the form of a man".<ref>Narrated 'Aisha:  
Another verse in the same surah is the following:
(the mother of the faithful believers) Al-Harith bin Hisham asked Allah's Apostle "O Allah's Apostle! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you?" Allah's Apostle replied, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes ' off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says." 'Aisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|123}}|O you who have believed, fight against those adjacent to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness. And know that Allah is with the righteous.}}


===='''Verse 8:39'''====
[https://quranx.com/Hadith/Bukhari/USC-MSA/Volume-1/Book-1/Hadith-2 Sahih Bukhari 1:1:2]</ref>
Quran 8:39 can also be interpreted as calling for offensive jihad.


{{Quote|{{Quran|8|39}}|And fight against them until there is no fitnah and [until] the religion [i.e., worship], all of it, is for Allāh. And if they cease - then indeed, Allāh is Seeing of what they do.}}
===Preaching in Mecca===


Ibn Kathir explains this verse as follows:
He began preaching as a prophet in Mecca, warning of a day of judgement when all humans who have rejected his claims of prophethood would burn for eternity in Hell (جهنم ''[[Jahannam (Hell)|Jahannam]]'').<ref name="EncWorldHistory">''Encyclopedia of World History'' (1998), p. 452</ref> Even during the early days of his self-proclaimed prophethood he was often accused by the Meccans of imperfectly [[Parallelism Between the Qur'an and Judeo-Christian Scriptures|plagiarising]] the "ancients' fictitious tales".<ref>"''Such things have been promised to us and to our fathers before! they are nothing but tales of the ancients!''" - {{Quran|23|83}}</ref> This accusation was often coupled with remarks stemming from Muhammad's background as an illiterate man who had come into contact with followers of the Abrahamic faiths before his proclamation of prophethood (e.g. Zaid bin 'Amr bin Nufail).<ref>"''....Allah's Apostle said that he met Zaid bin 'Amr Nufail at a place near Baldah and this had happened before Allah's Apostle received the Divine Inspiration....''" - {{Bukhari|||5499|darussalam}}</ref> The elites in Mecca were left unimpressed by what was preached. Eventually, Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.<ref>F. E. Peters (1994), p.169</ref> Muhammad's opposition in Mecca came as a reaction to his antagonism of 'idolaters'. As Muhammad's followers remained few in numbers, he revealed verses that pleased his pagan contemporaries.<ref name=":2">Then God sent down the revelation. 'By the star when it sets! Your companion has not erred or gone astray, and does not speak from mere fancy…' [Q.53:1] When he reached God's words, "Have you seen al-Lāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt, the third, the other?' [Q.53:19-20] Satan cast upon his tongue, because of what he had pondered in himself and longed to bring to his people, 'These are the high-flying cranes and their intercession is to be hoped for.'
When Quraysh heard that, they rejoiced. What he had said about their gods pleased and delighted them, and they gave ear to him.


{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5035 The Order to fight until there is no more Fitnah]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Allah then commanded fighting the disbelievers when He said:
[https://archive.org/stream/TabariEnglish/Tabari_Volume_06#page/n155/mode/2up The History of al-Tabari, Volume VI, Muhammad at Mecca, Translated by W. Montgomery and M. V. McDonald page 108]</ref> These verses are now considered the infamous "[[Satanic Verses]]". Muhammad, declared the existence of three Meccan goddesses and associated them as the daughters of Allah. Muhammad later retracted the verses, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself.<ref name=":2" /><ref>The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (2010), p. 35</ref><ref>The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166</ref><ref>Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35)</ref>


The verses Quran 53:19-23 read:


(...until there is no more Fitnah) meaning, Shirk. This is the opinion of Ibn `Abbas, Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ar-Rabi`, Muqatil bin Hayyan, As-Suddi and Zayd bin Aslam.
"Have ye seen Lat. and 'Uzza, And another, the third (goddess), Manat? What! for you the male sex, and for Him, the female? Behold, such would be indeed a division most unfair! These are nothing but names which ye have devised,- ye and your fathers,- for which Allah has sent down no authority (whatever). They follow nothing but conjecture and what their own souls desire!- Even though there has already come to them Guidance from their Lord!"<ref>[https://quranx.com/53.19-23 Quran 53:19-23]</ref>


Allah's statement:
Muhammad was also criticized for claiming he rode the [[Buraq]] (a mythical flying horse-like creature) on a "Night Journey" to the "nearest heaven" and then back to Mecca in a single night.<ref>"''....The Prophet said, "The animal's step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal's sight. I was carried on it, and Gabriel set out with me till we reached the nearest heaven.....''" - {{Bukhari|||3887|darussalam}}</ref> An event which is now celebrated as a sort of annual Islamic holy day.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article2279985.ece A Night Journey through Jerusalem] - Khadija Bradlow - Times Online, August 18, 2007</ref>


==Muhammad in Medina==
===Emigration===


(...and the religion (all and every kind of worship) is for Allah (Alone).) means, `So that the religion of Allah becomes dominant above all other religions.' It is reported in the Two Sahihs that Abu Musa Al-Ash`ari said: "The Prophet was asked, `O Allah's Messenger! A man fights out of bravery, and another fights to show off, which of them fights in the cause of Allah' The Prophet said:
After the death of his uncle Abu Talib, who, although not becoming a Muslim, had protected Muhammad throughout, in 622, Muhammad left Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the ''Hijra'' (هِجْرَة ''Migration'').<ref name="EncWorldHistory" /> He, along with his followers, settled in Medina (then known as ''Yathrib'') a large agricultural oasis, where he was the leader of the first Islamic theocracy. He ordered his followers not to contact their relatives who were left behind in Mecca. Muhammad here commanded the severing of links between his followers and their non-Muslim relatives. This ''Hijra'' (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).


Medina was home to a number of Jewish tribes, divided into three major clans: Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir, and some minor groups.<ref name="Cambridge39">''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 39</ref> Among the things Muhammad did was draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina.<ref name="Cambridge39" />


(He who fights so that Allah's Word is superior, then he fights in Allah's cause.) In addition, it is reported in the Two Sahihs:
===War with the Meccans===
[[Image:Muhammad and kaaba.jpg|thumb|160px|right|An illustration of Muhammad at the Ka'aba, by Nakkaş Osman (1595)]]
In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred converts in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan, but then decided to retaliate and marched against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (one thousand to three hundred - majority of Muslim historians put the exact total at 313) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least seventy Meccans and taking seventy prisoners<ref>"''....On the day (of the battle) of Badr, the Prophet and his companions had caused the 'Pagans to lose 140 men, seventy of whom were captured and seventy were killed.....''" - {{Bukhari|||3039|darussalam}}</ref> for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died.<ref>Glubb (2002), pp.179-186.</ref> This marked the beginning of Muslim military battles. Among the prisoners was Al Nadir, a storyteller and poet who had mocked him. He was not allowed to be ransomed by their clans and was executed on Muhammad's orders.<ref>Jake Neuman - [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=emyBulRLVjMC&pg=PT226&dq=By+God,+Muhammad+cannot+tell+a+better+story+than+I,+and+his+talk+is+only#v=onepage&q=By%20God%2C%20Muhammad%20cannot%20tell%20a%20better%20story%20than%20I%2C%20and%20his%20talk%20is%20only&f=false God of Moral Perfection; A Stark Message from God for All Mankind] - (2008) Blackwell, p. 211</ref> Muhammad also ordered twenty-four Meccans to be thrown into the well of Badr as a sign of disgrace.<ref>"''....he [Muhammad] commanded more than twenty persons, and in another hadith these are counted as twenty-four persons, from the non-believers of the Quraish to be thrown into the well of Badr.....''" - {{Muslim||2875|reference}}</ref><ref>"''Narrated Ibn 'Umar: The Prophet looked at the people of the well (the well in which the bodies of the pagans killed in the Battle of Badr were thrown) and said, "Have you found true what your Lord promised you?" Somebody said to him, "You are addressing dead people.''" He replied, "You do not hear better than they but they cannot reply." - {{Bukhari|||1370|darussalam}}</ref>


(I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight the people until they proclaim, `None has the right to be worshipped but Allah'. Whoever said it, then he will save his life and property from me, except for cases of the law, and their account will be with Allah.) }}
A further four years of continuous war between Muslim and Meccan forces followed, culminating later in a Muslim victory and the conquest of Mecca. The Muslims subsequently removed and destroyed everything they considered idolatrous from the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]], while Muhammad recited verses from the Qur'an. The townspeople at this point either accepted Islam or were expelled, with few exceptions. In March 632,<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">Alford Welch, ''Muhammad'', Encyclopedia of Islam</ref> Muhammad led the pilgrimage known as the ''[[Hajj]]'' (حج).


===='''Verse 2:193'''====
===Spouses===
Then there is Quran 2:193.


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|193}}|Fight them until there is no [more] fitnah and [until] worship is [acknowledged to be] for Allah. But if they cease, then there is to be no aggression except against the oppressors.}}
:''Main Article: [[Islam_and_Women#Muhammad_and_Women|Muhammad and Women]]''


Another prominent classical commentary, tafsir al-Jalalayn, states the following regarding this verse:
Following the death of his (at that time) only wife Khadijah, Muhammad began to practice [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|polygamy]] and became known as a womanizer.<ref>"''....Layla’s people said, "’What a bad thing you have done! You are a self-respecting woman, but the Prophet is a womanizer. Seek an annulment from him.’ She went back to the Prophet and asked him to revoke the marriage and he complied with [her request]....''" - al Tabari vol.9 p.139</ref> After an initial protest from Aisha's father, Muhammad's best friend and companion Abu Bakr,<ref>"''....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."....''" - {{Bukhari|||5081|darussalam}}</ref>  Muhammad, then in his 50s, married Aisha when she was 6 years old. In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). Eventually he would go on to marry (and house independently) [[List of Muhammads Wives and Concubines|a total of fifteen women]]<ref>al-Tabari vol.9 p.126-127</ref>, and according to Sunni scholar Ibn al-Qayyim, [[List of Muhammads Wives and Concubines|owned numerous concubines]], including his Coptic [[Slavery|slave]], Mariyah.<ref>Mohammed had many male and female slaves. He used to buy and sell them, but he purchased more slaves than he sold, '''especially after God empowered him by His message''', as well as after his immigration from Mecca. '''He once sold one black slave for two'''. His name was Jacob al-Mudbir. His purchases of slaves were more than he sold. He was used to renting out and hiring many slaves, but he hired more slaves than he rented out.
"Zad al-Ma'ad" - part 1, page 160</ref>


{{Quote|[http://quran.com/2/193 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:193]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|Fight them till there is no sedition, no idolatry, and the religion, all worship, is for God, alone and none are worshipped apart from Him; then if they desist, from idolatry, do not aggress against them. This is indicated by the following words, there shall be no enmity, no aggression through slaying or otherwise, save against evildoers. Those that desist, however, are not evildoers and should not be shown any enmity.}}
===Attitude towards Jews===


=== Hadith===
A few years after his migration, having encountered rejection from the Jewish scholars in Medina, Muhammad's attitude towards the Christians and Jews changed. The Jews were skeptical of the compatibility between the Qur'an and their [[Taurat|own scriptures]], and while many in Medina converted to Islam, very few were from the large Jewish populations. This was the start of the long history of the persecution and subjugation of [[Dhimmi|Dhimmis]] (non-muslim second class citizens).<ref>The honour of Islam lies in insulting kufr and kafirs. One who respects the kafirs dishonours the Muslims… '''The real purpose of levying jiziya on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling'''. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honour and might of Islam.
Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), letter No. 163</ref>


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|8|387}}, See also: {{Bukhari|1|2|24}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:
After each major battle with the Medinans, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery and attacked it.<ref>Is it not [true] that every time they took a covenant a party of them threw it away? But, [in fact], most of them do not believe.


