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This article uncovers and explains the state of [[Islam and Science|scientific]] knowledge that is presented to us in the [[Qur'an]] and the [[Sunnah]].
==Introduction==


This article is designed to uncover and explain the actual state of scientific knowledge that is represented in the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Specifically, we will explore Islamic [[Cosmology]], in particular the Qur'ans understanding of the nature and structure of the physical universe.
'''The Qur'anic universe''' comprises "the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them". Many verses expand on the various elements of this scheme, without going into great detail. Overall, a picture emerges of a flat earth (and perhaps seven of these), above which are seven heavenly firmaments of uncertain shape (commonly assumed to be domed; more recently some historians have argued that the Qur'anic heavens are flat) and held up without visible pillars. Lamps adorn the lowest of these heavens. The sun and moon circulate in them in a partly ambiguous manner. Allāh resides in heaven above the creation, sitting on a throne. Academic work has situated this picture within the context of earlier Mesopotamian and Biblical cosmological concepts, while noting its own distinctive identity.


To no surprise, “Islamic Cosmology” was not advanced beyond that of any of its ancient neighbors, and in fact is far less sophisticated and accurate in its understanding than the Greeks or Romans that had preceded them by centuries. While other civilizations had (for example) long before realized that the earth was a globe, the Qur'an betrays no understanding that the earth is [[Flat Earth and the Qur'an|anything but flat]].  
Relatively few modern academics have made dedicated attempts to piece together the cosmography of the Quran, in whole or in part. One of the most comprehensive such surveys has been conducted by Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri of Tehran University in 2016 (which can be read for free using a jstor.org monthly free article allowance).<ref>{{citation |last1=Tabatabaʾi |first1=Mohammad A. |last2=Mirsadri |first2=Saida |date=2016 |title=The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24811784 |journal=Arabica |volume=63 |issue=3/4 |pages=201-234}} also available on [https://www.academia.edu/23427168/The_Quranic_Cosmology_as_an_Identity_in_Itself academia.edu]</ref> They note that the new movement in the field commenced with Kevin van Bladel's work regarding individual elements of the picture in the context of the journeys of Dhu'l Qarnayn<ref name="vanBladelLegend">Van Bladel, Kevin, “The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, In The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context, Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007</ref> and the heavenly cords (asbāb) by which he traversed the world, and which, for example, Pharaoh attempted to reach by building a tower<ref name="vanBladelCords">{{citation|last1=van Bladel |first1=Kevin |date=2007 |title=Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=223-246 |doi= |access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref>.


Now, it is recognized up front that (as in almost every other ancient text), some of what is reflected in the Qur'an was meant to be taken literally, while some is allegorical or symbolic. But such recognition does not give the reader license to simply reject some descriptions which are obviously in error without good reason. In fact, the cosmology suggested by the Qur'an and the Sunnah is remarkably consistent, regardless of the specific purpose of the particular story being read.
By taking the Quranic descriptions in their own right and in the context of the more ancient cosmologies of Babylon and the Bible, but without appeal to later works of tafsir or hadith, which show the influence of Hellenistic (Greek) ideas acquired by the Muslims after the advent of Islam, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri argue that in various ways the Quranic cosmology has its own distinctive characteristics as well as inherited concepts, just as it interacts with the ideologies of its environment, taking some things and rejecting others. Their observations in particular are regularly cited in this article.


This is because at no point was the purpose of the Qur'an or the Sunnah to describe the structure of the universe. In almost every instance, such descriptions exist only as side affects of the other religious or ethical lessons that were the real objectives of the texts we consider. If a detail of cosmology is contained in an allegory, yet itself has no allegorical purpose, then it must be accepted as the actual understanding of the author. So, while we have only a handful of direct statements concerning cosmology, a lot can still be determined from the occasional intriguing detail accidentally dropped by the authors as part of other discussions.
==Cosmology of the Quran==


The wealth of such “hints” provide a compelling resource, and provide a clear picture of what [[Muhammad]] thought the universe looked like.
===The Heavens (al-samāwāt) and the Earth (al-arḍ)===


==Cosmology of the Qur'an==
Any accounting of the cosmology of the Qur'an must begin with the fact that the Islamic universe is extremely simple. It consists entirely of three components: "the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them" (see for example {{Quran|50|38}}), the latter of which contains such things as clouds ({{Quran|2|164}}) and birds ({{Quran|24|41}}). More often, just the heavens and earth are shorthand for the entirety of creation.


===The Heavens and the Earth===
{{Quote|{{Quran|31|26}}|To Allah belong all things in heaven and earth: verily Allah is He (that is) free of all wants, worthy of all praise.}}
 
There is no indication of any of the other features of the universe that modern peoples take for granted. There is no concept of solar systems, of galaxies, or of “space.” There is no hint that the earth is a planet like the other planets visible from it, or that stars are other suns, just very far away. Qur'anic cosmology is primarily limited to that which is visible to the naked eye, and where it goes beyond this, [[Scientific Errors in the Quran|invariably strays]] from what has been learned by scientific investigation.
 
The fundamental status of the “heavens and the earth” as the two main components of [[creation]] is emphasized repeatedly in the Qur'an, and it is the “separation” of the two that stands as the initial creative act of [[Allah]] (this verse has an interesting [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Every_living_thing_from_water|parallel in Syriac Christian literature]]).


Any accounting of the cosmology of the Qur'an must begin with the fact that the Islamic universe is extremely small and simple. It consists entirely of two (and only two) components; the [[heaven]]s and the earth.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?}}


There is no recognition of any of the other features of the universe that modern peoples take for granted. There is no concept of solar systems, of galaxies, or of “space.” There is no hint that the earth is a planet like the other planets visible from it, or that stars are other suns, just very far away. Qur'anic cosmology is primarily limited to that which is visible to the naked eye, and where the authors attempt describe what is not actually visible, they are invariably wrong.
Additionally, the Qur'an is clear that when Allāh created the heavens and the earth, the earth came first.


The fundamental status of the “heavens and the earth” as the two key components of [[creation]] is emphasized repeatedly in the Qur'an, and it is the “separation” of the two that stands as the initial creative act of [[Allah]].
{{Quote|{{cite quran|41|9|end=12|style=ref}}|Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds. He placed therein firm hills rising above it, and blessed it and measured therein its sustenance in four Days, alike for (all) who ask; Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We decked the nether heaven with lamps, and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?}}
And
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}
 
===The Earth and its waters===
 
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that the Qur'an "takes for granted" the flatness of the earth, a common motif among the scientifically naive people at that time, while it has "not even one hint of a spherical earth"<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 211</ref> Meanwhile, certain Christian scholars of the 6th century influenced by the ancient Greeks, in dispute with their counterparts in the east, believed in its sphericity, as noted by van Bladel.<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'' pp. 224-226</ref> Damien Janos in another paper on Qur'anic cosmography has similarly noted that while the exact shape of its boundaries are not described, "what is clear is that the Qurʾān and the early Muslim tradition do not uphold the conception of a spherical earth and a spherical universe. This was a view that later prevailed in the learned circles of Muslim society as a result of the infiltration of Ptolemaic astronomy".<ref>{{citation |last1=Janos |first1=Damien |date=2012 |title=Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective: some notes on the formation of a religious wordview |journal=Religion |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=215-231}} See pp. 217-218</ref>
 
Repeatedly, the Qur'an uses various Arabic terms that convey a flat earth, spread out like a carpet. For a much more comprehensive compilation of verses, see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]].
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|19}}|And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|71|19}}|And Allah has made the earth for you as a carpet (spread out), }}
 
In fact, at one point the Qur'an even emphasizes how much flatter the earth would be were it not for the mountains that disrupt the view.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|47}}|One Day We shall remove the mountains, and thou wilt see the earth as a level stretch, and We shall gather them, all together, nor shall We leave out any one of them.}}
 
As Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 211</ref>, the mountains are heavy masses described as pegs to [[The Quran and Mountains|prevent the earth from shaking]].


