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The '''Qur'ān''' (القرآن) is the central religious text of [[Islam]]. Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind. They also consider the text in its original [[Arabic]], to be the literal word of [[Allah]]<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|2|23}} Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24]</ref> revealed by the angel Jibreel ([[Gabriel]]) to [[Muhammad]] over a period of twenty-three years<ref>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,'' Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338,  I.B. Tauris Publishers, </ref><ref>[{{Quran-url-only|17|106}} Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106]</ref>, and view the Qur'an as God's final revelation.<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|33|40}} Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40]</ref><ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref>
The '''Qur'ān''' (القرآن) is the central religious text of [[Islam]]. Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind. They also consider the text in its original [[Arabic]], to be the literal word of [[Allah]]<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|2|23}} Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24]</ref> revealed by the angel Jibreel ([[Gabriel]]) to [[Muhammad]] over a period of twenty-three years<ref>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,'' Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338,  I.B. Tauris Publishers, </ref><ref>[{{Quran-url-only|17|106}} Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106]</ref>, and view the Qur'an as God's final revelation.<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|33|40}} Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40]</ref><ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref>
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=== Orality ===
=== Orality ===
Archer (2020) when discussing the Qur'an in relation to Professor [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_J._Ong Walter J. Ong]'s classical studies on orality and oral cultures (where literacy was either low or non-existent - like much of the ancient world), states that much of the Quran, shows signs of oral composition stylistically (as opposed to beginning as a written text), noting several common trends recognised by Ong.{{Quote|<i>A Place Between Two Places: The Quranic Barzakh (Islamic History and Thought). pp. 77-78 footnote 33.</i> George Archer. Published by Gorgias Press, 2020. ISBN 10: 1463239874 / ISBN 13: 9781463239879|• <i>“Additive rather than subordinate”</i>: Unlike written language which switches terms and grammatical constructions to break monotony, oral performances create much longer strings of repeating combinations. For example, consider the “and...and...and...” so typical of the books of the Pentateuch, the Gospel of Mark, or classical Arabic generally.
Archer (2020) when discussing the Qur'an in relation to Professor [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_J._Ong Walter J. Ong]'s classical studies on orality and oral cultures (where literacy was either low or non-existent - like much of the ancient world), states that much of the Quran, shows signs of oral composition stylistically (as opposed to beginning as a written text), noting several common trends recognised by Ong.<ref>He also heavily expands upon these and other factors in a more comprehensive and up-to-date work focusing solely on the Qur'ans relation to orality in: ''The Prophet's Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran, University of Iowa Press 2024,'' ''George Archer.'' E.g.
 
Memory  (p. 31). Kindle Edition.
 
Repetition (p. 33)  Kindle Edition.
 
Significance and Embodiment (p. 34). Kindle Edition.
 
Eloquence and Abstraction (p. 36). Kindle Edition.
 
Ownership and Variant Tellings (p. 37). Kindle Edition.
 
Familiarity (p. 37-38). Kindle Edition.</ref>{{Quote|<i>A Place Between Two Places: The Quranic Barzakh (Islamic History and Thought). pp. 77-78 footnote 33.</i> George Archer. Published by Gorgias Press, 2020. ISBN 10: 1463239874 / ISBN 13: 9781463239879|• <i>“Additive rather than subordinate”</i>: Unlike written language which switches terms and grammatical constructions to break monotony, oral performances create much longer strings of repeating combinations. For example, consider the “and...and...and...” so typical of the books of the Pentateuch, the Gospel of Mark, or classical Arabic generally.