Allah's Apostle said, "I have been ordered to fight the people till they say: 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah.' And if they say so, pray like our prayers, face our Qibla and slaughter as we slaughter, '''then their blood and property will be sacred''' to us and we will not interfere with them except legally and their reckoning will be with Allah." Narrated Maimun ibn Siyah that he asked Anas bin Malik,
[https://quranx.com/2.100 Quran 2:100]</ref><ref>Fred Donner - Muhammad and the Believers - (2010) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press</ref> After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir, respectively, were expelled from Medina, and much of their possessions were confiscated by Muhammad.<ref>"''....The Banu [tribe] Qaynuqa did not have any land, as they were goldsmiths [and armor-makers]. The Messenger of God took many weapons belonging to them and the tools of their trade....''" (Tabari, vol. 7, p. 87)</ref> After the Battle of the Trench in 627, Muhammad accused the Jews of [[The Genocide of Banu Qurayza|Banu Qurayza]] of conspiring with the Meccans, then wiped them out.<ref>Esposito (1998), pp.10-11</ref> The women and young children were taken captive by Muslims to be sold in slave markets,<ref>Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (Author). Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji (Translator). (2002). The Life of Muhammad. (p. 338). Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.</ref><ref>"''...Then the apostle sent for Sa'd bin Zayd al-Ansari brother of bin Abdul-Ashhal with some of the captive women of Banu Qurayza to Najd and he sold them for horses and weapons....''" - Ibn Ishaq: 693</ref> and the men and boys who had begun to grow pubic hair were beheaded.<ref>"''...Narrated Atiyyah al-Qurazi: I was among the captives of Banu Qurayzah. They (the Companions) examined us, and those who had begun to grow hair (pubes) were killed, and those who had not were not killed. I was among those who had not grown hair...''" - {{Abu Dawud||4404|darussalam}}</ref> Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq describes the incident:


"O Abu Hamza! '''What makes the life and property of a person sacred?" He replied, "Whoever says, 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah'''', faces our Qibla during the prayers, prays like us and eats our slaughtered animal, then he is a Muslim, and has got the same rights and obligations as other Muslims have."}}
"Then they surrendered, and the apostle confined them in Medina in the quarter of d. al-Harith, a woman of B. al-Najjar. Then the apostle went out to the market of Medina (which is still its market today) and dug trenches in it. Then he sent for them and struck off their heads in those trenches as they were brought out to him in batches. Among them was the enemy of Allah Huyayy b. Akhtab and Ka`b b. Asad their chief. There were 600 or 700 in all, though some put the figure as high as 800 or 900. As they were being taken out in batches to the apostle they asked Ka`b what he thought would be done with them. He replied, 'Will you never understand? Don't you see that the summoner never stops and those who are taken away do not return? By Allah it is death!' This went on until the apostle made an end of them."<ref name="Guillaume463">Guillaume, Alfred, ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah''. Oxford University Press, 1955. ISBN 0-1963-6033-1; p. 461-464.</ref> al-Tabari VIII:35/Ishaq:464


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|59|435}}|
One of the explanations given by some Arab historians and biographers for Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina is that "the punishment of the Medina Jews, who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Qur'an's tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old."<ref name="Peters77">F.E.Peters(2003), p.77</ref>
On the day of Al-Ahzab (i.e. clans) the Prophet said, (After this battle) we will go to attack them (i.e. the infidels) and they will not come to attack us."}}


{{Quote|{{Muslim|19|4294}}|
==Death==
It has been reported from Sulaiman b. Buraida through his father that when the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) appointed anyone as leader of an army or detachment he would especially exhort him to fear Allah and to be good to the Muslims who were with him. He would say:
{{main|Circumstances Surrounding Muhammad's Death}}


'''Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah.''' Make a holy war, do not embezzle the spoils; do not break your pledge; and do not mutilate (the dead) bodies; do not kill the children. '''When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, invite them to three courses of action.''' If they respond to any one of these, you also accept it and withhold yourself from doing them any harm. '''Invite them to (accept) Islam'''; if they respond to you, accept it from them and desist from fighting against them. Then invite them to migrate from their lands to the land of the Muhajireen and inform them that, if they do so, they shall have all the privileges and obligations of the Muhajireen. If they refuse to migrate, tell them that they will have the status of Bedouin Muslims and will be subjected to the Commands of Allah like other Muslims, but they will not get any share from the spoils of war or Fai' except when they actually fight with the Muslims (against the disbelievers). '''If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya.''' If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. '''If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them.''' When you lay siege to a fort and the besieged appeal to you for protection in the name of Allah and His Prophet, do not accord to them the guarantee of Allah and His Prophet, but accord to them your own guarantee and the guarantee of your companions for it is a lesser sin that the security given by you or your companions be disregarded than that the security granted in the name of Allah and His Prophet be violated. When you besiege a fort and the besieged want you to let them out in accordance with Allah's Command, do not let them come out in accordance with His Command, but do so at your (own) command, for you do not know whether or not you will be able to carry out Allah's behest with regard to them.}}
In the year 632, Muhammad became infirm with severe head pain and weakness. He died on June, 8<sup>th</sup>, 632 at the age of 62 or 63. Muhammad was poisoned by a Jewish woman, following the [[w:Battle of Khaybar|conquest of Khaibar]], where he took [[Safiyah]] as a sex slave and then wife, and ordered the torture and beheading of her husband [[Kinana]], the chief of the Jews at Khaibar. He spent his last day with the young [[Aisha]], who was considered to be his favorite wife. At the time of his death, Ali (who would later become the fourth caliph of Islam) reported that Muhammad's penis was erect.<ref>"''....Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, "O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!" (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140).....''" - Edward Gibbon, [{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20070417133412/http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/HTML.php?recordID=0214.09|2=2012-12-10}} "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"], Vol. 9  Footnote 175</ref> He was buried in his house near the Mosque of the Prophet in [[Medina]].


{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|2502}}|
==In scripture==
Abu Hurairah reported the Prophet (ﷺ) as saying “He who dies without having fought or having felt fighting (against the infidels) to be his duty will die guilty of a kind of hypocrisy.”}}


{{Quote|{{Muslim|20|4718}}|
===In the Quran===
It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir b. 'Abdullah who said:


I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: A group of people from my Umma will continue to fight In defence of truth and remain triumphant until the Day of judgment.}}
===In the hadith===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3562|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri: '''The Prophet (ﷺ) was shier than a veiled virgin girl.'''}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3549|darussalam}}|Narrated Al-Bara: Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) was '''the handsomest of all the people, and had the best appearance'''. He was neither very tall nor short.}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3532|darussalam}}|Narrated Jubair bin Mut`im:


==Not Aggressing in Jihad==
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "'''I have five names''': I am '''Muhammad''' and '''Ahmad'''; I am '''Al-Mahi''' through whom Allah will eliminate infidelity; I am '''Al-Hashir''' who will be the first to be resurrected, the people being resurrected there after; and I am also '''Al-`Aqib''' (i.e. There will be no prophet after me)."}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3534|darussalam}}|Narrated Jabir bin `Abdullah: The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "My similitude in comparison with the other prophets is that of a man who has built a house completely and excellently except for a place of one brick. When the people enter the house, they admire its beauty and say: 'But for the place of this brick (how splendid the house will be)!"}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3583|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn `Umar: The Prophet (ﷺ) used to deliver his sermons while standing beside a trunk of a datepalm. When he had the pulpit made, he used it instead. The trunk started crying and the Prophet (ﷺ) went to it, rubbing his hand over it (to stop its crying).}}


===Verse===
==Timeline==


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|190}}|Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.}}
<center>''This timeline lists the major events in Prophet [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] life according to the traditional Islamic sources. All dates are approximate''</center>
{| class="wikitable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
! width="55px" |Date
!Event
!Description
|-
|570 AD
|Birth of Muhammad
|Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh is born in "the year of the Elephant". His father, ‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib, had died before his birth, and his mother, Amina bint Wahb, soon puts him into the care of a wet-nurse named Halimah.
|-
|575 AD
|Returned to mother
|Believing that the young Muhammad is possessed by a demon, Halima returns him to his mother.<ref>Guillaume, Alfred, ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah''. Oxford University Press, 1955. ISBN 0-1963-6033-1; p. 72.</ref>
|-
|577 AD
|Death of mother
|After his mother's death, Muhammad is taken in by his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib. And after his death, his paternal uncle, Abu Talib.
|-
|595 AD
|Marriage to Khadijah
|Muhammad marries his wealthy twice-divorced distant cousin, Khadijah, who later becomes his first follower. She had already borne two sons and a daughter from her previous marriages, and the union between her and the "insignificant" Muhammad is a controversial one which almost leads to bloodshed.<ref>LIFE OF MAHOMET. Volume II. Chapter 2,WIlliam Muir, [Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1861], pg. 15-17 23-24</ref> ([[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|''read more'']])
|-
|610 AD
|The first “revelation”
|Muhammad receives what he comes to believe is his first otherworldly visitation, which he later identifies with the angel Jibreel and a revelation from Allah. At first, he believes he may be possessed by a demon, and attempts to commit suicide, only to be stopped by the angel.<ref>"''...But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet (Mohammad) became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went up the top of a mountain in order to throw himself down, Jibreel would appear before him and say, "O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah's Apostle in truth" whereupon his heart would become quiet and he would calm down and would return home. And whenever the period of the coming of the inspiration used to become long, he would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before.''" - {{Bukhari|||6982|darussalam}}</ref>
|-
|613 AD
|Islam preached publicly
|For the first time, Muhammad begins to preach Islam publicly in Mecca. His preaching is met with skepticism, and he is accused of plagiarizing the “tales of the ancients”.<ref>"''Such things have been promised to us and to our fathers before! they are nothing but tales of the ancients!''" - {{Quran|23|83}}</ref> One of his most sternest of critics is his own uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed by name in the Qur'an.<ref>"...''The power of Abu Lahab will perish, and he will perish. His wealth and gains will not exempt him. He will be plunged in flaming Fire, And his wife, the wood-carrier, Will have upon her neck a halter of palm-fibre.''..." - {{Quran|111|1-5}}</ref> The Meccans ask for miracles, but Muhammad gives them none. ([[Muhammads Miracles|''read more'']])
|-
|615 AD
|Friction with the Quraysh
|Muhammad's "shameful" attacks<ref> Francis Edwards Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, SUNY Press, p.169</ref> on the native pagan beliefs causes friction between his followers and the Quraysh. Muhammad allows Muslims to leave Arabia for Abyssinia, while he chooses to stay behind and continue his preaching.
|-
|619 AD
|Khadijah's death
|The death of his wealthy and only wife Khadijah, is quickly followed by the death of his uncle and protector, Abu Talib. Not long after, he asks Abu Bakr for his six-year-old daughter Aisha's hand in marriage.
|-
|619 AD
|The Satanic verses incident
|Muhammad finally acknowledges Allat, Manat, and al-Uzza, the goddesses of the pagan Meccans in a revelation. Upon hearing this, the Meccans are overjoyed. Later, following an alleged visit from the angel Jibreel, Muhammad recants and claims they were the words of the devil. ([[Satanic Verses|''read more'']])
|-
|620 AD
|Buraq and the Night Journey
|Muhammad reports that he had been carried to Jerusalem and then to Paradise on a mythological flying steed named Buraq,<ref>"...''Then a white animal which was smaller than a mule and bigger than a donkey was brought to me." (On this Al-Jarud asked, "Was it the Buraq, O Abu Hamza?" I (i.e. Anas) replied in the affirmative). The Prophet said, "The animal's step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal's sight. I was carried on it, and Gabriel set out with me till we reached the nearest heaven.''..." - {{Bukhari|||3887|darussalam}}</ref> and has met the other prophets. Over the sixth heaven, he meets Moses who weeps because there would be more Muslims in heaven than Jews.<ref>"...''When I left him (i.e. Moses) he wept. Someone asked him, 'What makes you weep?' Moses said, 'I weep because after me there has been sent (as Prophet) a young man whose followers will enter Paradise in greater numbers than my followers.'''..." - {{Bukhari|||3887|darussalam}}</ref> ([[Buraq|''read more'']])
|-
|622 AD
|The Hijra
|Due to growing animosity between the pagan and Muslim Meccans, Muhammad and his followers flee to Medina, marking the beginning of the Hijra era of the Islamic lunar calendar, and also paving the way for Muhammad's metamorphosis from a preacher to a political and military leader.
|-
|622 AD
|Marriage consummation with Aisha
|Muhammad consummates his marriage to Aisha, his nine-year-old bride. Originally when Muhammad had asked for Aisha's hand in marriage, her father, Abu Bakr, had protested.<ref>"''....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."....''" - {{Bukhari|||5081|darussalam}}</ref> ([[Aisha|''read more'']])
|-
|624 AD
|The Nakhla raid
|Muhammad orders the 7<sup>th</sup> Caravan Raid against the pagan Meccans, a raid which would mark the beginning of violence in the name of Islam. Taking place in one of the four holy months in which fighting was forbidden, the leader of the Meccan caravan is killed, and two others are taken captive.
|-
|624 AD
|The Battle of Badr
|Following the caravan raids, the Meccans decide to retaliate. Although they're vastly outnumbered, the Muslims defeat the pagan Meccans; killing at least seventy and capturing another seventy for ransom.<ref>"''....On the day (of the battle) of Badr, the Prophet and his companions had caused the 'Pagans to lose 140 men, seventy of whom were captured and seventy were killed.....''" - {{Bukhari|||3039|darussalam}}</ref> Among the prisoners of war is Al Nadir, a storyteller and poet who had mocked Muhammad. Ali beheads Al Nadir on Muhammad's orders.<ref>Jake Neuman - [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=emyBulRLVjMC&pg=PT226&dq=By+God,+Muhammad+cannot+tell+a+better+story+than+I,+and+his+talk+is+only#v=onepage&q=By%20God%2C%20Muhammad%20cannot%20tell%20a%20better%20story%20than%20I%2C%20and%20his%20talk%20is%20only&f=false God of Moral Perfection; A Stark Message from God for All Mankind] - (2008) Blackwell, p. 211</ref> Muhammad also orders another twenty-four to be thrown into the well of Badr.<ref>"''....he [Muhammad] commanded more than twenty persons, and in another hadith these are counted as twenty-four persons, from the non-believers of the Quraish to be thrown into the well of Badr.....''" - {{Muslim||2875|reference}}</ref>
|-
|624 AD
|Exile of the Jewish Qaynuqa
|Breaking an earlier treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims besiege the Jewish Qaynuqa tribe. Muhammad initially intends to execute all the males,<ref>Tabari, vol. VII, 86.</ref> but following an emotional plea from Abdullah bin Ubayy, he confiscates their property and exiles them from Medina.
|-
|625 AD
|The Battle of Uhud
|The second military encounter between the Meccans (led by Abu Sufyan) and the Muslims. Due to the Muslim focus on salvaging booty rather than victory,<ref>"''Allah did indeed fulfil His promise to you when ye with His permission Were about to annihilate your enemy,-until ye flinched and fell to disputing about the order, and disobeyed it after He brought you in sight (of the booty) which ye covet. Among you are some that hanker after this world and some that desire the Hereafter. Then did He divert you from your foes in order to test you but He forgave you: For Allah is full of grace to those who believe.''" - {{Quran|3|152}}</ref> this time the pagan Meccans defeat the Muslims of Medina, and Muhammad himself is hurt by an attack from Khalid ibn al-Walid.
|-
|625 AD
|Siege and exile of the Jewish Nadir
|The Muslim siege of the Jewish Nadir tribe lasts for two weeks, after which they surrender. Muhammad confiscates their weapons and exiles them from Medina.