The exclusivity of these two venues is also repeatedly stressed. There is (for example) no third place within which things might exist or conversations might take place. Whenever the authors of the Qur'an want to make a point concerning Allah’s omniscience, for example, the phrase “in heaven or on earth” is invariably used as shorthand for the entire universe.
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves;}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|14|38}}|O our Lord! truly Thou dost know what we conceal and what we reveal: for nothing whatever is hidden from Allah, whether on earth or in heaven.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|4}}|Say: "My Lord knoweth (every) word (spoken) in the heavens and on earth: He is the One that heareth and knoweth (all things).}}
One unclear facet of Islamic cosmology is that the Qur'an likens the creation of the earth to the seven heavens:


{{Quote|{{Quran|22|70}}|Knowest thou not that Allah knows all that is in heaven and on earth? Indeed it is all in a Record, and that is easy for Allah.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|Allah it is who hath created seven heavens, and of the earth the like thereof. The commandment cometh down among them slowly, that ye may know that Allah is Able to do all things, and that Allah surroundeth all things in knowledge..}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|31|26}}|To Allah belong all things in heaven and earth: verily Allah is He (that is) free of all wants, worthy of all praise.}}
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that the plural for the earth (al ard) is never used in the Quran, though most Muslim commentators interpreted this verse to mean seven earths. Instead, they consider the verse to be likening the earth to the heavens in shape and extent (i.e. a flat expanse) as part of a broader argument in their paper that the Qur'an describes a set of seven flat, stacked heavens (see below).<ref>Ibid. pp. 211 and 221</ref>


The “heavens and the earth” are also described as a sort of “container” within which the entire Universe (that man experiences) operates. There is only heaven, earth, and the things between them.
In the hadiths, the idea of seven earths, one above the other is already apparent.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|54|418}}|Narrated Salim's father: The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Any person who takes a piece of land unjustly <b>will sink down the seven earths</b> on the Day of Resurrection."}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|10|3923}}|Sa'id b. Zaid reported:


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|16}}|Not for (idle) sport did We create the heavens and the earth and all that is between!}}
I heard Allah's Apostle say: He who took a span of earth wrongly '''would be made to wear around his neck''' seven earths on the Day of Resurrection.}}


Not surprisingly, the nature of this space “between the heavens and the earth” is described according to the straightforward (if false) perception of a human standing on the ground. Looking in all directions, the Earth appears to be basically flat, and the circular horizon gives the impression of standing at the center of a flat disc. Looking up, the sky (heaven) appears as a solid blue dome reaching its greatest height directly overhead, and anchored at or beyond the horizon. This is essentially (as we will discuss in detail) what we find in the Qur'an.
(For a more comprehensive analysis of Islamic literature covering the the Seven Earths, see: ''[[Science and the Seven Earths]]).''


Additionally, the Qur'an is clear that when Allah created the heavens and the earth, the earth came first.
Janos notes that Sumerian incantations dated to the 1st millenium BCE mention both the seven heavens and seven earths (citing Wayne Horowitz, who translated them as "the heavens are seven, the earths are seven").<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' p. 221</ref> Tabataba'i and Mirsadri similarly note from Horowitz that this tradition was popular in the near east in first millennia BCE and CE, though also that only the seven heavens, but not seven earths found their way into the Hebrew literature.<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 209</ref> 


{{Quote|{{cite quran|41|9|end=11|style=ref}}|Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds. He placed therein firm hills rising above it, and blessed it and measured therein its sustenance in four Days, alike for (all) who ask; Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient.}}
While contrasting the Biblical view of fresh and salty waters with the two seas of certain Qur'anic verses (fresh and salty - see for example {{Quran|25|53}} and the quest of Moses to find their junction in {{Quran|18|60}}), they note another difference to the Biblical and Mesopotamian cosmologies, which is that the Qur'an does not explicitly mention an ocean encircling the flat disk of the earth.<ref>Ibid. pp. 213-214</ref>


And
The two seas are very much on the surface of the earth.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|19|24}}|He hath loosed the two seas. They meet. There is a barrier between them. They encroach not (one upon the other). Which is it, of the favours of your Lord, that ye deny? '''There cometh forth from both of them the pearl and coral-stone.''' His are the ships displayed upon the sea, like banners.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|35|12}}|And not alike are the two bodies of water. One is fresh and sweet, palatable for drinking, and one is salty and bitter. '''And from each you eat tender meat and extract ornaments which you wear''', and you see the ships plowing through [them] that you might seek of His bounty; and perhaps you will be grateful.}}


So there we have the basic framework. The earth is a flat disc, and the heavens are a solid dome (actually seven solid domes) overhead. For a look at more of the details, let us first consider the heavens.
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|60}}|And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period."}}


===The Heavens and their Denizens===
===The seven Heavens and their denizens===
====The shape of the heavens====
[[File:QuranicCosmographyTabatabaiMirsadri.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Illustration of Qur'anic cosmography based on the analysis of Tabataba'i and Mirsadri. Their own copyrighted illustration is available in their paper<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' pp. 217</ref> The shape of the heavens in the Qur'an is uncertain.]]