• <i>“Aggregative rather than analytic”</i>: Oral peoples prefer fixed expressions and formulas that create totalizing pictures, such as ‘the swift-footed Achilles’ or ‘the glorious October revolution.’ To the literate mind these come across as cliché, but to people who cannot look anything up references must come pre-loaded with maximal content. A simple Qurʾānic example is the Christology densely packaged in the phrase ‘Jesus, son of Mary’ and its variations.
• <i>“Aggregative rather than analytic”</i>: Oral peoples prefer fixed expressions and formulas that create totalizing pictures, such as ‘the swift-footed Achilles’ or ‘the glorious October revolution.’ To the literate mind these come across as cliché, but to people who cannot look anything up references must come pre-loaded with maximal content. A simple Qurʾānic example is the Christology densely packaged in the phrase ‘Jesus, son of Mary’ and its variations.
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• <i>“Agonistically toned”</i>: Oral cultures generally throw down dares, puzzles, and provocations for its listeners to keep them engaged. “Proverbs and riddles are not used simply to store knowledge but to engage others in verbal and intellectual combat: utterance of one proverb or riddle challenges hearers to top it with a more apposite or a contradictory one.” On a similar note excessively violent material with gory detail, as well as rich declarations of praise, are common. The audience is not only to be interested; they must react. We have seen already the ‘challenge verse’ of Yūnus 10:38. More examples would include the very colorful explanations of Paradise and frightening imagery of damnation.}}
• <i>“Agonistically toned”</i>: Oral cultures generally throw down dares, puzzles, and provocations for its listeners to keep them engaged. “Proverbs and riddles are not used simply to store knowledge but to engage others in verbal and intellectual combat: utterance of one proverb or riddle challenges hearers to top it with a more apposite or a contradictory one.” On a similar note excessively violent material with gory detail, as well as rich declarations of praise, are common. The audience is not only to be interested; they must react. We have seen already the ‘challenge verse’ of Yūnus 10:38. More examples would include the very colorful explanations of Paradise and frightening imagery of damnation.}}
=== Formulaic Language ===
Bannister (2014) notes that the Qur'an contains lots of [https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0212.xml Formulaic Language],<ref>Bannister (Andrew G.), ''An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur’an'', Plymouth, Lexington Books, 2014, 332 p. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7391-8357-1</nowiki></ref> summarised by professor Nicolai Sinai (2017).{{Quote|Sinai, Nicolai. Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction (The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys) (pp. 33-34). Edinburgh University Press. Kindle Edition. |2=A third general feature of the Qur’an that is fittingly highlighted at this juncture is its strongly formulaic nature.<sup>26</sup> The theological predications just mentioned provide some of the best examples of this phenomenon. Thus, the clausula ‘God has power over everything’ (inna llāha alā kulli shayin qadīr) occurs no less than eight times across the entire Qur’an, and there are a further four occurrences of the structurally analogous phrase ‘God is knowledgeable of everything’ (inna llāha bi-kulli shayin alīm).
As a computer-based study by Andrew Bannister has shown, if one defines a formula as a sequence of three ‘bases’ (= words stripped of any desinential vowels, suffixed pronouns, and proclitic particles including the definite article) that recurs five times or more in the Qur’an, then the entire text will turn out to have a formulaic density of 21.86 per cent. That is to say, almost 22 per cent of the Qur’an’s words belong to three-word phrases that are repeated with identical inflection five times or more within the corpus.<sup>27</sup> If one were to require merely a recurrence of the same word or even root, the text’s formulaic density would be still higher.<sup>28</sup> Unsurprisingly, the fact that the Qur’an contains a very significant number of identical or near-identical phrases and even verses was already noted by medieval Muslim scholars, who speak of verses that are ‘similar to one another’.<sup>29</sup>}}Bannister (2014) provides 30 examples of formulaic systems of closely related formulaic phrases made up of root sequences (usually the same word), but with flexibility and variety allowing high adaptability to different qur’anic contexts.<ref>Bannister, Andrew G.. ''An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an (p. 278 - 307).'' Lexington Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> The roots the words contain are shown in the tables are for key nouns, adjectives and verbs that make up the main components of the sentences. While the others are simply grammatical particles, prepositions and/or conjunctions; such as 'bi'; usually meaning 'by/with/in',<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/02_b/000_b.html bi (ب) Lanes Lexicon] Quranic Research: [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0141.pdf Book 1 p. 141], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0142.pdf p.142], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0143.pdf p.143], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0144.pdf p.144]</ref> 'fa' (and so/therefore),<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/20_f/000_f.html fa (ف) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon: Book 1, [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2321.pdf p.2321], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2322.pdf p.2322], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2323.pdf p.2323]</ref> 'la' (no/negation),<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/23_l/000_l.html la (لا) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon Book 1, [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2641.pdf p.2641], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_3006.pdf p.3006], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_3007.pdf p.3007]</ref> 'wa' (and),<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/27_w/000_w.html wa (و) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon  [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2913.pdf p.2913], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_3048.pdf p.3048]</ref> 'al/l' (the/of (the/definite particle)),<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/01_A/115_Al.html al/l (ال) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon Book 1 [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0074.pdf p.74], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0075.pdf p.75]</ref> 'huwa' (he / it for a grammatically masculine object),<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/26_h/159_hwe.html huwa (هو) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_3046.pdf p.3046]</ref> 'min' (from/of)<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/24_m/173_mn.html min (من) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_3024.pdf p.3024]</ref>, 'fi' (in)<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/20_f/230_fe.html fi (في) Quranic Research] Lane's Lexicon [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2466.pdf p.2466], [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2467.pdf p.2467]</ref> etc.
This first example illustrates the flexibility of the typical system; it can be seen at work in the following Qur'an verse:<ref>Ibid. pp. 277-278</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|
|
|
|(
|zyn +
|kwkb
|
|-
|zyn +
|smw +
|dnw +
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|(
|ṣbḥ +
|ḥfẓ
|
|}
* 'innā <u>zayyannā l-samā'a l-dunyā bi-zīnatin l-kawākibi</u> (Q. 37: 6)
* wa-<u>zayyannā l-samā'a l-dunyā bi-maṣābīḥa wa-ḥifẓan</u> (Q. 41: 12)
* wa-la-qad <u>zayyannā l-samā'a l-dunyā bi-maṣābīḥa</u> (Q. 67: 5)
A second example of the flexibility inherent in the Qur’an’s formulaic diction can be seen in the system shown in the table below.<ref>Ibid. pp. 278</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'yy
|)
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|skhr
|)
| +
|lyl +
|nhr +
|shms +
|qmr
|-
|khiq
|)
|
|
|
|
|
|}
This system generates formulas at the start of several qur’anic verses:
* wa-min 'āyātihi l-laylu wa-l-<u>nahāru wa-l-shamsu wa-l-qamaru</u> (Q. 41: 37).
* wa-<u>sakhkhara</u> la-kumu l-<u>layla wa-l-nahāra wa-l-shamsa wa-l-qamara</u> (Q. 16: 12; cf. 14: 33).
* wa-huwa lladhī <u>khalaqa</u> <u>l-layla wa-l-nahāra wa-l-shamsa wa-l-qamara</u> (Q. 21: 33; cf. 7: 54).
Another example in the system shown in the table below can be seen in at least eight qur’anic verses; three examples are listed below that:<ref>Ibid. pp. 279-280</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
|
|
|
|
|(
|khrj
|)
|
|
|
|(
|kll +
|shy'
|
|-
|nzl +
|smw +
|myw
| +
|(
|brk
|)
| +
|nbt
| +
|(
|jnn +
|ḥbb +
|ḥṣb
|-
|
|
|
|
|(
|khlṭ
|)
|
|
|
|(
|'rḍ
|
|
|}
* wa-huwa lladhī <u>'anzala</u> min-al-<u>samā'i mā'-an</u> fa-<u>'akhrajnā</u> bi-hi <u>nabāta kulli shay'in</u> (Q. 6: 99)
* <u>nazzalnā</u> min <u>samā' mā' mubārak 'anbatnā</u> hi <u>jannāt ḥabb ḥaṣīd</u> (Q. 50: 9)
* ka-<u>mā'in 'anzalnā</u>-hu min-a l-<u>samā'i</u> fa-<u>khtalaṭa</u> bi-hi <u>nabātu l-' arḍi</u> (Q. 10: 24)
The system shown in the table below generates formulas in approximately twelve qur’anic verses; five examples are shown below to give a flavor of the kind of formulas seen.<ref>Ibid. pp. 281-282</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|bshr
|)
|
|
|
|
|(
|dkhl
|
|)
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|dkhl
|)
| +
|'mn +
|'ml +
|ṣlḥ +
|(
|hdy +
|rbb +
|)
|jnn +
|jry +
|tḥt +
|nhr
|(+n'm)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|(
|...
|
|)
|
|
|
|
|
|}
* wa-<u>bashshiri</u> lladhīna <u>'āmanū</u> wa-‘<u>amilū</u> l-<u>ṣāliḥāti</u> 'anna la-hum <u>jannātin</u> <u>tajrī</u> min <u>taḥtihā</u> l-<u>'anhāru</u>. (Q. 2: 25)
* wa-lladhīna <u>'āmanū</u> wa-‘<u>amilū</u> l-<u>ṣāliḥāti</u> sa-<u>nudkhiluhum</u> <u>jannātin</u> <u>tajrī</u> min <u>taḥtihā</u> l-'<u>anhāru</u>. (Q. 4: 57, 122)
* 'inna lladhīna <u>'āmanū</u> wa-<u>‘amilū</u> l-<u>ṣāliḥāti</u> yahdīhim <u>rabbuhum</u> bi-' <u>īmānihim</u> <u>tajrī</u> min <u>taḥtihimu</u> l-'<u>anhāru</u> fī <u>jannāti</u> l-<u>na‘īmi</u>. (Q. 10: 9)
* wa-'<u>udkhila</u> lladhīna <u>'āmanū</u> wa-<u>‘amilū</u> l-<u>ṣāliḥāti</u> <u>jannātin</u> <u>tajrī</u> min <u>taḥtihā</u> l-'<u>anhāru</u>. (Q. 14: 23)
* 'inna llāha <u>yudkhilu</u> lladhīna '<u>āmanū</u> wa-<u>‘amilū</u> l-<u>ṣāliḥāti</u> <u>jannātin</u> <u>tajrī</u> min <u>taḥtihā</u> l-'<u>anhāru</u>. (Q. 22: 14)
Some of the smaller components of this system can also be found in large numbers in the Qur’an; so, for example the root sequence jnn + jry + tḥt + nhr (‘ Gardens beneath which rivers flow’) itself occurs 37 times in the Qur’an while 'mn + ‘ml + ṣlḥ (‘ believe and work righteousness’) occurs some 70 times.<ref>Ibid. pp. 282</ref>