===Scholars===
|-
|627 AD
|The Battle of the Trench
|Having heard of the strength of the approaching Meccan army, Muhammad's companion, Salman the Persian, advises him there should be trenches dug around the northern front of Medina to prevent hostile Meccans from entering Muslim territory. The trench allows the Muslims to halt the pagan Meccans and their Jewish allies. Coming unprepared for a siege, the Meccan army retreat after two weeks.
|-
|627 AD
|The Genocide of the Jewish Qurayza
|Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad accuses the Jews of Banu Qurayza of betraying him. After a siege of around a fortnight, the tribe surrenders to the Muslims. All of the fighting-aged and older men are slaughtered and the women and young children who have not yet reached puberty are taken captive by Muslims to be sold in slave markets for horses and weapons,<ref>Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (Author). Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji (Translator). (2002). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Life of Muhammad]''. (p. 338). Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.</ref> and all the males who have reached puberty are beheaded on Muhammad's orders.<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir - [http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=33&tid=41539 The Campaign against Banu Qurayzah]</ref> ([[Banu Qurayza|''read more'']])
|-
|628 AD
|The Treaty of Hudaybiyya
|Muhammad and his men attempt to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. His forces are met outside the city by the pagan Meccans. Muhammad and the pagan Meccans conclude the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, a ten-year truce.
|-
|628 AD
|The conquest of Khaybar
|Muhammad and the Muslims besiege the Khaybar oasis. The combatants are killed, and the women and children are allotted as booty. The Jewish leader, Kinana, is tortured and beheaded, and his young widow, Safiyah, is taken by Muhammad for himself. ([[Safiyah|''read more'']])
|-
|628 AD
|Poisoned at Khaybar
|Immediately following the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad and his men are served a meal of poisoned lamb by a Jewish women named Zaynab bint al-Harith, causing him to fall ill. Muhammad questions her,<ref>"''The apostle of Allah sent for Zaynab and said to her, "What induced you to do what you have done?" She replied, "You have done to my people what you have done. You have killed my father, my uncle and my husband, so I said to myself, "If you are a prophet, the foreleg will inform you; and others have said, "If you are a king we will get rid of you.''" - Ibn Sa'd p. 252</ref> and then has her executed.<ref>"''...The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) then ordered regarding her [the Jewess] and she was killed...''" - {{Abu Dawud||4511|darussalam}} and Abudawud|39|4498}}</ref>
|-
|630 AD
|The conquest of Mecca
|The Muslims conquer Mecca. Muhammad rides on camel-back to the Ka'aba, then starts reciting verses from the Qur'an, while his men remove and destroy everything they consider idolatrous from the Ka'aba. This is the first of many non-Muslim worship places to be forcibly converted into a mosque.
|-
|630 AD
|Muhammad rules Arabia
|The Muslims prevail in the Battle of Hunayn against the Bedouin tribe of Hawazin and conquer Ta'if. In doing so, they capture huge spoils, consisting of 6,000 women and children and 24,000 camels. Muhammad is now the ruler of Arabia.
|-
|631 AD
|All Arabians submit to Islam
|Muhammad sends (the now converted) Khalid ibin al-Walid and other warriors to the remaining non-Muslim Arabian tribes, forcing them to accept Islam.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, 645-646</ref>
|-
|631 AD
|The Tabuk raid
|The expedition to Tabuk marked the first real act of aggression by the Muslims against Christians. Two/thirds of the Christian world would be conquered before the end of the Islamic conquests.  By the time Muhammad arrives at Tabuk, the Byzantine troops have already withdrawn. However, the local Christian leaders are forced to pay Jizyah and submit to Islamic rule.
|-
|632 AD
|The Farewell pilgrimage
|After completion of the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivers his famous sermon which is credited with the commencement of the conquests against the Christians and Zoroastrians. ([[Farewell Sermon|''read more'']])
|-
|632 AD
|Death of Muhammad
|Muhammad's last days are spent with Aisha in her house, where he continues to issue orders and curse the Christians and Jews.<ref>"''....Then he [Muhammad] ordered them to do three things. He said, "Turn the pagans out of the 'Arabian Peninsula; respect and give gifts to the foreign delegations as you have seen me dealing with them." (Said bin Jubair, the sub-narrator said that Ibn Abbas kept quiet as rewards the third order, or he said, "I forgot it.")''" - {{Bukhari|||4431|darussalam}}</ref><ref>"''Narrated 'Aisha and Ibn 'Abbas: On his death-bed Allah's Apostle put a sheet over his-face and when he felt hot, he would remove it from his face. When in that state (of putting and removing the sheet) he said, "May Allah's Curse be on the Jews and the Christians for they build places of worship at the graves of their prophets." (By that) he intended to warn (the Muslim) from what they (i.e. Jews and Christians) had done.''" - {{Bukhari|||3453|darussalam}}</ref> Slumped against her bosom,<ref>"...'''Aisha added: He died on the day of my usual turn at my house. Allah took him unto Him while his head was between my chest and my neck and his saliva was mixed with my saliva''..." - {{Bukhari|||5217|darussalam}}</ref> he finally dies on the 8<sup>th</sup> of June. Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin) reports that Muhammad's penis was erect after his death.<ref>"''....Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, "O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!" (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140).....''" - Edward Gibbon, [{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20070417133412/http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/HTML.php?recordID=0214.09|2=2012-12-10}} "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"], Vol. 9  Footnote 175</ref> ([[Muhammad's Death|''read more'']])
|}


This is among the peaceful/defensive verses that have been [[Abrogation|abrogated]] by verses from chapter nine according to classical scholars of the abrogationist view such as the commentators of Tafsir al-Jalalayn, as discussed above.
==See Also==
 
{{Quote|[http://quran.com/2/190 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:190]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|this stipulation was abrogated by the verse of barā’a, ‘immunity’ [Q. 9:1], or by His saying [below]:}}
 
==Peace Treaties==
===Quran ===
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|61}}|And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon Allah. Indeed, it is He who is the Hearing, the Knowing.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|72}}|Indeed, those who have believed and emigrated and fought with their wealth and lives in the cause of Allah and those who gave shelter and aided - they are allies of one another. But those who believed and did not emigrate - for you there is no guardianship of them until they emigrate. And if they seek help of you for the religion, then you must help, except against a people between yourselves and whom is a treaty. And Allah is Seeing of what you do.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|58}}|If thou fearest treachery from any group, throw back (their covenant) to them, (so as to be) on equal terms: for Allah loveth not the treacherous.}}
 
===Scholars===
As an ideological leader of the Afghan Jihad against the Soviets, 'Abdallah Yusuf 'Azzam (d. 1989) argued the importance of not relinquishing the right to Muslim lands as part of a peace treaty:
{{Quote|1=Abdallah Yusuf 'Azzam (1979) [https://islam.worldofislam.info/index.php/online-books/118-defense-of-muslim-lands/490-chapter-4-important-questions Defence of the Muslim Land, Chapter 4]|2=The scholars of Fiqh are divided as to whether or not it is permitted to make peace treaties with the Kuffar. Among them are some who permit it based on the pact of Hudaybia. Others permit it if the Muslims are extremely weak. Others still, say that we are no longer permitted to make peace treaties with the Kuffar because they say that all pacts with the Kuffar are cancelled by the Verse of the Sword. We say, it is permitted to make peace treaties, if in the treaty there is good for the Muslims, but under the condition that there is no clause within the treaty that nullifies or corrupts it.
 
Such as:
 
1) It is not permitted to include a condition in the treaty that relinquishes even a hand span of Muslim land to the Kuffar. Because, the land of Islam belongs to no one, therefore none can make negotiations over it. Such a condition nullifies the treaty because the land belongs to Allah and to Islam. It is not permitted for anyone to misuse anything in a domain not his own. Or to barter the Son of Adam that does not belong to him. With reference to the Russians, it is not permitted to negotiate with them until they retreat from every hand span of Afghani territory .With the Jews in Palestine, likewise.}}
 
In contrast, the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty represented official Egyptian recognition of Israel and was endorsed by al-Azhar. Precedent for treaties in which Muslims accept unfavourable terms for the sake of a longer term benefit is often cited in the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] between Muhammad's Medinan state and the Quraysh in 628 CE, which affirmed a ten-year peace and granted Muhammad and the believers a pilgrimage to Mecca the following year, in 629 CE.
 