As seen from the earth, the dome of the innermost heaven extends overhead, although in actuality they are more correctly described as seven concentric domes with the disk of the earth at their base.
While many classical Muslim scholars, and modern academics (due to their interpretation of other ancient cosmologies) tend to assume that the Qur'anic heavens are domed, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that there is no indication in the Qur'an that they touch the earth's boundaries. The sun and moon are placed in the heavens ({{Quran|71|16}} and {{Quran|78|13}}), the lowest of which are adorned with lamps {{Quran|41|12}}. Janos discusses verses {{Quran|21|30}} and {{Quran|36|40}} in which the sun and moon (as well as night and day) move in a "falak" (an ambiguous term that may have meant a circuitous course/sphere/hemisphere - see [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]), but notes that this was not considered semantically identical with the samawat, or heavens, and they were not necessarily conceived as having the same shape.<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 223-229</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command.}}


These seven heavens are solid objects; this can be shown in several ways. For starters, they stand as barriers that both protect (as does a roof) and contain.
The following is a summary of the arguments Tabataba'i and Mirsadri employ to argue that the Qur'anic heavens are flat:<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' pp. 218-234</ref>


The protective nature of this roof is shown in verses such as:
*They interpret {{Quran|51|47}} ("We have built the heaven with might, and We it is Who make the vast extent (thereof).") to mean that the heavens are continually expanded, which favours a flat expanse rather than a dome (it could be added in that case that the next verse about spreading the earth, with the same grammatical form, too fits this view). They also consider that verses mentioning invisible pillars (see below) favour a flat, roof like firmament.
*Verses in which the seven heavens are likened to the earth (their interpretation of {{Quran|67|12}} mentioned above), including in terms of their width e.g. {{Quran|57|21}} "a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth".
*These heavens are arranged in layers ({{Quran|67|3}}, {{Quran|71|15}}), which more obviously suggests flatness, and this word tibiqan is similar to the Babylonian tubuqati, suggesting that seven superimposed flat heavens is a belief they have in common.
*While interest in the heavens (as opposed to their contents) is largely absent from pre-Islamic poetry, the poems of Umayya ibn Abī al‐Ṣalt (d. 5 / 626) likened the heavens to seven floors one above another, and the carpet shaped earth to the uplifted heaven ("And [he] shaped the earth as a carpet then he ordained it, [the area] under the firmament [are] just like those he uplifted").
*Despite the obvious potential use of tents as an analogy for the heavens, the Qur'an does not do so. Mountains act as pegs to stabilise the earth rather than hold down a heavenly tent canopy.
*The notion of a flat sky was common in ancient Mesopotamia and the near east (as also noted by Janos, citing Horowitz<ref>Janos, ''Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective'' pp. 216-217</ref>) though some scholars instead say that the universal belief of the scientifically naive peoples of the world was that it was dome shaped. Those who suppose that the pre-Islamic Arabs had a dome shaped conception due to their tent dwellings ignore the evidence that Mecca was an urban environment with flat roofs.
*They argue that the Qur'an's ideological antipathy to the Bedouins would have extended to their use of tents for pagan practices, and for this reason may have rejected any possible existing analogies with the heavens.


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|And We have made the heavens as a canopy well guarded: yet do they turn away from the Signs which these things (point to)!}}
They note that Janos too favours a flat heavens interpretation. For him, it was enough that the Qur'anic firmament is likened to a bināʾ (structure) or saqf (roof) ({{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|40|64}}); They note that the word saqf originally seems to have referred to flat roofs, including in the Qur'an {{Quran|16|26}}, {{Quran|43|33}}; and arranged in layers as mentioned above - they agree with him on the strength of this latter point, though he is also open to the dome-shaped view based on tafsir sources rather than any internal evidence, while van Bladel relies mainly on pre-Qur'anic sources for his discussion of whether the Qur'anic heavens are a dome, tent or roof.<ref name="vanBladelCords" />


And the fact that they are solid is shown by references to pieces of the heavens falling and potentially injuring residents of the earth.
Further evidence that they do not mention is found in {{Quran|21|104}} and {{Quran|39|67}}, which state that the heavens will be rolled up/folded up come the day of judgement.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|39|67}}|No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!}}
 
On the other hand, the moon, and probably the sun, are within the seven heavens according to {{Quran-range|71|15|16}}, which may lend support to [[Islamic_Views_on_the_Shape_of_the_Earth#Flat_Earth_in_tafsirs|the assumption shared by some of Muhammad's companions]] and [[Islamic_Views_on_the_Shape_of_the_Earth#Classical_perspectives|various classical scholars]] that the heavens are domed, given that these celestial bodies, as well as the night and day, are said to float in a falak (see above). This verse is mentioned by Tabataba'i and Mirsadri without comment on the potential difficulty.<ref>Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' pp. 215</ref> In van Bladel's analysis of the Qur'anic cosmography, the sky has gates<ref name="vanBladelCords" />, which perhaps offers a solution (in the Syriac Alexander legend, the sun passes through gates, but in a dome rather than flat sky<ref name="vanBladelLegend" />).
 
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|15|16}}|See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?}}
 
====Solid firmaments held without visible pillars====
 
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri notice that, as with other ancient cosmologies, the Qur'anic sky/heaven is a solid object.<ref>Ibid. p. 209</ref> Unlike with the heavenly pillars in the Bible, the Qur'anic heavens are raised without visible pillars<ref>Ibid. pp. 216 and 220</ref> ({{Quran|13|2}} and {{Quran|31|10}}; Ibn Kathir in his tafsir notes two views on what is a somewhat ambiguous phrasing, as though the author was hedging his bets: "'there are pillars, but you cannot see them,' according to Ibn `Abbas, Mujahid, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, and several other scholars. Iyas bin Mu`awiyah said, 'The heaven is like a dome over the earth, meaning, without pillars.'"<ref>[http://m.qtafsir.com/Surah-Ar-Rad/Clarifying-Allahs-Perfect-Abi--- (English) Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for verse 13:2]<BR>[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=13&tAyahNo=2&tDisplay=yes&Page=2&Size=1&LanguageId=1 (Arabic) Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for verse 13:2]</ref>).
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|It is Allah who erected the heavens without pillars that you [can] see; [...]}}
 
While Tabataba'i and Mirsadri take these to be invisible pillars, Julien Decharneux in his book on Quranic Cosmology reads these verses as denying that any form of pillars hold up the firmament, noting that other verses refer to Allāh holding the heavens ({{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}}). He observes that this is in contrast to the Biblical view but in line with various Syriac Christian writings in the centuries leading up to Islam.<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), ''Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background'', Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 144-148</ref>
 
{{Quote|Aphrahat, ''Demonstrations 14:34'', quoted by Julien Decharneux<ref>Ibid. p. 146</ref>|Great are the works of God; deep and wondrous are his thoughts. He suspended the sky without pillars [d-lā ʿamūdē], and made firm the earth without supports.}}Remzā (mentioned below) commonly refers to a 'sign, gesture or symbol' in Syriac, associated with divine powers.<ref>Ibid. pp 210-211</ref>{{Quote|Jacob of Sarugh, ''Homilies 3:35'', quoted by Julien Decharneux<ref>Ibid. p. 146</ref>|[The firmament] became like an arch hanging and standing without foundation [d-lā šatīsē], borne not by columns [law ʿamūdē], but by the remzā.}}
 
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that various verses describe the heavens as a structure or edifice with no fissures, though fragments of it may fall on the earth.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|3}}|[And] who created seven heavens in layers. You do not see in the creation of the Most Merciful any inconsistency. So return [your] vision [to the sky]; do you see any breaks?}}
 
And the fact that the sky/heaven is solid is shown by the concept of pieces falling and potentially injuring residents of the earth.