=== Poetry and prose ===
=== Poetry and prose ===
The Qur'an contains both poetry and prose, as did some other Arabic literature at the time, such as the Ayyām al-ʿarab.<ref>Toral-Niehoff, Isabel. “Talking about Arab Origins: The Transmission of the Ayyām al-ʿarab in al-Kūfa, al-Baṣra and Baghdād.” In ''The Place to Go: Contexts of Learning in Baghdad, 750-1000 C.E.'', edited by Jens Scheiner and Damien Janos, 47–76. Gerlach Press, 2021. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1b9f5pp.8</nowiki>.</ref>
The Qur'an contains both poetry and prose, as did some other Arabic literature at the time, such as the Ayyām al-ʿarab.<ref>Toral-Niehoff, Isabel. “Talking about Arab Origins: The Transmission of the Ayyām al-ʿarab in al-Kūfa, al-Baṣra and Baghdād.” In ''The Place to Go: Contexts of Learning in Baghdad, 750-1000 C.E.'', edited by Jens Scheiner and Damien Janos, 47–76. Gerlach Press, 2021. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1b9f5pp.8</nowiki>.</ref>
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (pp. 107-108). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.|Nothing compels us to view the milieu of the Qur’an as a culturally undeveloped space. Indeed, the cultural and social scenario of the peripheral Hijaz is only being explored by research; yet the literature that we already possess, in particular poetry and heroic prose narratives, justifies an image of a society whose verbal sensibilities and literary formation defy all clichés of an “empty Hijaz.”<sup>10</sup> The extensive corpus of hero stories of the so-called ayyām al-ʿarab,<sup>11</sup> the “battle days of the Arab tribes disparately transmitted prose texts interspersed with poetry that report the tribal confrontations of sixth/seventh centuries, offers—despite the fact that it was written down only in retrospect—an authentic record of autochthonous nomadic culture, and provides convincing explanations of the social and ideological preconditions for the changes that set in with the Qur’anic proclamation.}}
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. <i>The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (pp. 107-108).</i> Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.|Nothing compels us to view the milieu of the Qur’an as a culturally undeveloped space. Indeed, the cultural and social scenario of the peripheral Hijaz is only being explored by research; yet the literature that we already possess, in particular poetry and heroic prose narratives, justifies an image of a society whose verbal sensibilities and literary formation defy all clichés of an “empty Hijaz.”<sup>10</sup> The extensive corpus of hero stories of the so-called ayyām al-ʿarab,<sup>11</sup> the “battle days of the Arab tribes disparately transmitted prose texts interspersed with poetry that report the tribal confrontations of sixth/seventh centuries, offers—despite the fact that it was written down only in retrospect—an authentic record of autochthonous nomadic culture, and provides convincing explanations of the social and ideological preconditions for the changes that set in with the Qur’anic proclamation.}}