The Shafi'i jurist al-Nawawi stated in his commentary on Sahih Muslim:
{{Quote|al-Nawawi, ''al minhaj bin sharh sahih muslim'', vol. 6, part 12, p. 355|In this [Treaty of Hudaibiyya] there is evidence for the permissibility of making treaties with non-Muslims if there is an interest or benefit (maslaha) in doing so. There is a consensus on this (majma‘‘alayhi) when there is a need (haja) [...] In our opinion, this should not exceed ten years, but there is a sound view (qawl) that it is allowed without a time restriction. And Malik said there is no limit at all and it is allowed for a short time or protracted period according to the opinion of the ruler.}}
 
One of the most influential modern jurists, Yusuf al-Qaradawi (d. 2022) stated in his book, ''fiqh al-Jihad'', that the United Nations is a treaty that renders the world an abode of peace, and peace as the basic norm is established. The exception was Israel, which he argued is still part of Dar al-Harb (the abode of war), disagreeing with leading al-Azhar scholars Muhammad Abu Zahrah (d. 1979) and Jad al-Haqq ‘Ali Jad al-Haqq (d. 1996) who justified the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Similarly, the Saudi Salafist Sheikh ‘Abd al- ‘Aziz bin Baz (d. 1999) disagreed to some extent with al-Qaradawi regarding Israel, citing {{Quran|8|61}} and {{Quran|8|72}} quoted above to argue that the Quran approves of treaties when faced with oppression.<ref>Rashad Ali and Hannah Stuart, [https://henryjacksonsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Refuting-Jihadism.pdf A Guide to Refuting Jihadism: Critiquing radical Islamist claims to theological authenticity] p. 36-37</ref>
 
Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) said regarding peace with disbelievers:
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyya, ‘qa’ida fı qital al-kuffar’, from majmu’at rasail, (Cairo: Sunni Mohammadi, 1949), p. 125|The Prophet’s biography shows that he did not fight whoever made peace with him among the unbelievers; and the books of biography, prophetic traditions, exegesis, jurisprudence, and history are full of such acts and this is widely narrated in his biography. Thus, the Prophet did not initiate fighting with anyone, and had Allah commanded him to fight every disbeliever, then he would have initiated fighting with them.}}
 
==Live in Peace with the Disbelievers for a Time==
 
{{quote | {{cite quran|86|13|end=17|style=ref}} |
Lo! this (Qur'an) is a conclusive word,<BR>It is no pleasantry.<BR>Lo! they plot a plot (against thee, O Muhammad)<BR>And I plot a plot (against them).<BR>So give a respite to the disbelievers. Deal thou gently with them '''for a while'''.}}
 
==Fighting When Outnumbered==
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|8|65|67}}|O Prophet! Exhort the believers to fight. If there be of you twenty steadfast they shall overcome two hundred, and if there be of you a hundred (steadfast) they shall overcome a thousand of those who disbelieve, because they (the disbelievers) are a folk without intelligence.
 
Now hath Allah lightened your burden, for He knoweth that there is weakness in you. So if there be of you a steadfast hundred they shall overcome two hundred, and if there be of you a thousand (steadfast) they shall overcome two thousand by permission of Allah. Allah is with the steadfast.
 
It is not for any prophet to have captives until he hath made slaughter in the land. Ye desire the lure of this world and Allah desireth (for you) the Hereafter, and Allah is Mighty, Wise.}}
 
==Deceit in War from the Life of Muhammad==
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|52|268}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle called,: "War is deceit".|See Also {{Bukhari|4|52|269}}}}
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|52|271}}|Narrated Jabir: The Prophet said, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b bin Ashraf (i.e. a Jew)." Muhammad bin Maslama replied, "Do you like me to kill him?" The Prophet replied in the affirmative. Muhammad bin Maslama said, '''"Then allow me to say what I like." The Prophet replied, "I do (i.e. allow you)."'''}}
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|59|369}}|Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: Allah's Apostle said, "Who is willing to kill Ka'b bin Al-Ashraf who has hurt Allah and His Apostle?" Thereupon Muhammad bin Maslama got up saying, "O Allah's Apostle! Would you like that I kill him?" The Prophet said, "Yes,"''' Muhammad bin Maslama said, "Then allow me to say a (false) thing (i.e. to deceive Kab). "The Prophet said, "You may say it."''' Then Muhammad bin Maslama went to Kab and said, "That man (i.e. Muhammad demands Sadaqa (i.e. Zakat) from us, and he has troubled us, and I have come to borrow something from you." On that, Kab said, "By Allah, you will get tired of him!"...}}
 
{{Quote|{{citation|title=The Life of Muhammad|trans_title=Sirat Rasul Allah|ISBN=0-19-636033-1|year=1955|publisher=Oxford UP|author1=Ibn Ishaq (d. 768)|author2=Ibn Hisham (d. 833)|editor=A. Guillaume|url=https://archive.org/details/GuillaumeATheLifeOfMuhammad/page/n1/mode/2up|page=365}}<br>{{citation|title=سيرة ابن هشام ت السقا|author1=ابن إسحاق|author2=ابن هشام|url=https://app.turath.io/book/23833|publisher=al-Maktabah al-Shamilah|volume=vol. 2|pages=54-55}}<br>See Also {{Tabari|7|p. 94}}|Then he composed amatory verses of an insulting nature about the Muslim women. The apostle said--according to what 'Abdullah b. al-Mughith b. Abu Burda told me--'Who will rid me of Ibnu'I-Ashraf?' Muhammad b. Maslama, brother of the B. 'Abdu'l-Ashhal, said, 'I will deal with him for you, O apostle of God, I will kill him.' He said, 'Do so if you can: So Muhammad b. Maslama returned and waited for three days without food or drink, apart from what was absolutely necessary. When the apostle was told of this he summoned him and asked him why he had given up eating and drinking. He replied that he had given him an undertaking and he did not know whether he could fulfil it. The apostle said, 'All that is incumbent upon you is that you should try: He said, 'O apostle
of God, we shall have to tell lies.' He answered, 'Say what you like, for you are free in the matter.'}}
 
{{Quote|{{citation|title=The Life of Muhammad|trans_title=Sirat Rasul Allah|ISBN=0-19-636033-1|year=1955|publisher=Oxford UP|author1=Ibn Ishaq (d. 768)|author2=Ibn Hisham (d. 833)|editor=A. Guillaume|url=https://archive.org/details/GuillaumeATheLifeOfMuhammad/page/n1/mode/2up|page=519}}<br>{{citation|title=سيرة ابن هشام ت السقا|author1=ابن إسحاق|author2=ابن هشام|url=https://app.turath.io/book/23833|publisher=al-Maktabah al-Shamilah|volume=vol. 2|page=345}}|The Affair of Al-Hajjaj b. 'Ilat al-Sulami:<br>
When Khaybar had been conquered al-Hajjaj b. 'Ilat al-Sulami of the clan al-Bahz said to the apostle, 'I have money with my wife Umm Shayba d. Abu Talha--when they had lived together he had a son called Mu'rid by her--and money scattered among the Meccan merchants, so give me permission to go and get it.' Having got his permission he said, 'I must tell lies, O apostle.' He said, 'Tell them.'}}
 
==Women and Children==
 
Muhammad disapproved of the killing of women and children during expeditions (also {{Muslim|19|4319}}).
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|52|257}}|During some of the Ghazawat of the Prophet (ﷺ) a woman was found killed. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) disapproved the killing of women and children.}}
 
Although when asked, he excused the probable exposure of women and children to danger during an attack.
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|52|256}}|Narrated As-Sab bin Jaththama: The Prophet passed by me at a place called Al-Abwa or Waddan, and was asked whether it was permissible to attack the pagan warriors at night with the probability of exposing their women and children to danger. '''The Prophet replied, "They (i.e. women and children) are from them (i.e. pagans)."''' I also heard the Prophet saying, "The institution of Hima is invalid except for Allah and His Apostle."}}
 
A more specific hadith quotes the same narrator stating that this involved women and children who were trampled over with horses during the attack:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||3|19|1570}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:
 
"I was informed by As-Sa'b bin Jaththamah who said: " I said: "O Messenger of Allah our horses trampled over women and children of the idolaters." He said: "They are from their fathers.'"
 
[Abu 'Eisa said:] This Hadith is Hasan Sahih. }}
 
=Scholars =
 
<span class="plainlinks">[[w:Al-Suyuti|Imam Al-Suyuti]]</span> (c. 1445-1505 AD) was a famous Egyptian writer, religious scholar, juristic expert and teacher.
 
{{Quote|Suyuti, Durr al-Manthur(Beirut Edition), vol. 3, p. 228|Fight those who don't believe in God nor in the Last Day [Unless they believe in the Prophet God bless him and grant him peace] nor hold what is forbidden that which God and His emissary have forbidden [e.g., wine] nor embrace the true faith [which is firm, and abrogates other faiths, i.e., the Islamic religion] from among [for distinguishing] those who were given the Book [i.e., the Jews and Christians] unless they give the head-tax [i.e., the annual taxes imposed on them] ''(/'an yadin/)'' humbly submissive, and obedient to Islam's rule.<ref>Suyuti, ''Durr al-Manthur'' ... (Beirut, n.d.), vol. 3, p. 228, where Suyuti quotes various traditions.</ref>}}
Al Azhar University Scholar, Dr. M. Sa’id Ramadan Al-Buti:
 
{{Quote|Dr. M. Sa’id Ramadan Al-Buti - "Jurisprudence of Muhammad’s Biography", Pg. 135|
"The theory that our religion is a peaceful and loving religion is a wrong theory...The Holy war as it is known in Islam is basically an offensive war, and it is the duty of all Muslims of every age, when the needed military power is available, because our prophet Muhammad said that he is ordered by Allah to fight all people until they say ‘No God but Allah,’ and he is his messenger...It is meaningless to talk about the holy war as only defensive, otherwise, what did the prophet mean when he said, "from now on even if they don’t invade you, you must invade them.""}}


Leader of the Afghan Jihad, <span class="plainlinks">[[w:Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam|Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]]
{{Hub4|Muhammad|Muhammad}}


{{Quote|[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html%20IslamicEmirate.com Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad]<BR>Sheikh Abdullah Azzam|"Jihad Against the Kuffar is of two Types:  Offensive Jihad (where the enemy is attacked in his own territory) ... [and] Defensive Jihad. This is expelling the Kuffar from our land, and it is Fard Ayn [personal religious obligation on Muslim individuals], a compulsory duty upon all ...
==External Links==


...Where the Kuffar [infidels] are not gathering to fight the Muslims, the fighting becomes Fard Kifaya [religious obligation on Muslim society]  with the minimum requirement of appointing believers to guard borders, and the sending of an army at least once a year to terrorise the enemies of Allah. It is a duty of the Imam (Caliph) to assemble and send out an army unit into the land of war once or twice every year. Moreover, it is the responsibility of the Muslim population to assist him, and if he does not send an army he is in sin.- And the Ulama have mentioned that this type of jihad is for maintaining the payment of [[Jizyah|Jizya]]. The scholars of the principles of religion have also said: " Jihad is Daw'ah [Islamic preaching] with a force, and is obligatory to perform with all available capabilities, until there remains only Muslims or people who submit to Islam."<ref>Defence of the Muslim Lands: The First Obligation After Iman - Abdullah Azzam</ref>}}
*[http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Pages/History.htm The Life of Muhammad: An Inconvenient Truth]
 
*[http://www.prophetofdoom.net/ Prophet of Doom]
<span class="plainlinks">[[w:Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyyah]]</span> (1263 - 1328) was one of the most famous Islamic scholars and theologians to ever live. As a member of the school founded by Ibn Hanbal, he sought the return of Islam to its sources, the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
*[http://www.faithfreedom.org/articles/op-ed/altruistic-prophets-islam-and-mormon-similarities/ Altruistic Prophets: Islam and Mormon Similarities]
 
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.easyislam.com/chronology_of_events_in_the_life_of_muhammad.asp|2=2012-02-01}} Chronology of Events in the Life of Muhammad (P.B.U.H)]
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|The penalties that the ''Sharia'' has introduced for those who disobey God and his Messengers of two kinds: the punishment of those who are under the sway [of an imam], both individuals and collectivities, as has been mentioned before [in the chapter on criminal law], and, secondly, the punishment of recalcitrant groups, such as those that can only be brought under the sway of the Imam by a decisive fight. That then is the jihad against the unbelievers (kuffar), the enemies of God and His Messenger. For whoever has heard the summons of the Messenger of God, Peace be upon him, and has not responded to it must be fought, "''until there is no Fitna and the religion of God's entirely''" (K. 2:193, 8:39).<ref>Excerpted from Rudolph Peters, ''[http://hss.fullerton.edu/comparative/jihad_relmora.pdf Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam]'' (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1996), pp. 44-54.</ref>}}
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|"Since lawful warfare is essentially Jihad and since its aim is that religion is entirely for Allah and the word of Allah is uppermost, therefore, according to all Muslims, those who stand in the way of this aim must be fought.<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah">Shaykh ul-Islaam Taqi ud-Deen Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah - '[http://www.fisabeelillah.org/books/manhaj/The-Religious-And-Moral-Doctrine-Of-Jihad.pdf The Religious and Moral Doctrine of Jihaad]' - p.28, © Copyright 2001 Maktabah Al Ansaar Publications, ISBN: 0-9539847-5-3 </ref>}}
 
Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) was an Islamic scholar and a prominent Sufi. He is regarded as having rejuvenated Islam, due to which he is commonly called "Mujadid Alf Thani", meaning "reviver of the second millennium".
 