{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}
These heavens are described as strong.
{{Quote|{{Quran|78|12}}|And We have built above you seven strong (heavens)}}


In fact, they are so substantial that it is even conceivable to climb up onto them using a ladder.
In fact, they are so substantial that it is even conceivable to climb up onto them using a ladder.
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{{Quote|{{Quran|6|35}}|If their spurning is hard on thy mind, yet if thou wert able to seek a tunnel in the ground or a ladder to the skies and bring them a sign,- (what good?).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|35}}|If their spurning is hard on thy mind, yet if thou wert able to seek a tunnel in the ground or a ladder to the skies and bring them a sign,- (what good?).}}


And finally, the heavens are apparently heavy enough to require physical supports of some sort. Contrary to some Muslim claims, the Qur'an acknowledges that such supports are required, but also explains that they are invisible.
It is a guarded roof (presumably a reference to shooting stars chasing devils in other verses):


{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}


The authors here take it as obvious that the heavens require support of some kind. But their emphasis is on their invisibility, not their actual absence.
{{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allāh's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).


To further expound on the nature of the seven heavens, we need additional help from the [[hadith]]. Here we learn the distances between each heaven, as well as what is on the other side of the furthermost.
To further expound on the nature of the seven heavens, the [[hadith]] are helpful. Here we learn the distances between each heaven, as well as what is on the other side of the furthermost.


{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|2|475}}|Narrated Al-Abbas ibn AbdulMuttalib: I was sitting in al-Batha with a company among whom the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was sitting, when a cloud passed above them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) looked at it and said: What do you call this?
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|40|4705}}|Narrated Al-Abbas ibn AbdulMuttalib: I was sitting in al-Batha with a company among whom the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was sitting, when a cloud passed above them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) looked at it and said: What do you call this?


They said: Sahab.
They said: Sahab.
Line 87: Line 147:
He said: And muzn? They said: And muzn. He said: And anan? They said: And anan. AbuDawud said: I am not quite confident about the word anan. He asked: Do you know the distance between Heaven and Earth? They replied: We do not know. He then said: The distance between them is seventy-one, seventy-two, or seventy-three years. The heaven which is above it is at a similar distance (going on till he counted seven heavens). Above the seventh heaven there is a sea, the distance between whose surface and bottom is like that between one heaven and the next. Above that there are eight mountain goats the distance between whose hoofs and haunches is like the distance between one heaven and the next. Then Allah, the Blessed and the Exalted, is above that.}}
He said: And muzn? They said: And muzn. He said: And anan? They said: And anan. AbuDawud said: I am not quite confident about the word anan. He asked: Do you know the distance between Heaven and Earth? They replied: We do not know. He then said: The distance between them is seventy-one, seventy-two, or seventy-three years. The heaven which is above it is at a similar distance (going on till he counted seven heavens). Above the seventh heaven there is a sea, the distance between whose surface and bottom is like that between one heaven and the next. Above that there are eight mountain goats the distance between whose hoofs and haunches is like the distance between one heaven and the next. Then Allah, the Blessed and the Exalted, is above that.}}


Ignoring the giant mountain goats which are never mentioned in the Qur'an itself, the outermost heaven lies beneath a sea that is as deep as the distances between adjacent heavens. That Allah’s “throne” is above such waters is mentioned in the Qur'an as well as the hadith.
Ignoring the giant mountain goats which are never mentioned in the Qur'an itself, the outermost heaven lies beneath a sea that is as deep as the distances between adjacent heavens. That Allāh’s “throne” is upon such waters is mentioned in the Qur'an as well as the hadith.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|7}}|It is He who created the heavens and the earth in six days—and His Throne was [then] upon the waters—that He may test you [to see] which of you is best in conduct. Yet if you say, ‘You will indeed be raised up after death,’ the faithless will surely say, ‘This is nothing but plain magic.’}}
 
There are however no mentions of galaxies, quasars, galaxy clusters or empty space. Simply water, a throne, and Allāh himself.
 
Additional details concerning the individual heavens are found in the accounts of Muhammad’s “night journey.” Rather than quoting at length, readers are referred to {{Bukhari|9|93|608}} for the long version. But here are the key points.
 
Each of the seven heavens is populated by multiple angels and a few other folks as well. These heavens are entered through doors in the solid domes, each with an angelic guard and each populated by a resident prophet. For example, immediately above the dome of the first heaven is where Muhammad met Adam, and discovered (in the absence of true geographic knowledge) the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the idea that the rivers of paradise are connected to Earth is also found in {{Bukhari|4|54|429}} and {{Muslim|40|6807}}, also likely potentially to the word 'sarab' in {{Quran|18|61}}).<ref>''Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, [https://lockwoodonlinejournals.com/index.php/jaos/article/view/1669 https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19].  https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19</ref> The second heaven is the home of the Prophet Idris. Aaron is in the fourth heaven, Abraham the sixth, and Moses the seventh.
 
====The scale (al-mīzān)====
{{Quote|{{Quran|55|5}}|The sun and the moon [move] by precise calculation,<BR />
And the stars and trees prostrate.<BR />
And the heaven He raised and imposed the balance<BR />
That you not transgress within the balance.<BR />
And establish weight in justice and do not make deficient the balance.<BR />
And the earth He laid [out] for the creatures.}}
 
A mysterious verse occurs in the 55th surah, al-Rahman. In an opening passage entirely about the signs to be seen in the creation of the heavens and earth, verse 7 says "And the heaven He raised and imposed the balance". The word translated "balance" in verse 7 is al-mīzān, used elsewhere to mean scales of justice. Academic scholars generally believe the next two verses digressing about justice in terms of literal scales were placed there by a confused editor when the Quran was compiled. As so often with 21st century academic scholarship of the Quran, the meaning has become clearer by comparing with contemporary Syriac literature. Julien Decharneux has identified a precedent in two 6th century CE writers, Narsai and Jacob of Sarugh, two of the [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature|Syriac Christian authors whose writings are often paralleled in the Quran]]:
 
{{Quote|Narsai, ''Homilies on Creation 1:47–54'' translated by Julien Decharneux<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), ''Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background'', Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 208</ref>|On the second day, the command proceeds forth: “Let there be a firmament!” And it divided the waters, half for the height [i.e. the heavenly realm] and half for the earth. “Let the firmament become a solid instrument in the middle of waters. And let it support the waters above its surface lest it be burnt up.” O Command which stiffened the waters, watery substance, and made them a solid substance that it supports the waters. O Scale [matqālā] which divided the waters, the great cistern, and gathered them in two oceans for the heights and for the abysses.}}
 
{{Quote|Jacob of Sarugh, ''Homilies 3:29'', quoted by Julien Decharneux<ref>Ibid. p. 209</ref>|He made the firmament, a dwelling-place, on Day Two. He commanded the wind which was hovering above the raging sea, and it stood between water and water to separate them. His command went into action and He separated them and weighed them [w-tqal ennūn], and set them in their places as He pleased.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|11|7}}|He it is Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days - and His Throne was over the waters - that He might try you, which of you is best in conduct. But if thou wert to say to them, "Ye shall indeed be raised up after death", the Unbelievers would be sure to say, "This is nothing but obvious sorcery!"}}
Thus it seems that here the Quran is referring to a firmament that fairly divided the waters above and below it.