==== Saj' and Soothsayers (kuhhān) ====
==== Saj' (Rhymed prose) ====
Many academics (and traditional Islamic scholars) have noted the comparison of the style with a pre-Islamic form of what one would consider a type of poetry or "rhymed prose" known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saj%27 Saj'].<ref>Stewart, Devin J. “Sajʿ in the ‘Qurʾān’: Prosody and Structure.” ''Journal of Arabic Literature'', vol. 21, no. 2, 1990, pp. 101–39. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/4183221</nowiki>. Accessed 2 Feb. 2025.</ref> It was heavily associated with Soothsayers (sg. kāhin pl. kuhhān).<ref>''Ibid. pp. 103''  & Stewart, Devin (2006). "Soothsayer" Entry. ''[https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol5/page/n81/mode/2up Encyclopedia Of The Quran Vol 5.] Brill. pp. 78–80.'' </ref> Neuwirth (2019) notes, although the Qur’an presents only a polemical stance toward the soothsayers, it nonetheless attests a clearly perceived formal relationship to the mantic forms of discourse of the early Arab seers, who's oracular pronouncements were marked by metrically undefined rhyming prose, which bore similarities to the early Meccan suras—particularly in their use of introductory oath clusters, a structure not found elsewhere.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 425). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref>
Many academics (and traditional Islamic scholars) have noted the comparison of the style with a pre-Islamic form of what one would consider a type of poetry or "rhymed prose" known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saj%27 Saj'].<ref>Stewart, Devin J. “Sajʿ in the ‘Qurʾān’: Prosody and Structure.” ''Journal of Arabic Literature'', vol. 21, no. 2, 1990, pp. 101–39. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/4183221</nowiki>. Accessed 2 Feb. 2025.</ref> It was heavily associated with Soothsayers (sg. kāhin pl. kuhhān).<ref>''Ibid. pp. 103''  & Stewart, Devin (2006). "Soothsayer" Entry. ''[https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol5/page/n81/mode/2up Encyclopedia Of The Quran Vol 5.] Brill. pp. 78–80.'' </ref> Neuwirth (2019) notes, although the Qur’an presents only a polemical stance toward the soothsayers, it nonetheless attests a clearly perceived formal relationship to the mantic forms of discourse of the early Arab seers, who's oracular pronouncements were marked by metrically undefined rhyming prose, which bore similarities to the early Meccan suras—particularly in their use of introductory oath clusters, a structure not found elsewhere.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 425). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref>