{{Quote||''Shariat can be fostered through the sword.<BR><BR>
''Kufr'' and Islam are opposed to each other. The progress of one is possible only at the expense of the other and co-existences between these two contradictory faiths in unthinkable.<BR><BR>
The honor of Islam lies in insulting ''kufr'' and ''kafirs''. One who respects ''kafirs'', dishonors the Muslims. To respect them does not merely mean honouring them and assigning them a seat of honor in any assembly, but it also implies keeping company with them or showing considerations to them. They should be kept at an arm's length like dogs. ... If some worldly business cannot be performed without them, in that case only a minimum of contact should be established with them but without taking them into confidence. The highest Islamic sentiment asserts that it is better to forego that worldly business and that no relationship should be established with the ''kafirs''.<BR><BR>
The real purpose in levying ''jizya'' on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that, on account of fear of ''jizya'', they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honor and might of Islam.<BR>. . .<BR>
Whenever a Jew is killed, it is for the benefit of Islam.<ref>Excerpted from Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, ''Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries'' (Agra, Lucknow: Agra University, Balkrishna Book Co., 1965), pp.247-50; and Yohanan Friedmann, ''Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity'' (Montreal, Quebec: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971), pp. 73-74.</ref>}}
 
{{Quote| Reliance of the Traveler o9.1| Jihad is a communal obligation (def: c3.2). When enough people perform it to successfully accomplish it, it is no longer obligatory upon others (0: the evidence for which is the Prophet's saying (Allah bless him and give him peace), "He who provides the equipment for a soldier in jihad has himself performed jihad," and Allah Most High having said: "Those of the believers who are unhurt but sit behind are not equal to those who fight in Allah's path with their property and lives. Allah has preferred those who fight with their property and lives a whole degree above those who sit behind. And to each. Allah has promised great good" (Koran 4:95). If none of those concerned perform jihad, and it does not happen at all, then everyone who is aware that it is obligatory is guilty of sin, if there was a possibility of having performed it. In the time of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) jihad was a communal obligation after his emigration (hijra) to Medina. As for subsequent times, there are two possible states in respect to non-Muslims. The first is when they are in their own countries, in which case jihad (def: 09.8) is a communal obligation, and this is what our author is speaking of when he says, "Jihad is a communal obligation," meaning upon the Muslims each year.}}
 
For further information, see: [[Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Scholars_on_Jihad|Scholars on Jihad]]
 
== Non-Combatants ==
 
Some of the expeditions which Muhammad and his men reportedly undertook involved sieges against enemy strongholds (such as the siege of Taif, in which catapults were reportedly used), or night raids, either of which put at risk the lives of women and children and not just male combatants as in a pitched battle. According to the hadith, Muhammad allowed the unintentional killing of women and children during nocturnal attacks (night raids) after some were trampled by horses.
 
{{Quote|{{Muslim|19|4321}}, See also: {{Bukhari|4|52|256}} and {{Al Tirmidhi||3|19|1570}}|It is reported on the authority of Sa'b b. Jaththama that the Prophet of Allah (may peace be upon him), when asked about the women and children of the polytheists being killed during the night raid, said: “They are from them”.}}
 
The Saudi scholar, Sheikh Al Shuaybi (d. 2001) said that Muhammad therefore (as is evident) acknowledged that non-combatants could be killed and allowed at least semi-indiscriminate killings.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WC_2AtmBOpEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Jihad in classical and Modern Islam, Rudolph Peters, Pg.179]</ref> Another notorious cleric with similar views, Omar Bakri Mohammed also referred to this hadith to justify why killing women and children is Islamic.<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5532956235787015675# Islam - A mufti explains, why Muhammad killed Women and Children]</ref>
 
On the other hand, in another hadith (see the section above on [[Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Offensive_Jihad#Women_and_Children|women and children]]), Muhammad disapproved of deliberately targeting women and children ({{Bukhari|4|52|257}}), and by consensus in Islamic law this is forbidden. Nevertheless, some scholars have come to the conclusion that this was not because they were non-combatants, but because it is better to take them for slavery or exchange them for Muslim prisoners. Muhammad took the Jewish woman and children of Banu Qurayza for slavery according to tradition.
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|Some [jurists] are of the opinion that all of them may be killed, on the mere ground that they are unbelievers, but they make an exception for women and children since they constitute "'''property for Muslims'''".<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah"></ref>}}
 
In some modern contexts even more exteme views can be found among Salafi-Jihadists (though criticised by many other Muslim scholars). The following Q&A with a Lebanese Islamic scholar and Muslim Brotherhood associate is taken from the Arabic section of Islam Online.
 
'''"Is it permissible to kill civilians in Israel through martyrdom operations which are carried out by Palestinians in defense of their land?"'''
 
{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-Arabic-Ask_Scholar/FatwaA/FatwaA&cid=1122528609048 Jews have killed civilians in the martyrdom operations in Palestine]<BR>Sheikh Faisal Mawlawi, Islam Online, January 23, 2002|2=
The Jews living inside the occupied territory and those who carry Israeli citizenship are all participants in the aggression against us, and it is our right to combat all of them."
 
Adding on "…the Prophet (PBUH) was killed by a Jewish woman from the Bani Qurayzah (a Jewish tribe from Medina). Since she was killed by a Muslim man, it became a rule that it was permissible to kill all the killers among the Jewish women in our country of Palestine, without hesitation."}}
===Islamic law regarding non-combatants===
 
The different schools of jurisprudence agreed that it was forbidden to kill various classes of non-combatants such as women and children, though Shafi'i alone among the major legal school founders was of the opinion that certain other categories of persons could be killed.
 
The state of agreement and disagreement was summarised in ''Bidayat al-Mujtahid'' (which has been translated under the English title ''The Distinguished Jurist's Primer'') by Ibn Rushd (d. 1198 CE; known in Europe as Averroes):
 
{{Quote|1=[https://archive.org/details/BidayatAl-mujtahidTheDistinguishedJuristsPrimer/page/n439/mode/2up ''The Distinguished Jurist's Primer''] by Ibn Rashd (transl. Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee) pp. 458-460|2=The harm aimed at life is by killing, and there is no disagreement among the Muslim jurists that it is permitted in war to slay the male polythests, who have attained puberty and are waging war. There is, however, disagreement about execution after captivity, as we have already discussed. Similarly, there is no dispute among them that it is not permitted to slay minors or women, as long as they are not waging war. If a woman fights the shedding of her blood becomes permissible. This was established as "the Propet (God's peace and blessings be upon him) prohibited the killing of women and children, and said when he saw a slain woman, 'She was not one who would have engaged in fighting'".<BR/>
They disagreed about the case of hermits cut off from the world, the blind, the chronically ill, the old who cannot fight, the idiot, and the peasants and serfs. Malik said neither the blind nor idiots nor hermits are to be slain, and enough of their wealth is to be left to them by which they may suvive. Similarly, the old and decrepit are not to be slain, in his view, and this was also the view of Abu Hanifa and his disciples. Al-Thawri and al-Awza'i said that only the old are to be spared. Al-Awza'i added that the peasants are not to be slain either. According to al-Shafi'i's most authentic opinion, all of these categories (of people) are to be put to death. The basis for their disagreement stems from the conflict of the specificity in some traditons with general implication of (some verses of) the Qur'an, and also the generality of the authentic saying of the Prophet (God's peace and blessings be upon him), "I have been commanded to fight mankind until they say, 'There is no God but Allah.'" The words of the Exalted, "Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them", imply the slaynig of every nonbeliever whether or not he is a monk, and so does the saying of the Prophet (God's peace and blessings be upon him), "I have been commanded to fight mankind until they say, 'There is no God but Allah'".</BR>
The traditions laid down about the sparing of all these categories include the traditions related by Dawud Ibn al-Husayn from 'Ikrimah from Ibn 'Abbas "that the Prophet (God's peace and blessings be upon him) used to say while sending out his armies, 'Do not kill hermits'". There is also athe tradition related from Anas Ibn Malik from the Prophet (God's peace and blessings be upon him), "Do not slay the old and decrepit nor young children no women, and do not purloin [the booty]". It is recorded by Abu Dawud. There is also among these the traditon related by Malik from Abu Bakr that he said, "You will come acrosss a people who will claim that they have devoted themselves to Allah, so leave them and that to which they have devoted themselves", and it includes the words, "Never kill women, children, and the old weakened with age".<BR />
It appears that the chief source of disagreement in this issue springs from the apparent conflict between the words of the Exalted, "Fight in the way of Allah aginst those who fight you, but begin not hostilities. Lo, Allah loveth not aggressors", and His words, "Then when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them". Those who held that the latter verse was abrogated the (meaning of the) words "Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you", as fighting is prescribed primarily against those who fight, said that the latter verse stands unrestricted upon its generality. On the other hand, those who maintained that the former verse is the governing verse, and that it includes all categories not involved in fighting, exempted if from the generality of the latter (in other words restricted the latter to those who do or can provide hostility, thus excluding children, old and decrepit etc).<BR />
[...]<BR />
The reason leading to their disagreement, on the whole, arises from their dispute about the effective underlying cause of slaying. Thus, those who maintained that the effective underlying cause for this is disbelief (''Kufr''), did not exempt anyone out of the polytheists, while those who maintained that the underying cause in it is the ability to fight, there being a prohibition about the killing of women though they be non-believers, exempted those who do not have the ability to wage war, or those who have not affiliated themselves with it, like the peasants and the serfs.}}
 
''Al-Hidayah'', a famous manual of Hanfafi fiqh (jurisprudence) states the following:
 
{{Quote|[https://archive.org/details/Hedaya_201703/page/n501/mode/2up Al-Hidayah Vol. 2 p. 293 translated by Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee]|A woman, minor, enfeebled old man, an invalid, and a blind man are not to be killed. The reason is that permitted killing is of those persons who are capabable of hostility, and this is not realised in the case of these persons. It is for this reason that they are not killed a paralysed person, one whose right hand has been amputated, and one whose hand and leg of the opposite sides are cut. Al-Shafi'i (God bless him) goes against our opinion in the case of the enfeebled old man, the invalid, and the blind. The reason is that permitted killing in his view is based upon unbelief, but the evidence against him is what we have elaborated.}}
 
The views of the Shafi'i school were detailed in the famous compendium of Shafi'i fiqh (jurisprudence), ''The Reliance of the Traveller'':
 
{{Quote|Reliance of the Traveller o9.10 translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller|o9.10 It is not permissible (A: in jihad) to kill women or children unless they are fighting against the Muslims. Nor is it permissible to kill animals, unless they are being ridden into battle against the Muslims, or if killing them will help defeat the enemy. It is permissible to kill old men (O: old man (shaykh meaning someone more than forty years of age) and monks.}}
 
<span class="plainlinks">[[w:Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazali]]</span> (1058-1111) was a Persian jurist who contributed significantly to the development of Sufism and is one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Islamic thought. He followed the Shafi'i madhab (legal school) for most of his life.
 