There are however no mentions of galaxies, quasars, galaxy clusters or empty space. Simply water, a throne, and Allah himself.
===== The gates of the heavens =====
As Nicolai Sinai notes,<ref>''Samāʾ | heaven, sky'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412). Princeton University Press. </ref> this is further supported by the sky (al-samā) having gates, a common cosmological idea in antiquity<ref>Anthony, Sean W., Dr.. ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam.'' University of California Press. Kindle Edition. Location 1134 - 1145.


Additional details concerning the individual heavens are found in the accounts of Muhammad’s “night journey.” Rather than quoting at length, readers are referred to {{Bukhari|9|93|68}} for the long version. But here are the key points.
''The cosmological notion of humankind being blocked from accessing Paradise by gates and, thus, the existence of a heavenly gatekeeper is quite an ancient one and by no means exclusive to Jewish, Christian, or Muslim sacred cosmology. Indeed, where “the keys to heaven” as opposed to “the keys of Paradise” motif appears first in the Islamic tradition is in the Qurʾan itself.'' </ref> (see: {{Quran|7|40}}, {{Quran|15|14}}, {{Quran|78|19}}, {{Quran|5|11}} of which Allāh holds the keys {{Quran|42|12}}), of which the opening causes the water to fall and drown the people of Noah once he's safe in the boat ({{Quran|54|11-12}}; cf. Genesis 7:11 and 8:2<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%207%3A11-8%3A2&version=NABRE Genesis 7:11-8:2]. New American Bible (Revised Edition) (NABRE). BibleGateway.com. </ref>), which would seem to presuppose the Biblical notion that the firmament separates the waters above.
{{Quote|{{Quran|54|11}}|Then We opened the gates of the sky with pouring waters}}
The sky is also the source of vivifying precipitation<ref>Samāʾ | heaven, sky entry. Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary'' (p. 412). Princeton University Press. </ref> (e.g., {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|30|24}}, {{Quran|43|11}}, {{Quran|45|5}}, {{Quran|50|9}}, {{Quran|71|11}} and {{Quran|41|39}}), with it's life giving qualities to 'dead' soil shown as proof of Gods ability to resurrect the dead (e.g. Q 43:11 '“''and Who sent down out of heaven water in measure; and We revived thereby a land that was dead; even so you shall be brought forth''”), in line with the contemporary view of the qualities of the celestial waters, that are consistent with the fish miraculously regaining life in Q 18:61 and 63, that meaningfully takes place where the heavenly ocean joins the lower part of the world,<ref>''Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context.'' Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, ''(pp. 28-29)'' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19</nowiki>. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19</nowiki></ref> which Angelika Neuwirth notes is the exegetical view most in line with the Qur'anic evidence.<ref>Cosmology Entry. Space in cosmological context. Encyclopaedia Of The Qur’an. pp. 445-446. Angelika Neuwirth. 2001.  


Each of the seven heavens is populated by multiple angels and a few other folks as well. These heavens are entered through doors in the solid domes, each with an angelic guard and each populated by a resident prophet. For example, immediately above the dome of the first heaven is where Muhammad met Adam, and discovered (in the absence of true geographic knowledge) the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The second heaven is the home of the Prophet Idris. Aaron is in the fourth heaven, Abraham the sixth, and Moses the seventh.
Read online for free here: ''[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran-6-volumes-jane-dammen-mc-auliffe/page/n481/mode/2up?q=Cosmology Encyclopaedia Of The Qur’an ( 6 Volumes). Page 15/325 / 482 of 3956 of PDF]''</ref>


===The Celestial Objects===
===== And deluge from below =====
Inside the nearest heaven (i.e. less than 73 years away) are the stars and (apparently) also the sun and [[moon]]. We can be certain that the stars are inside this closest heaven, as the Qur'an is quite explicit on this point.
As Wheeler and Noegel (2010) note,<ref>Scott Noegel and Brannon Wheeler (eds.), ''The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism'', Scarecrow Press, 2010, pp. 66-68 under a section titled "Cosmology and Cosmogony":


{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}|We have indeed decked the lower heaven with beauty (in) the stars.}}
"..The Bible and the Quran share some cosmological and cosmogonic views rooted in ancient Near Eastern conceptions of the world, such as the notion of a male creator God and his battle against the watery forces of Chaos, the division of the world into lower and upper realms in which the upper realm holds sway over the lower, and a teleological view of time with a definite beginning and end with which historical existence is contrasted. ''In terms of the structure of the world, Jewish and Muslim texts basically hold to the concept of a three-storied universe. The bottom level is often described as hell or the chthonic realm that is beneath the earth. In the biblical tradition, the Earth is conceived of as floating on a vast body of water. Exod 20:4, for example, delineates the heavens above, the earth below, and the water underneath the earth.''


{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.}}
''The Quran depicts hell as consisting of liquid or boiling water with the earth spread out on top of it (Q 22:19-22, 55:43-44, 56:42-44). Hell also is described as a pit in which are the fires beneath the earth (Q 101:9-11). The great deluge is described as gushing forth from the earth (Q 54:12) and underground fountains (Gen 6:l1), perhaps reflecting an older cosmic battle myth in which water is personified as the monster of chaos that a god or hero conquers in creating and ordering the world''. Much like the classical Greek conception, the earth or the middle realm of the cosmos is envisioned as a flat disc surrounded by the world ocean on all sides. The Quran describes the earth as flat and spread out (Q 71:19), wide and expansive (Q 29:56). There are points on the earth that serve as conduits or points of contact with the lower realms (pits, caves, water sources) and the upper realms (mountains, trees, high buildings)..."


The idea that the stars might actually be objects on the scale of the sun, but much farther away was clearly missed by the authors of the Qur'an.
</ref> Muslim traditions embrace the concept of a three-tiered universe: the heavens above, earth in the middle, and hell below, often depicted as an underground, fiery, or watery realm. Alongside Islamic traditions which place it here, they note Qur'anic evidence in that it describes hell as being filled with boiling water beneath the Earth (e.g. see: {{Quran|56|42-44}}, {{Quran|55|43-44}}, and  {{Quran|22|19-22}}).