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This may be compared with the words of Hadrami ibn ‘Amir, orator of the tribe of Asad, who represented them to the Prophet (Ibn al-Athir, Usd 2.29): <i>We have come to you (innâ ataynâka) journeying through a black night (nataḍarra’ al-layla al-bahîma) in a sterile white year (fi sanatin shahbâ’) of our own accord (wa-lam tursil ilaynâ) We are of your ilk (wa-naḥnu minka) united by [our common ancestor] Khuzayma (tajma’unâ Khuzayma) Our sacred territories are well protected (ḥimânâ manî’) our women are virtuous (wa-nisâ’unâ mawâjid) our sons brave and noble (wa-abnâ’unâ anjâd amjâd)</i>  
This may be compared with the words of Hadrami ibn ‘Amir, orator of the tribe of Asad, who represented them to the Prophet (Ibn al-Athir, Usd 2.29): <i>We have come to you (innâ ataynâka) journeying through a black night (nataḍarra’ al-layla al-bahîma) in a sterile white year (fi sanatin shahbâ’) of our own accord (wa-lam tursil ilaynâ) We are of your ilk (wa-naḥnu minka) united by [our common ancestor] Khuzayma (tajma’unâ Khuzayma) Our sacred territories are well protected (ḥimânâ manî’) our women are virtuous (wa-nisâ’unâ mawâjid) our sons brave and noble (wa-abnâ’unâ anjâd amjâd)</i>  
Similar also are the sermons of the famed bishop of Najran, Quss ibn Sa’ida, of whom Muhammad is said to have memorised the following excerpt (Isfahani 14.40): <i>Oh people, assemble (ayyuhâ n-nâsu jtami’û) listen and pay heed (wa-sma’û wa-’û) All who live die (man ‘âsha mât) and all who die are lost (wa-man mâta fât) and everything that is coming will come (wa-kulla mâ huwa âtin ât)</i>
<i>I swear by the light and the moon (ahlifu bin-nûri wa-l-qamri) by the lightning flash and by fate (was-sana wad-dahri) by the winds and the cleaving (war-riyâhi wa-l-fatri) You have hidden for me a vulture’s corpse (la-qad khaba’tum lî juththata nasri) in a bundle of hair (fi ‘ikmin min sha’ri) in the possession of the youth from the Banu Nasr (ma’a l-fatâ min banî Nasri)</i>
Having passed this test, the diviners would then proceed to give their answer to the question set before them. Here, for example, is the reply of a diviner of ‘Usfan to two members of the tribe of Quraysh, who had asked which of them was the more noble (Ibn Habib, Mun. 108): <i>I swear by dust-coloured gazelles (halaftu bi-azbin ‘ufri) in mirage-glinting deserts (bi-lamma‘ati qafri) roaming among thorn-trees and lote-trees (yarudna bayna silmin wa-sidri) The highest degree of glory and honour (inna sana’ al-majdi thumma l-fakhri) is ever to be found in ‘A’idh (la-fî ‘A’idh ilâ âkhiri d-dahri) </i>
Though the Quran vigorously asserts that it is ‘not diviner’s speech’ (lâ bi-qawli kâhin), one can understand why Muhammad’s contemporaries regarded it as such, since the same rhythmic drive is present, though the content has of course been adapted to the new message. Here is a particularly fine example (91.1–10):
<i>By the sun and its midday brightness (wash-shamsi wa-ḍuḥâ-hâ) By the moon which rises after it (wa-l-qamari idhâ talâ-hâ) By the day which reveals its splendour (wan-nahâri idhâ jallâ-hâ) By the night which veils it (wal-layli idhâ yaghshâ-hâ) By the heaven and Him that built it (was-samâ’i wa-mâ banâ-hâ) By the earth and Him that spread it (wa-l-ardi wa-mâ ṭaḥâ-hâ) By a soul and Him that moulded it (wa-nafsin wa-mâ sawwâ-hâ) And gave it knowledge of sin and piety (fa-alhama-hâ fujûra-hâ wa-taqwâ-hâ) Blessed shall be the man who has kept it pure (qad aflaha man zakkâ-hâ) And ruined he that has corrupted it (wa-qad khâba man dassâ-hâ)</i>
Like the characters of Greek and Latin histories, pre-Islamic heroes were made to utter speeches felt by the later Muslim historian to be appropriate to the event or subject being treated, deemed to be similar to what would have been uttered by such a figure on such an occasion. These are usually long and fulsome, packed with rhetorical devices, whereas it may be that pre-Islamic Arabic oratory was, by contrast, not so different from the short staccato-like expression of the diviners. Here is one of God’s first addresses to Muhammad (74.1–7): <i>You, enveloped in your cloak (yâ ayyuhâ l-muddaththir) Arise and warn (qum fa-andhir) Magnify your Lord (wa-rabbaka fa-kabbir) Purify your attire (wa-thiyâbaka fa-ṭahhir) Shun pollution (war-rujza fa-hjur) Do not grant favours in expectation of gain (wa-lâ tamnun tastakthiru) For your Lord’s sake be patient (wa-li-rabbika fa-ṣbir)</i>
This may be compared with the words of Hadrami ibn ‘Amir, orator of the tribe of Asad, who represented them to the Prophet (Ibn al-Athir, Usd 2.29):
<i>We have come to you (innâ ataynâka) journeying through a black night (nataḍarra’ al-layla al-bahîma) in a sterile white year (fi sanatin shahbâ’) of our own accord (wa-lam tursil ilaynâ) We are of your ilk (wa-naḥnu minka) united by [our common ancestor] Khuzayma (tajma’unâ Khuzayma) Our sacred territories are well protected (ḥimânâ manî’) our women are virtuous (wa-nisâ’unâ mawâjid) our sons brave and noble (wa-abnâ’unâ anjâd amjâd)</i>