{{Quote|Al-Ghazali, Kitab al-Wagiz fi fiqh madhab al-imam al-Safi'i|...[O]ne must go on jihad (i.e. razzias or raids) at least once a year ... one may use a catapult against them when they are in a fortress, even if among them are women and children. One may set fire to them and/or drown them. ... If a person of the ''ahl al-kitab'' [i.e. People of the Book] is enslaved, his marriage is revoked. ... One may cut down their trees. ... One must destroy their useless books. Jihadists may take as booty whatever they decide ... they may steal as much food as they need...<BR><BR><ref name="Al-Ghazali">Excerpted form ''[http://www.irfi.org/articles3/articles_4701_4800/why%20christians%20accepted%20greek%20natural%20philosophy,%20but%20muslims%20did%20nothtml.htm Kitab al-Wagiz fi fiqh madhab al-imam al-Safi'i]'' (Beirut, 1979), pp. 186, 190-91, 199-200, 202-203. English translation by Dr. Michael Schub.</ref>}}
 
===Qur'an - Fitnah is Worse Than Killing ===
 
'''Verse 2:217'''
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|217}}|They ask you about the sacred month - about fighting therein. Say, "Fighting therein is great [sin], but averting [people] from the way of Allah and disbelief in Him and [preventing access to] al-Masjid al-Haram and the expulsion of its people therefrom are greater [evil] in the sight of Allah. And fitnah is greater than killing." And they will continue to fight you until they turn you back from your religion if they are able. And whoever of you reverts from his religion [to disbelief] and dies while he is a disbeliever - for those, their deeds have become worthless in this world and the Hereafter, and those are the companions of the Fire, they will abide therein eternally.}}
 
'''Explanation of verse 2:217'''
 
The meaning of fitnah in the Quran is not always clear, though usually indicates a trial, tumult or oppression. In the case of this verse Ibn Kathir indicates that it was sent down to excuse the Muslims for killing a non-combatant one day before the end of the sacred month, and that fitnah here involves an element of oppression.
 
{{Quote|1=[http://m.qtafsir.com/Surah-Al-Baqara/The-Nakhlah-Military-Maneuvers--- The Nakhlah Military Maneuvers]<BR>Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Quran 2:217|2=(...and Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) means, trying to force the Muslims to revert from their religion and re-embrace Kufr after they had believed, is worse with Allah than killing.'}}
 
Verse 2:191 has the same phrase "fitnah is worse than killing" as a response to oppression.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|191}}|And kill them wherever you overtake them and expel them from wherever they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al- Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.}}
 
Ibn Kathir presents a more aggressive view that fitnah here simply meant shirk.
 
{{Quote|1=[http://m.qtafsir.com/Surah-Al-Baqara/Shirk-is-worse-than-Killing Shirk is worse than Killing]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir for Verse 2:191|2=Since Jihad involves killing and shedding the blood of men, Allah indicated that these men (the non muslims who are killed) are committing disbelief in Allah, associating with Him (in the worship) and hindering from His path, and this is a much greater evil and more disastrous than killing. Abu Malik commented about what Allah said:
 
(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) Meaning what you (disbelievers) are committing is much worse than killing.'' Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Sa`id bin Jubayr, `Ikrimah, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ad-Dahhak and Ar-Rabi` bin Anas said that what Allah said:
 
(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) "Shirk (polytheism) is worse than killing.}}  
 
This verse was revealed when a non-Muslim non-combatant was killed in the events of the Nakhla Raid. It was revealed to justify the killing of the non combatant, because non-Muslims do Fitnah... this is a graver crime in the eyes of Allah...than killing the non-combatant disbelievers <ref>[http://mercytomankind.net/TheLifeOfMohamedDir/AbdullahIbnJahshRaid.html Abdullah ibn Jaish -  Life of Mohamed (Sirah), Non combatants]</ref> [[Osama bin Laden]] also used this in his interviews to justify killing non-combatants.<ref>[http://www.jihadunspun.com/intheatre_internal.php?article=109033&list=/home.php Sheikh Osama bin Laden’s speech to the people of Pakistan] - Translated From Urdu By Ahmed Al-Marid, September 26, 2007</ref>
 
==Jihad is Perpetual==
 
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|14|2526}}|Narrated Anas ibn Malik: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Three things are the roots of faith: to refrain from (killing) a person who utters, "There is no god but Allah" and not to declare him unbeliever whatever sin he commits, and not to excommunicate him from Islam for his any action; and jihad will be performed continuously since the day Allah sent me as a prophet until the day the last member of my community will fight with the Dajjal (Antichrist). The tyranny of any tyrant and the justice of any just (ruler) will not invalidate it. One must have faith in Divine decree.}}
 
==See Also==


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist|30em}}


[[Category:QHS]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Jihadists]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Kafir (infidel)]]
[[ru:Мухаммед ибн Абдулла]]
[[Category:Sirah]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]

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Muhammad
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Born Muhammad ibn Abdullah
c. 570
Mecca, Hijaz, Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia)
Died 8 June 632 (aged c. 62)
Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina
Other names Rasul Allah (Messenger of God)
Spouse Khadija bint Khuwaylid

Sawda bint Zamʿa

Aisha bint Abi Bakr

Hafsa bint Umar

Zaynab bint Khuzayma

Hind bint Abi Umayya

Zaynab bint Jahsh

Juwayriyya bint al-Harith

Ramla bint Abi Sufyan

Rayhana bint Zayd

Safiyya bint Huyayy

Maymunah bint al-Harith

Maria al-Qibtiyya

Notable works Constitution of Medina

Muhammad (Arabic: مُحمّد‎; pronounced [muħammad]; c. 570 – c. 8 June 632) was the founder of Islam.[1] According to Islamic scripture, he was a prophet and God's messenger, sent to present and confirm the monotheistic teachings preached in previous Abrahamic religions. He is viewed as the final prophet of God in the main branches of Islam.

Born to ‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib, his family belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, a branch of the Quraysh tribe. Given away by his mother to be raised among Bedouins[2] and fully orphaned at the age of six, he was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib and his wife Fatimah bint Asad.[3] Muhammad initially adopted the occupation of a shepherd, later becoming a merchant, baron and eventually a religious ruler and military leader.

The name "Muhammad" (محمد) comes from the root حمد (ha meem daal) which means "praise". The derived word "Muhammad" is a passive participle of the form II version of the basic verb and it means "the praised one". A word from the same root is also used in the Islamic saying (that is also in the Quran) al-hamdu li-llah (الحمد لله, "all praise is to god").

Many claim that in his youth, Muhammad was called by the nickname Al-Amin (الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[4] However, historian Alford Welch holds that "Al-Amin" was a common Arab name and further suggest that al-Amin might have been Muhammad's given name, a masculine form[5] from the same root as his mother's name, Āmina (أمينة).

Muhammad faced some opposition in his homeland from Meccan polytheists and gained very few followers initially.[6] To escape ongoing persecution he left Mecca for Medina in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina.[7] In 629, after years of intermittent wars with Meccan tribes, Muhammad invaded Mecca with 10,000 men and won the city.[8]

Muhammad continued to report receiving revelations until his death, in the form of ayat (verses) of the Qur'an. Muslims regard the Qur'an as the literal, verbatim "Word of God", around which the religion is based. Besides the Qur'an, other canonical scriptures include Muhammad's Sunnah (life teachings), which are found in the hadith and sira (biography) literature, as written down following oral transmission some two centuries after Muhammad's death. All three of these sources are upheld and used as sources of Shariah (Islamic law).[9]

Pre-Islam

Early life and childhood

Muhammad was born to villagers of the Banu Hashim clan, a branch of the Quraysh tribe, and one of Mecca's prominent families. He was reported to have been born in "the year of the Elephant." Although some scholars disagree by one or two years.[10] Muhammad's father died before he was born and Muhammad was given away by his mother after birth to be raised among Bedouin Arabs (allegedly a common practice at the time).[11] He was given to Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb and her husband until he reached the age of 2. At six his mother also passed away, leading Muhammad into orphanage.[12] For the following two years he lived with her paternal grandfather Abdul-Muttalib until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib who had became the leader of the Hashim tribe.[10]

First marriage

In 595 AD, aged twenty-five, Muhammad married his first wife and employer Khadijah. She was a wealthy woman, some years older than him, who had three children from two previous marriages. She would eventually bear him two sons (both died in childhood) and four daughters.[13] Khadijah's mother was a third cousin of Muhammad's mother.[14][15] According to some sources, Khadijah's father, Khuwaylid bin Asad, whose sister was Muhammad's great grandmother,[16] was opposed to the idea of his affluent daughter marrying such an "insignificant youth". Thus, Khadijah executed a plan to get her father drunk enough to accept the marriage.[17]

Muhammad in Mecca

Revelation

The beginnings of the Qur'an were conceived as Muhammad began to leave his wife and children to pray alone in a cave several weeks each year.[18][19] According to Islamic belief, when he was about forty years old (610 AD) he was visited by the angel Gabriel (جبريل Jibreel) and commanded to recite verses sent by Allah.[20] These verses would later become what is believed to be the first part of Sura 96.[21] This experience frightened him, and originally thinking he was possessed by a demon, he became suicidal and repeatedly attempted to jump off of a cliff, according to Sahih Bukhari.[22] After this first 'revelation' no new ones came for a time, but then after a long period they started up again and continued at a steady rate till his death. The collection of these verses is known as the Qur'an.[23]

Read in chronological order some scholars note over time the revelations change in style from a poetic to a more straightforward and aggressive form in the later years.[24] The messages of the later revelations also changed and abrogated the earlier ones. Typically from the place of the now famous 'no compulsion verse' to direction of the 'verse of the sword'. These alterations followed Muhammad's place in society. What are known as the "early revelations" were recorded in Mecca while Muhammad had only a few followers. The later "Medinan verses" were revealed once Muhammad had gained more followers and became the head of the first Islamic state in Medina.[24]

These revelations continued until his death twenty-three years later. According to Sahih Bukhari, these divine revelations would sometimes come to him while he was having sex with his child bride, Aisha.[25] Sahih Bukhari also describes how the revelations appear, describing them sometimes as the "ringing of a bell" and "sometimes the angel comes in the form of a man".[26]

Preaching in Mecca

He began preaching as a prophet in Mecca, warning of a day of judgement when all humans who have rejected his claims of prophethood would burn for eternity in Hell (جهنم Jahannam).[27] Even during the early days of his self-proclaimed prophethood he was often accused by the Meccans of imperfectly plagiarising the "ancients' fictitious tales".[28] This accusation was often coupled with remarks stemming from Muhammad's background as an illiterate man who had come into contact with followers of the Abrahamic faiths before his proclamation of prophethood (e.g. Zaid bin 'Amr bin Nufail).[29] The elites in Mecca were left unimpressed by what was preached. Eventually, Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.[30] Muhammad's opposition in Mecca came as a reaction to his antagonism of 'idolaters'. As Muhammad's followers remained few in numbers, he revealed verses that pleased his pagan contemporaries.[31] These verses are now considered the infamous "Satanic Verses". Muhammad, declared the existence of three Meccan goddesses and associated them as the daughters of Allah. Muhammad later retracted the verses, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself.[31][32][33][34]

The verses Quran 53:19-23 read:

"Have ye seen Lat. and 'Uzza, And another, the third (goddess), Manat? What! for you the male sex, and for Him, the female? Behold, such would be indeed a division most unfair! These are nothing but names which ye have devised,- ye and your fathers,- for which Allah has sent down no authority (whatever). They follow nothing but conjecture and what their own souls desire!- Even though there has already come to them Guidance from their Lord!"[35]

Muhammad was also criticized for claiming he rode the Buraq (a mythical flying horse-like creature) on a "Night Journey" to the "nearest heaven" and then back to Mecca in a single night.[36] An event which is now celebrated as a sort of annual Islamic holy day.[37]

Muhammad in Medina

Emigration

After the death of his uncle Abu Talib, who, although not becoming a Muslim, had protected Muhammad throughout, in 622, Muhammad left Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the Hijra (هِجْرَة Migration).[27] He, along with his followers, settled in Medina (then known as Yathrib) a large agricultural oasis, where he was the leader of the first Islamic theocracy. He ordered his followers not to contact their relatives who were left behind in Mecca. Muhammad here commanded the severing of links between his followers and their non-Muslim relatives. This Hijra (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).

Medina was home to a number of Jewish tribes, divided into three major clans: Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir, and some minor groups.[38] Among the things Muhammad did was draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina.[38]

War with the Meccans

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An illustration of Muhammad at the Ka'aba, by Nakkaş Osman (1595)

In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred converts in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan, but then decided to retaliate and marched against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (one thousand to three hundred - majority of Muslim historians put the exact total at 313) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least seventy Meccans and taking seventy prisoners[39] for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died.[40] This marked the beginning of Muslim military battles. Among the prisoners was Al Nadir, a storyteller and poet who had mocked him. He was not allowed to be ransomed by their clans and was executed on Muhammad's orders.[41] Muhammad also ordered twenty-four Meccans to be thrown into the well of Badr as a sign of disgrace.[42][43]

A further four years of continuous war between Muslim and Meccan forces followed, culminating later in a Muslim victory and the conquest of Mecca. The Muslims subsequently removed and destroyed everything they considered idolatrous from the Ka'aba, while Muhammad recited verses from the Qur'an. The townspeople at this point either accepted Islam or were expelled, with few exceptions. In March 632,[44] Muhammad led the pilgrimage known as the Hajj (حج).