===The Sun and the Moon===
When flooding the Earth in the Qur'anic story of [[:en:Historical_Errors_in_the_Quran#Noah's_worldwide_flood|Noah and the Ark]], along with the (presumably normal) water falling from [[Cosmology of the Quran#The%20gates%20of%20the%20heavens|the gates above in the sky]] just mentioned, the great flood is also described as originating from beneath the earth, stating the waters boil in an 'oven' in contrast with those above. This water comes via springs bursting through the Earth, suggesting a connection between them to hell or at least the lower world.
{{Quote|{{Quran|54|12}}|And We caused to burst the earth (with) springs, so met the water(s) for a matter already predestined.}}
The mentioned 'oven' boiling water from the Earth to flood it could be a metaphor for hell in the following verses, as Wheeler and Noegel (2010) note it is also described as a 'pit' in which there are fires (e.g.  {{Quran|101|9-11}}).<ref>Ibid.</ref>


The sun and moon are a bit more ambiguous, as all we know is that they are in the “midst” of the heavens, and not explicitly inside the lowest of them.
The Arabic verb most commonly translated as "gushed forth" (fāra فَارَ) in the following two verses (''we have used the Arberry translation stating 'boiled''') means "boiled" in the context of water in a cooking pot,<ref>root fā wāw rā [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/20_f/217_fwr.html (ف و ر) Lanes Lexicon:]


{{Quote|{{Quran|71|16}}|And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?}}
fāra فَارَ Lane's Lexicon Dictionary [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2456.pdf p2456] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2457.pdf p2457]</ref> as well as in the other verse where the same root is used as a verb {{Quran|67|7}}.
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|Until, when Our command came, and the Oven boiled, We said, 'Embark in it two of every kind, and thy family -- except for him against whom the word has already been spoken and whosoever believes.' And there believed not with him except a few.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|23|27}}|Then We said to him, 'Make thou the Ark under Our eyes and as We reveal, and then, when Our command comes and the Oven boils, insert in it two of every kind and thy, family -- except for him against whom the word already has been spoken; and address Me not concerning those who have done evil; they shall be drowned.}}
Other evidence not mentioned by them includes the [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|warm muddy spring the sun sets in]] at night and possibly comes out of on the other side of the world.


These two lights (along with the stars and planets) follow prescribed paths along the curved walls of the solid heavenly domes.
==== The Sky-ways (asbāb) of the Heavens ====
Traditional Islamic scholarship<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, "[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'']", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. '''pp. 229'''


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</ref> has recognised that the sky/heavens (al-samā) are equipped with what appear to be pathways or conduits, aptly named sky-ways by Tomaso Tesei,<ref>Tesei, Tommaso. 2014. “''The Prophecy of Ḏū-l-Qarnayn (Q 18:83–102) and the Origins of the Qurʾānic Corpus''.” In Miscellanea Arabica 2013–2014, edited by Angelo Arioli, 273–290. Rome: Aracne.
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}


And at the end of their daily paths across the sky, the sun (and presumably also the moon and stars) pass through the earth’s flat disk near the far Western edge using openings filled with water.
As referenced in footnote 280. Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary'' (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press.</ref> called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural) in classical Arabic and in the Qur'an, that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary'' (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press.</ref> that support or run along the high edifice of heaven and which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. In effect, asbāb in the Quran are "heavenly ways" or "heavenly courses" that humans might attempt to traverse to gain access to the highest reaches of heaven, but that God alone controls<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, "[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'']", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. '''pp. 226'''


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|Until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of murky water: Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."}}
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</ref> leaving only chosen righteous individuals to ascend, like many ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern traditions, including pre-Islamic Arabic poetry using the same term.<ref>Ibid. pp. 231-232</ref> Tradition has recognised them in Q40:36-37 and Q38:10,<ref>Ibid. pp. 229</ref> in the verses Q40:36-37, where Pharaoh asks Haman to build a tower to reach the heavens (asbāb) to see the deity of Moses, but is blocked by Allāh, while in Q38:10 questions whether the heavens and the earth belong to anyone other than God and challenges others to ascend by these ways.
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|36-37}}|And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|38|10}}|Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access}}
Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.<ref>Ibid. pp. 237</ref>


Once out of view of the humans that populate the top of the earthly disc, their motion stops, and they rest for the night in particular resting places.
For other uses of 'sabab' elsewhere in the Quran, divergent views are often given by exegetes, including its literal meaning of a rope one ascends/descends by,<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000009.pdf Sa Ba Ba سبب] - Lane's Lexicon Book 1 Page 1285</ref> and separately a generic ' way' or 'road', which often results in the stretching the meaning of other words in the verses, which a further discussion of the forced meanings can be read for free in Kevin van Bladel's full 2007 article "[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", on pages 229-230.


{{Quote|{{Quran|36|38}}|And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise.}}
Van Bladel (2007) and Sinai (2023)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press.


At some point during the night, however (and here again we call to the hadith for details) the sun must negotiate its return the next day with a direct appeal for Allah’s permission.
''The sky is equipped with what appear to be pathways or conduits, called asbāb (singular: sabab), that lead up to the top of the cosmic dome and which Pharaoh vainly aspires to ascend in order to look upon God (Q 40:36–37; cf. 38:10 and 22:15; see van Bladel 2007, 228–230).<sup>80</sup> These heavenly pathways, aptly glossed as “sky-ways” (Tesei 2014, 280), would also seem to be intended in Q 18:84.85.89.92, which recount the travels of Dhū l-Qarnayn via different sababs that facilitate his extraordinary displacement from the place where the sun sets (Q 18:86) to the place where it rises (Q 18:90) to yet another place at the far edge of the civilised world (Q 18:93).<sup>81</sup>''


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|54|421}}|Narrated Abu Dhar:
''Assuming that the word sabab carries the same significance in Surah 18, on the one hand, and in Q 38:10 and 40:36–37, on the other, the heavenly pathways would seem to run not only vertically upwards to the top of the heavenly dome but also to connect distant locations on the periphery of the earth, perhaps resembling cross beams traversing the lower reaches of the heavenly dome. The literal meaning of sabab, of course, is “rope” or “cord,” and the underlying idea may be that the sky is a tent, with vertical and transverse ropes forming part of its “girding or structure” (van Bladel 2007, 234–235). Though there is plainly some tension between picturing the sky as a solid edifice and as a tent, it is quite conceivable that the Qur’an attests to different manners of imagining the heavenly dome that  were current in its cultural milieu.''


The Prophet asked me at sunset, "Do you know where the sun goes (at the time of sunset)?" I replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." He said, "It goes (i.e. travels) till it prostrates Itself underneath the Throne and takes the permission to rise again, and it is permitted and then (a time will come when) it will be about to prostrate itself but its prostration will not be accepted, and it will ask permission to go on its course but it will not be permitted, but it will be ordered to return whence it has come and so it will rise in the west.}}
''That the idea of heavenly asbāb had a wider circulation in the Qur’anic environment is, in any case, demonstrated by two verses of early Arabic poetry that van Bladel cites from a poem by al-Aʿshā Maymūn and from the Muʿallaqah of Zuhayr, both of which make reference, in parallel phraseology, to ascending “the asbāb of heaven (asbāb al-samāʾ) with a ladder (bi-sullam)” (Ḥusayn 1983, no. 15:32, and DSAAP, Zuhayr, no. 16:54; see van Bladel 2007, 231–232).<sup>82</sup>''</ref> note that the term has a specific and consistent meaning of sky-ways (rather than a normal 'way', 'pathway' or 'road' as is often translated), with most cases referring to Allāh blocking those trying to ascend them. However, in the final story, 'sabab' is used for Dhul-Qarnayn, in {{Quran|18|84}}, {{Quran|18|85}}, {{Quran|18|89}} and {{Quran|18|92}}, whom is given these sky-ways/cords by Allāh to travel across the Earth from where the sun rises to where it sets, further matching the original Syriac Alexander Legend tale Dhul-Qarnayn is based off.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, "[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf ''Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context'']", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. '''pp. 227'''