Similar also are the sermons of the famed bishop of Najran, Quss ibn Sa’ida, of whom Muhammad is said to have memorised the following excerpt (Isfahani 14.40): <i>Oh people, assemble (ayyuhâ n-nâsu jtami’û) listen and pay heed (wa-sma’û wa-’û) All who live die (man ‘âsha mât) and all who die are lost (wa-man mâta fât) and everything that is coming will come (wa-kulla mâ huwa âtin ât)</i>}}Stewart (2006) has classified five main types of Saj' patterns found in the Qur'an.<ref>Stewart, Devin (2006). "Rhymed Prose". [https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol4/page/n483/mode/2up Encyclopedia Of The Quran Vol 4.] Brill. pp. 476–484. ''pp. 479-181.'' 
Similar also are the sermons of the famed bishop of Najran, Quss ibn Sa’ida, of whom Muhammad is said to have memorised the following excerpt (Isfahani 14.40): <i>Oh people, assemble (ayyuhâ n-nâsu jtami’û) listen and pay heed (wa-sma’û wa-’û) All who live die (man ‘âsha mât) and all who die are lost (wa-man mâta fât) and everything that is coming will come (wa-kulla mâ huwa âtin ât)</i>}}Stewart (2006) has classified five main types of Saj' patterns found in the Qur'an.<ref>Stewart, Devin (2006). "Rhymed Prose". [https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol4/page/n483/mode/2up Encyclopedia Of The Quran Vol 4.] Brill. pp. 476–484. ''pp. 479-181.'' 