Spouses

Main Article: Muhammad and Women

Following the death of his (at that time) only wife Khadijah, Muhammad began to practice polygamy and became known as a womanizer.[45] After an initial protest from Aisha's father, Muhammad's best friend and companion Abu Bakr,[46] Muhammad, then in his 50s, married Aisha when she was 6 years old. In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). Eventually he would go on to marry (and house independently) a total of fifteen women[47], and according to Sunni scholar Ibn al-Qayyim, owned numerous concubines, including his Coptic slave, Mariyah.[48]

Attitude towards Jews

A few years after his migration, having encountered rejection from the Jewish scholars in Medina, Muhammad's attitude towards the Christians and Jews changed. The Jews were skeptical of the compatibility between the Qur'an and their own scriptures, and while many in Medina converted to Islam, very few were from the large Jewish populations. This was the start of the long history of the persecution and subjugation of Dhimmis (non-muslim second class citizens).[49]

After each major battle with the Medinans, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery and attacked it.[50][51] After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir, respectively, were expelled from Medina, and much of their possessions were confiscated by Muhammad.[52] After the Battle of the Trench in 627, Muhammad accused the Jews of Banu Qurayza of conspiring with the Meccans, then wiped them out.[53] The women and young children were taken captive by Muslims to be sold in slave markets,[54][55] and the men and boys who had begun to grow pubic hair were beheaded.[56] Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq describes the incident:

"Then they surrendered, and the apostle confined them in Medina in the quarter of d. al-Harith, a woman of B. al-Najjar. Then the apostle went out to the market of Medina (which is still its market today) and dug trenches in it. Then he sent for them and struck off their heads in those trenches as they were brought out to him in batches. Among them was the enemy of Allah Huyayy b. Akhtab and Ka`b b. Asad their chief. There were 600 or 700 in all, though some put the figure as high as 800 or 900. As they were being taken out in batches to the apostle they asked Ka`b what he thought would be done with them. He replied, 'Will you never understand? Don't you see that the summoner never stops and those who are taken away do not return? By Allah it is death!' This went on until the apostle made an end of them."[57] al-Tabari VIII:35/Ishaq:464

One of the explanations given by some Arab historians and biographers for Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina is that "the punishment of the Medina Jews, who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Qur'an's tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old."[58]

Death

Main Article: Circumstances Surrounding Muhammad's Death

In the year 632, Muhammad became infirm with severe head pain and weakness. He died on June, 8th, 632 at the age of 62 or 63. Muhammad was poisoned by a Jewish woman, following the conquest of Khaibar, where he took Safiyah as a sex slave and then wife, and ordered the torture and beheading of her husband Kinana, the chief of the Jews at Khaibar. He spent his last day with the young Aisha, who was considered to be his favorite wife. At the time of his death, Ali (who would later become the fourth caliph of Islam) reported that Muhammad's penis was erect.[59] He was buried in his house near the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina.

In scripture

In the Quran

In the hadith

Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri: The Prophet (ﷺ) was shier than a veiled virgin girl.
Sahih Bukhari 3562
Narrated Al-Bara: Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) was the handsomest of all the people, and had the best appearance. He was neither very tall nor short.
Sahih Bukhari 3549
Narrated Jubair bin Mut`im: Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "I have five names: I am Muhammad and Ahmad; I am Al-Mahi through whom Allah will eliminate infidelity; I am Al-Hashir who will be the first to be resurrected, the people being resurrected there after; and I am also Al-`Aqib (i.e. There will be no prophet after me)."
Sahih Bukhari 3532
Narrated Jabir bin `Abdullah: The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "My similitude in comparison with the other prophets is that of a man who has built a house completely and excellently except for a place of one brick. When the people enter the house, they admire its beauty and say: 'But for the place of this brick (how splendid the house will be)!"
Sahih Bukhari 3534
Narrated Ibn `Umar: The Prophet (ﷺ) used to deliver his sermons while standing beside a trunk of a datepalm. When he had the pulpit made, he used it instead. The trunk started crying and the Prophet (ﷺ) went to it, rubbing his hand over it (to stop its crying).
Sahih Bukhari 3583

Timeline

This timeline lists the major events in Prophet Muhammad's life according to the traditional Islamic sources. All dates are approximate
Date Event Description
570 AD Birth of Muhammad Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh is born in "the year of the Elephant". His father, ‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib, had died before his birth, and his mother, Amina bint Wahb, soon puts him into the care of a wet-nurse named Halimah.
575 AD Returned to mother Believing that the young Muhammad is possessed by a demon, Halima returns him to his mother.[60]
577 AD Death of mother After his mother's death, Muhammad is taken in by his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib. And after his death, his paternal uncle, Abu Talib.
595 AD Marriage to Khadijah Muhammad marries his wealthy twice-divorced distant cousin, Khadijah, who later becomes his first follower. She had already borne two sons and a daughter from her previous marriages, and the union between her and the "insignificant" Muhammad is a controversial one which almost leads to bloodshed.[61] (read more)
610 AD The first “revelation” Muhammad receives what he comes to believe is his first otherworldly visitation, which he later identifies with the angel Jibreel and a revelation from Allah. At first, he believes he may be possessed by a demon, and attempts to commit suicide, only to be stopped by the angel.[62]
613 AD Islam preached publicly For the first time, Muhammad begins to preach Islam publicly in Mecca. His preaching is met with skepticism, and he is accused of plagiarizing the “tales of the ancients”.[63] One of his most sternest of critics is his own uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed by name in the Qur'an.[64] The Meccans ask for miracles, but Muhammad gives them none. (read more)
615 AD Friction with the Quraysh Muhammad's "shameful" attacks[65] on the native pagan beliefs causes friction between his followers and the Quraysh. Muhammad allows Muslims to leave Arabia for Abyssinia, while he chooses to stay behind and continue his preaching.
619 AD Khadijah's death The death of his wealthy and only wife Khadijah, is quickly followed by the death of his uncle and protector, Abu Talib. Not long after, he asks Abu Bakr for his six-year-old daughter Aisha's hand in marriage.
619 AD The Satanic verses incident Muhammad finally acknowledges Allat, Manat, and al-Uzza, the goddesses of the pagan Meccans in a revelation. Upon hearing this, the Meccans are overjoyed. Later, following an alleged visit from the angel Jibreel, Muhammad recants and claims they were the words of the devil. (read more)
620 AD Buraq and the Night Journey Muhammad reports that he had been carried to Jerusalem and then to Paradise on a mythological flying steed named Buraq,[66] and has met the other prophets. Over the sixth heaven, he meets Moses who weeps because there would be more Muslims in heaven than Jews.[67] (read more)
622 AD The Hijra Due to growing animosity between the pagan and Muslim Meccans, Muhammad and his followers flee to Medina, marking the beginning of the Hijra era of the Islamic lunar calendar, and also paving the way for Muhammad's metamorphosis from a preacher to a political and military leader.
622 AD Marriage consummation with Aisha Muhammad consummates his marriage to Aisha, his nine-year-old bride. Originally when Muhammad had asked for Aisha's hand in marriage, her father, Abu Bakr, had protested.[68] (read more)
624 AD The Nakhla raid Muhammad orders the 7th Caravan Raid against the pagan Meccans, a raid which would mark the beginning of violence in the name of Islam. Taking place in one of the four holy months in which fighting was forbidden, the leader of the Meccan caravan is killed, and two others are taken captive.
624 AD The Battle of Badr Following the caravan raids, the Meccans decide to retaliate. Although they're vastly outnumbered, the Muslims defeat the pagan Meccans; killing at least seventy and capturing another seventy for ransom.[69] Among the prisoners of war is Al Nadir, a storyteller and poet who had mocked Muhammad. Ali beheads Al Nadir on Muhammad's orders.[70] Muhammad also orders another twenty-four to be thrown into the well of Badr.[71]
624 AD Exile of the Jewish Qaynuqa Breaking an earlier treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims besiege the Jewish Qaynuqa tribe. Muhammad initially intends to execute all the males,[72] but following an emotional plea from Abdullah bin Ubayy, he confiscates their property and exiles them from Medina.
625 AD The Battle of Uhud The second military encounter between the Meccans (led by Abu Sufyan) and the Muslims. Due to the Muslim focus on salvaging booty rather than victory,[73] this time the pagan Meccans defeat the Muslims of Medina, and Muhammad himself is hurt by an attack from Khalid ibn al-Walid.
625 AD Siege and exile of the Jewish Nadir The Muslim siege of the Jewish Nadir tribe lasts for two weeks, after which they surrender. Muhammad confiscates their weapons and exiles them from Medina.
627 AD The Battle of the Trench Having heard of the strength of the approaching Meccan army, Muhammad's companion, Salman the Persian, advises him there should be trenches dug around the northern front of Medina to prevent hostile Meccans from entering Muslim territory. The trench allows the Muslims to halt the pagan Meccans and their Jewish allies. Coming unprepared for a siege, the Meccan army retreat after two weeks.
627 AD The Genocide of the Jewish Qurayza Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad accuses the Jews of Banu Qurayza of betraying him. After a siege of around a fortnight, the tribe surrenders to the Muslims. All of the fighting-aged and older men are slaughtered and the women and young children who have not yet reached puberty are taken captive by Muslims to be sold in slave markets for horses and weapons,[74] and all the males who have reached puberty are beheaded on Muhammad's orders.[75] (read more)
628 AD The Treaty of Hudaybiyya Muhammad and his men attempt to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. His forces are met outside the city by the pagan Meccans. Muhammad and the pagan Meccans conclude the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, a ten-year truce.
628 AD The conquest of Khaybar Muhammad and the Muslims besiege the Khaybar oasis. The combatants are killed, and the women and children are allotted as booty. The Jewish leader, Kinana, is tortured and beheaded, and his young widow, Safiyah, is taken by Muhammad for himself. (read more)
628 AD Poisoned at Khaybar Immediately following the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad and his men are served a meal of poisoned lamb by a Jewish women named Zaynab bint al-Harith, causing him to fall ill. Muhammad questions her,[76] and then has her executed.[77]
630 AD The conquest of Mecca The Muslims conquer Mecca. Muhammad rides on camel-back to the Ka'aba, then starts reciting verses from the Qur'an, while his men remove and destroy everything they consider idolatrous from the Ka'aba. This is the first of many non-Muslim worship places to be forcibly converted into a mosque.
630 AD Muhammad rules Arabia The Muslims prevail in the Battle of Hunayn against the Bedouin tribe of Hawazin and conquer Ta'if. In doing so, they capture huge spoils, consisting of 6,000 women and children and 24,000 camels. Muhammad is now the ruler of Arabia.
631 AD All Arabians submit to Islam Muhammad sends (the now converted) Khalid ibin al-Walid and other warriors to the remaining non-Muslim Arabian tribes, forcing them to accept Islam.[78]
631 AD The Tabuk raid The expedition to Tabuk marked the first real act of aggression by the Muslims against Christians. Two/thirds of the Christian world would be conquered before the end of the Islamic conquests. By the time Muhammad arrives at Tabuk, the Byzantine troops have already withdrawn. However, the local Christian leaders are forced to pay Jizyah and submit to Islamic rule.
632 AD The Farewell pilgrimage After completion of the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivers his famous sermon which is credited with the commencement of the conquests against the Christians and Zoroastrians. (read more)
632 AD Death of Muhammad Muhammad's last days are spent with Aisha in her house, where he continues to issue orders and curse the Christians and Jews.[79][80] Slumped against her bosom,[81] he finally dies on the 8th of June. Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin) reports that Muhammad's penis was erect after his death.[82] (read more)