And that is the interpretation of the Statement of Allah:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</ref> This suggests that these cords (asbāb) also stretch across the sky. This interpretation is supported in some early Islamic scholars such as al-Ṭabarī (d. 923 AD) in his Qur'anic commentary, and Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam (d. 871 AD) in his Kitāb Futuḥ Misr, who have Dhul-Qarnayn being brought up them (took him up 'araja bihi) by an angel.<ref>Ibid. pp. 227-228</ref>  


{{Quote|{{Quran|36|38}}|And the sun Runs its fixed course For a term (decreed). that is The Decree of (Allah) The Exalted in Might, The All-Knowing.}}
==== The places of ascent (al-maʿāriji) ====
Also mentioned are the (l-maʿāriji ٱلْمَعَارِجِ) meaning '''A ladder, or series of steps or stairs, a thing resembling a ladder or stairway, or places of ascent''<nowiki/>'<ref>Lane's Lexicon Root: [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/18_E/062_Erj.html عرج]


With permission to rise received, the sun passes back through the earthly disk near its Eastern edge to commence the next day. While no “muddy pools” are specifically mentioned for the sunrise, the description of people living nearby the exit point mirrors the description of the [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Controversy in the Qur'an|place where the sun set]].
مِعْرَاجٌ l-maʿāriji - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_1997.pdf Lane's Lexicon p1997] </ref> where angels can ascend, as taken by many traditional and modern commentators.<ref>See: e.g. [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/70.3 ''commentaries on verse 70:3'']


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|Until, when he came to the rising of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had provided no covering protection against the sun.}}
</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|70|3}}|From Allah, Owner (of) the ways of ascent.}}
Angelika Neuwirth notes on this cosmological function "''.. imposed by God, the “Lord of the ladders.” If one understands this predication, which occurs only once in the Qur’an, in agreement with the threatening context (verses 5–7), then one would have to think of maʿārij as the ladders knotted from fraying ropes in the Christian image tradition, across which those awakened from death go over the abyss into heaven, so that only the good are safe from falling into the abyss—a conception which is also reflected in the traditional Islamic ṣirāṭ image of a rope ladder stretched across an abyss, which occurs in later literature.''"<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (Kindle Edition: pp. 186).'' Oxford University Press.</ref>


===Eclipses of the Sun or Moon===
Sinai et al. (2024) note that the word ''maʿārij,'' which corresponds to Ethiopian ''maʿāreg'' (cf. Ethiopian ʿarga , yeʿrag , “to climb up”), which in the Ethiopian Bible translation refers to the ladder to heaven that Jacob sees in Genesis 28:10, is otherwise only used once elsewhere in {{Quran|43|33}} as a profane (non-religious/normal) staircase in a house, implying this is meant to be a tangible object.<ref>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en Corpus Coranicum]


The Qur'an demonstrates no understanding whatsoever of eclipses. Perhaps this is understandable. The hadith claim that Muhammad only experienced one solar eclipse during his lifetime, an experience which frightened him into a spectacular act of piety. But the Qur'an only makes (as far as I have been able to find) a single reference to eclipses, and that is a lunar eclipse that will take place at the end of the world.
[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/70/verse/1/commentary ''Sura 70 — al-Maʿāriǧ — “The Ladder to Heaven”''] Translated and analyzed by Nicolai Sinai.  


In fact, the Qur'an actually makes a statement that would conceivably make eclipses impossible.
Chronological-literary commentary on the Koran, edited by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences by Nicolai Sinai with the collaboration of Nora K. Schmid, using preliminary work by Angelika Neuwirth. Beta version: as of October 17, 2024</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}
==== The seven paths/ways (ṭarāiqa) ====
We are told there are seven paths/ways/courses ṭarāiqa<ref>Lane's Lexicon root: [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/16_T/034_Trq.html#TaraqN طرق]


For a solar eclipse to occur however, the sun and the moon actually must (from the perspective of the earth) "catch up" to each other in their "orbits." But since the moon itself is not visible at that time, the authors of the Quran never noticed this.
Lane's lexicon - ṭarāiqa [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_1848.pdf p 1848] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_1849.pdf p 1849] </ref> above (fawqa)<ref>Lanes Lexicon root: [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/20_f/225_fwq.html فوق]


But then, when discussing the end of time the Qur'an assumes that a lunar eclipse (which can only occur when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth) can occur at the same time the sun and moon finally do “catch up” to each other.
Lanes Lexicon - fawqa [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2460.pdf p 2460] </ref> us.
{{Quote|{{Quran|23|17}}|We have indeed fashioned above you seven paths (ṭarāiqa). Never were We unaware of the task of creation.}}
Usually taken by exegetes to be a reference to the seven heavens, as they are paths for the angels, or the seven paths of the visible celestial objects moving that can be seen without a telescope known to the Arabs (the sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn).<ref>E.g. Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on ''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/23.17 verse 23:17];'' ''And verily We created above you seven paths, that is, [seven] heavens (tarā’iq is the plural of tarīqa [so called] because they are the paths used by the angels) and of creation, that lies beneath these [paths], We are never unmindful, lest these should fall upon them and destroy them. Nay, but We hold them back, as [stated] in the verse: And He holds back the heaven lest it should fall upon the earth [Q. 22:65].'' 


{{Quote|{{cite quran|75|6|end=9|style=ref}}|He asketh: “When will be this Day of Resurrection?”<BR>But when sight is confounded <BR>And the moon is eclipsed <BR>And sun and moon are united,}}
& Tafsir Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/23.17 ''verse 23:17''] also notes this refers to the seven heavens


The “uniting” of the sun and the moon not only demonstrate a singular instance when they do “catch up” with each other, but also indicate that the authors of the Qur'an believed they were comparable in size. This is of course only an illusion of comparative distance.
& Tafsir Maududi on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Maududi/23.17 ''verse 23:17''] notes the seven visible moving 'planets' by the naked eye. </ref> Modern academics on the [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en Corpus Coranicum] project note it most likely means heavens, but may also be the [[Cosmology of the Quran#The Sky-ways (asbāb) of the Heavens|asbāb / sky-ways]], mentioning: ''Ṭarāʾiq etymologically evokes the idea of ​​(walkable) paths and thus possible ways of accessing the divine presence''.<ref>Corpus Coranicum Commentary on ''[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/23/verse/1/commentary#kommentar_vers_17 Surah 23 Verse 17]''


===Night and Day===
Chronological-literary commentary on the Koran, Part 2: the Late Middle Meccan Surahs, edited by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences by Dirk Hartwig and Angelika Neuwirth. Beta version: as of November 5, 2024</ref>


The fact that the authors of the Qur'an did not realize that the sun and moon actually cause eclipses (as opposed to simply experiencing them) is similar to their failure to realize that the sun actually causes day and night. In the Qur'an, night is not simply the absence of day. Night and day are each specific, tangible creations of Allah, and they engage in a form of balanced conflict independent of the celestial bodies.
===The stars, the sun, and the moon===


{{Quote|{{Quran|3|27}}|Thou causest the night to gain on the day, and thou causest the day to gain on the night; Thou bringest the Living out of the dead, and Thou bringest the dead out of the Living; and Thou givest sustenance to whom Thou pleasest, without measure.}}
The stars are inside the closest heaven, as the Qur'an is quite explicit on this point.