Read for free on internet archive: https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol4/page/n483/mode/2up</ref>
Read for free on internet archive: https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol4/page/n483/mode/2up</ref>
==== Saj' and pre-Islamic poetry ====
Van Putten (2016) notes that while there are differences in style in the Qur'an from typical formal pre-Islamic Classical Arabic poetry as recorded in Islamic tradition (which we often can't be certain if it actually pre-Islamic or even in a dialect similar to that of the Quran), which adheres strictly to a quantitative meter, confirmed pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions such as the En Avdat text and the Safaito-Hismaic Baal Cycle poem, show strong structural and stylistic similarities to Quranic Saj'.<ref name=":1">[https://phoenixblog.typepad.com/blog/2016/07/the-quran-in-relation-to-pre-islamic-poetry.html ''The Quran in relation to Pre-Islamic poetry.''] PhDniX's blog. Marijn van Putten. 07/23/2016</ref> One example is the Baal Cycle poem which features a 4-4-4 stress pattern and a triadic rhyme closely resembling Quranic Saj', and the En Avdat inscription which is harder to classify but still shows comparable features, with a 3-3-3 stress pattern and a looser triadic rhyme, which also preserves older case vowels, revealing a dialect distinct from Safaitic.<ref name=":1" /> He notes that these findings suggest that the Quran’s poetic style did not emerge in isolation, but rather continued an existing Pre-Islamic Arabic poetic tradition, reflected across different dialects.<ref name=":1" />


==See also==
==See also==
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*[http://quranx.com/ Quranx.com] - easily navigable translations and etymological background for each verse in the Quran
*[http://quranx.com/ Quranx.com] - easily navigable translations and etymological background for each verse in the Quran
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/Quran/index.htm Skeptic's Annotated Quran]
*[https://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/page.php?type=mainintro&book=q&id=2 Skeptic's Annotated Quran]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/denis_giron/multiple.html Qur'an: A Work of Multiple Hands?] ''-  Denis Giron''
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/denis_giron/multiple.html Qur'an: A Work of Multiple Hands?] ''-  Denis Giron''


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