See Also

  • Muhammad - A hub page that leads to other articles related to Muhammad

External Links

References

  1. ↑ The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind. Alford T. Welch, Ahmad S. Moussalli, Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad". In John L. Esposito.
  2. ↑ Katib al Waquidi p. 20
  3. ↑ A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 165–166. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher.
  4. ↑ Esposito(1998), p.6
  5. ↑ Alford Welch - cf. "Muhammad","Encyclopedia of Islam"
  6. ↑ The Life of Muhammad, p. 145. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah. Translated by Guillaume, A. (1955).
  7. ↑ Serjeant, R. B. (1978). "Sunnah Jāmi'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrīm of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 41 (1): 1–42. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761
  8. ↑ Akram 2007, p. 61.
  9. ↑ "British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Watt (1974), p. 7.
  11. ↑ Medieval Islamic civilization. 1. Routledge. p. 525. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. Archivedfrom the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2013. Meri, Josef W. (2004).
  12. ↑ Watt, "Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.", Encyclopaedia of Islam.
  13. ↑ "15 Important Muslim Women in History" 11 March 2014.
  14. ↑ Haq, S.M. Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, vol. 1. p. 54.
  15. ↑ The Women of Madina. Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 9.
  16. ↑ Muhammad ibn Saad, Tabaqat vol. 1. Translated by Haq, S. M. Ibn Sa'd's Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, p. 54. Delhi: Kitab Bhavan.
  17. ↑ LIFE OF MAHOMET. Volume II. Chapter 2,WIlliam Muir, [Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1861], pg. 24
  18. ↑ Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 6
  19. ↑ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p. 83
  20. ↑ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
  21. ↑ Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 11 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p. 54. ISBN 90-04-12756-9.
  22. ↑ ...But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet (Mohammad) became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went up the top of a mountain in order to throw himself down, Gabriel would appear before him and say, "O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah's Apostle in truth" whereupon his heart would become quiet and he would calm down and would return home. And whenever the period of the coming of the inspiration used to become long, he would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before. Sahih Bukhari 9:87:111
  23. ↑ Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition (2007) Vincent J. Cornell Page 77
  25. ↑ "...He [Muhammad]went around to her and she spoke to him. He said to her, “Do not injure me regarding 'A'isha. The revelation does not come to me when I am in the garment of any woman except 'A'isha.” She said, "I repent to Allah from injuring you, Messenger of Allah.”..." - Sahih Bukhari 2442
  26. ↑ Narrated 'Aisha: (the mother of the faithful believers) Al-Harith bin Hisham asked Allah's Apostle "O Allah's Apostle! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you?" Allah's Apostle replied, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes ' off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says." 'Aisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over). Sahih Bukhari 1:1:2
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
  28. ↑ "Such things have been promised to us and to our fathers before! they are nothing but tales of the ancients!" - Quran 23:83
  29. ↑ "....Allah's Apostle said that he met Zaid bin 'Amr Nufail at a place near Baldah and this had happened before Allah's Apostle received the Divine Inspiration...." - Sahih Bukhari 5499
  30. ↑ F. E. Peters (1994), p.169
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Then God sent down the revelation. 'By the star when it sets! Your companion has not erred or gone astray, and does not speak from mere fancy…' [Q.53:1] When he reached God's words, "Have you seen al-Lāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt, the third, the other?' [Q.53:19-20] Satan cast upon his tongue, because of what he had pondered in himself and longed to bring to his people, 'These are the high-flying cranes and their intercession is to be hoped for.' When Quraysh heard that, they rejoiced. What he had said about their gods pleased and delighted them, and they gave ear to him. The History of al-Tabari, Volume VI, Muhammad at Mecca, Translated by W. Montgomery and M. V. McDonald page 108
  32. ↑ The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (2010), p. 35
  33. ↑ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166
  34. ↑ Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35)
  35. ↑ Quran 53:19-23
  36. ↑ "....The Prophet said, "The animal's step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal's sight. I was carried on it, and Gabriel set out with me till we reached the nearest heaven....." - Sahih Bukhari 3887
  37. ↑ A Night Journey through Jerusalem - Khadija Bradlow - Times Online, August 18, 2007
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 39
  39. ↑ "....On the day (of the battle) of Badr, the Prophet and his companions had caused the 'Pagans to lose 140 men, seventy of whom were captured and seventy were killed....." - Sahih Bukhari 3039
  40. ↑ Glubb (2002), pp.179-186.
  41. ↑ Jake Neuman - God of Moral Perfection; A Stark Message from God for All Mankind - (2008) Blackwell, p. 211
  42. ↑ "....he [Muhammad] commanded more than twenty persons, and in another hadith these are counted as twenty-four persons, from the non-believers of the Quraish to be thrown into the well of Badr....." - Sahih Muslim 2875
  43. ↑ "Narrated Ibn 'Umar: The Prophet looked at the people of the well (the well in which the bodies of the pagans killed in the Battle of Badr were thrown) and said, "Have you found true what your Lord promised you?" Somebody said to him, "You are addressing dead people." He replied, "You do not hear better than they but they cannot reply." - Sahih Bukhari 1370
  44. ↑ Alford Welch, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam
  45. ↑ "....Layla’s people said, "’What a bad thing you have done! You are a self-respecting woman, but the Prophet is a womanizer. Seek an annulment from him.’ She went back to the Prophet and asked him to revoke the marriage and he complied with [her request]...." - al Tabari vol.9 p.139
  46. ↑ "....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."...." - Sahih Bukhari 5081
  47. ↑ al-Tabari vol.9 p.126-127
  48. ↑ Mohammed had many male and female slaves. He used to buy and sell them, but he purchased more slaves than he sold, especially after God empowered him by His message, as well as after his immigration from Mecca. He once sold one black slave for two. His name was Jacob al-Mudbir. His purchases of slaves were more than he sold. He was used to renting out and hiring many slaves, but he hired more slaves than he rented out. "Zad al-Ma'ad" - part 1, page 160
  49. ↑ The honour of Islam lies in insulting kufr and kafirs. One who respects the kafirs dishonours the Muslims… The real purpose of levying jiziya on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honour and might of Islam. Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), letter No. 163
  50. ↑ Is it not [true] that every time they took a covenant a party of them threw it away? But, [in fact], most of them do not believe. Quran 2:100
  51. ↑ Fred Donner - Muhammad and the Believers - (2010) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  52. ↑ "....The Banu [tribe] Qaynuqa did not have any land, as they were goldsmiths [and armor-makers]. The Messenger of God took many weapons belonging to them and the tools of their trade...." (Tabari, vol. 7, p. 87)
  53. ↑ Esposito (1998), pp.10-11
  54. ↑ Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (Author). Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji (Translator). (2002). The Life of Muhammad. (p. 338). Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.
  55. ↑ "...Then the apostle sent for Sa'd bin Zayd al-Ansari brother of bin Abdul-Ashhal with some of the captive women of Banu Qurayza to Najd and he sold them for horses and weapons...." - Ibn Ishaq: 693
  56. ↑ "...Narrated Atiyyah al-Qurazi: I was among the captives of Banu Qurayzah. They (the Companions) examined us, and those who had begun to grow hair (pubes) were killed, and those who had not were not killed. I was among those who had not grown hair..." - Sunan Abu Dawud 4404
  57. ↑ Guillaume, Alfred, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press, 1955. ISBN 0-1963-6033-1; p. 461-464.
  58. ↑ F.E.Peters(2003), p.77
  59. ↑ "....Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, "O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!" (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140)....." - Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Vol. 9 Footnote 175
  60. ↑ Guillaume, Alfred, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press, 1955. ISBN 0-1963-6033-1; p. 72.
  61. ↑ LIFE OF MAHOMET. Volume II. Chapter 2,WIlliam Muir, [Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1861], pg. 15-17 23-24
  62. ↑ "...But after a few days Waraqa died and the Divine Inspiration was also paused for a while and the Prophet (Mohammad) became so sad as we have heard that he intended several times to throw himself from the tops of high mountains and every time he went up the top of a mountain in order to throw himself down, Jibreel would appear before him and say, "O Muhammad! You are indeed Allah's Apostle in truth" whereupon his heart would become quiet and he would calm down and would return home. And whenever the period of the coming of the inspiration used to become long, he would do as before, but when he used to reach the top of a mountain, Gabriel would appear before him and say to him what he had said before." - Sahih Bukhari 6982
  63. ↑ "Such things have been promised to us and to our fathers before! they are nothing but tales of the ancients!" - Quran 23:83
  64. ↑ "...The power of Abu Lahab will perish, and he will perish. His wealth and gains will not exempt him. He will be plunged in flaming Fire, And his wife, the wood-carrier, Will have upon her neck a halter of palm-fibre...." - Quran 111:1-5
  65. ↑ Francis Edwards Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, SUNY Press, p.169
  66. ↑ "...Then a white animal which was smaller than a mule and bigger than a donkey was brought to me." (On this Al-Jarud asked, "Was it the Buraq, O Abu Hamza?" I (i.e. Anas) replied in the affirmative). The Prophet said, "The animal's step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal's sight. I was carried on it, and Gabriel set out with me till we reached the nearest heaven...." - Sahih Bukhari 3887
  67. ↑ "...When I left him (i.e. Moses) he wept. Someone asked him, 'What makes you weep?' Moses said, 'I weep because after me there has been sent (as Prophet) a young man whose followers will enter Paradise in greater numbers than my followers.'..." - Sahih Bukhari 3887
  68. ↑ "....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."...." - Sahih Bukhari 5081
  69. ↑ "....On the day (of the battle) of Badr, the Prophet and his companions had caused the 'Pagans to lose 140 men, seventy of whom were captured and seventy were killed....." - Sahih Bukhari 3039
  70. ↑ Jake Neuman - God of Moral Perfection; A Stark Message from God for All Mankind - (2008) Blackwell, p. 211
  71. ↑ "....he [Muhammad] commanded more than twenty persons, and in another hadith these are counted as twenty-four persons, from the non-believers of the Quraish to be thrown into the well of Badr....." - Sahih Muslim 2875
  72. ↑ Tabari, vol. VII, 86.
  73. ↑ "Allah did indeed fulfil His promise to you when ye with His permission Were about to annihilate your enemy,-until ye flinched and fell to disputing about the order, and disobeyed it after He brought you in sight (of the booty) which ye covet. Among you are some that hanker after this world and some that desire the Hereafter. Then did He divert you from your foes in order to test you but He forgave you: For Allah is full of grace to those who believe." - Quran 3:152
  74. ↑ Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (Author). Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji (Translator). (2002). The Life of Muhammad. (p. 338). Selangor, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.
  75. ↑ Tafsir Ibn Kathir - The Campaign against Banu Qurayzah
  76. ↑ "The apostle of Allah sent for Zaynab and said to her, "What induced you to do what you have done?" She replied, "You have done to my people what you have done. You have killed my father, my uncle and my husband, so I said to myself, "If you are a prophet, the foreleg will inform you; and others have said, "If you are a king we will get rid of you." - Ibn Sa'd p. 252
  77. ↑ "...The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) then ordered regarding her [the Jewess] and she was killed..." - Sunan Abu Dawud 4511 and Abudawud|39|4498}}
  78. ↑ Ibn Ishaq, 645-646
  79. ↑ "....Then he [Muhammad] ordered them to do three things. He said, "Turn the pagans out of the 'Arabian Peninsula; respect and give gifts to the foreign delegations as you have seen me dealing with them." (Said bin Jubair, the sub-narrator said that Ibn Abbas kept quiet as rewards the third order, or he said, "I forgot it.")" - Sahih Bukhari 4431
  80. ↑ "Narrated 'Aisha and Ibn 'Abbas: On his death-bed Allah's Apostle put a sheet over his-face and when he felt hot, he would remove it from his face. When in that state (of putting and removing the sheet) he said, "May Allah's Curse be on the Jews and the Christians for they build places of worship at the graves of their prophets." (By that) he intended to warn (the Muslim) from what they (i.e. Jews and Christians) had done." - Sahih Bukhari 3453
  81. ↑ "...'Aisha added: He died on the day of my usual turn at my house. Allah took him unto Him while his head was between my chest and my neck and his saliva was mixed with my saliva..." - Sahih Bukhari 5217
  82. ↑ "....Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, "O prophet, thy penis is erect unto the sky!" (in Vit. Mohammed. p. 140)....." - Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Vol. 9 Footnote 175
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