{{Quote|{{Quran|3|190}}|Behold! in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day,- there are indeed Signs for men of understanding.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}|We have indeed decked the lower heaven with beauty (in) the stars.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|13|3}}|He draweth the night as a veil o'er the Day. Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who consider!}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|12}}|So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|22|61}}|That is because Allah merges night into day, and He merges day into night, and verily it is Allah Who hears and sees (all things).}}
The sun and moon are a bit more ambiguous, as all we know is that they are in the heavens, and not explicitly inside the lowest of them.


Day and night are clearly entities independent from the sun, moon or any other celestial objects. Even when considered in the same verse, night and day are independent of the sun, with no recognition that the sun causes either of them.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|15|16}}|See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|7|54}}|Your Guardian-Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and is firmly established on the throne (of authority): He draweth the night as a veil o'er the day, each seeking the other in rapid succession: He created the sun, the moon, and the stars, (all) governed by laws under His command. Is it not His to create and to govern? Blessed be Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds!}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|14|33}}|And He hath made subject to you the sun and the moon, both diligently pursuing their courses; and the night and the day hath he (also) made subject to you.}}
These two lights, as well as the night and day float in a circuitous course/sphere/hemisphere (a falak).


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}
And at the end of their daily paths across the sky, the sun (and presumably also the moon and stars) pass through the earth’s flat surface near the far Western edge using openings filled with water.
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|Until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of murky water: Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."}}
Once out of view of the humans that populate the top of the earthly disc, their motion stops, and they rest for the night in particular resting places.
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|38}}|And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise.}}
At some point during the night, however (and here again turning to the hadith for details) the sun must negotiate its return the next day with a direct appeal for Allāh’s permission.
{{Quote|{{Muslim|1|297}}|It is narrated on the authority of Abu Dharr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) one day said:
Do you know where the sun goes? They replied: Allah and His Apostle know best. He (the Holy Prophet) observed: Verily it (the sun) glides till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it falls prostrate and remains there until it is asked: Rise up and go to the place whence you came, and it goes back and continues '''emerging out from its rising place''' and then glides till it reaches '''its place of rest''' under the Throne and falls prostrate and remains in that state until it is asked: Rise up and return to the place whence you came, and it returns and emerges out from it rising place and the it glides (in such a normal way) that the people do not discern anything ( unusual in it) till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it would be said to it: Rise up and '''emerge out from the place of your setting''', and it will rise from the place of its setting. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said. Do you know when it would happen? It would happen at the time when faith will not benefit one who has not previously believed or has derived no good from the faith.}}
The hadith also occurs in {{Bukhari|4|54|421}} (note that Khan inaccurately translates maghribiki here as "the west" instead of "your setting place") where it is presented as the interpretation of {{Quran|36|38}} quoted above.
With permission to rise received, the sun passes back through the flat earth near its Eastern edge to commence the next day. While no “muddy pools” are specifically mentioned for the sunrise, the description of people living nearby the exit point mirrors the description of the [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|place where the sun set]].
{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|Until, when he came to the rising of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had provided no covering protection against the sun.}}
===Solar and lunar eclipses===
The Qur'an demonstrates no understanding whatsoever of eclipses. Perhaps this is understandable. The hadith claim that Muhammad only experienced one solar eclipse during his lifetime, an experience which frightened him into a spectacular act of piety. But the Qur'an only makes a single reference to eclipses, and that is a lunar eclipse that will take place at the end of the world.


{{Quote|{{Quran|31|29}}|’Seest thou not that Allah merges Night into Day and he merges Day into Night; that He has subjected the sun, and the moon (to his Law), each running its course for a term appointed; and that Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do?}}
In fact, the Qur'an actually makes a statement that would conceivably make eclipses impossible.


{{Quote|{{Quran|39|5}}|He created the heavens and the earth in true (proportions): He makes the Night overlap the Day, and the Day overlap the Night: He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His law): Each one follows a course for a time appointed. Is not He the Exalted in Power - He Who forgives again and again?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).}}


So, if the sun does not cause day and night, what is its purpose other than merely being the brighter of the two major celestial lamps?
For a solar eclipse to occur however, the sun and the moon actually must (from the perspective of the earth) "catch up" to each other in their "orbits." But since the moon itself is not visible at that time, the authors of the Qur'an never noticed this.


Well, it turns out that the purpose of these objects is primarily time and calendar keeping.
But then, when discussing the end of time the Qur'an assumes that a lunar eclipse (which can only occur when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth) can occur at the same time that the sun and moon finally do “catch up” to each other.


{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|He it is that cleaveth the day-break (from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquillity, and the sun and moon for the reckoning (of time): Such is the judgment and ordering of (Him), the Exalted in Power, the Omniscient.}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|75|6|end=9|style=ref}}|He asketh: “When will be this Day of Resurrection?”<BR>But when sight is confounded <BR>And the moon is eclipsed <BR>And sun and moon are united,}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for her; that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time). Nowise did Allah create this but in truth and righteousness. (Thus) doth He explain His Signs in detail, for those who understand.}}
The “uniting” of the sun and the moon not only demonstrates a singular instance when they do “catch up” with each other, but suggests that its author assumed the common perception that the sun and moon are of comparable size and distance.  


===The Stars, Planets and Meteors===
===The stars, planets, and meteors===


It is not obvious from the [[Mistranslated Verses|translations]] of the Qur'an that the authors of the Qur'an actually distinguished between stars and planets, as the same word is often translated to mean either. But as ancient peoples generally knew that planets were different from ordinary stars (they moved) it is a safe assumption that the earliest Muslims were equally aware.
It is not obvious from the [[Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)|translations]] of the Qur'an that the authors of the Qur'an actually distinguished between stars and planets, as the same word is often translated to mean either. But as ancient peoples generally knew that planets were different from ordinary stars (they moved) it is a safe assumption that the earliest Muslims were equally aware.


But the mistaken (if understandable) belief that stars are very small nearby objects is not merely reflected in the placement of them inside the nearest dome. As with most other ancient people, the authors of the Qur'an believed that meteors literally were “falling stars.” Yet with the unmistakable flavor of Arab martial creativity, they do not fall without purpose. [[Deceptive Translations of Qur'an 67:5|Verse 67:5]] tells us they are weapons against devils and jinn.
But the mistaken (if understandable) belief that stars are very small nearby objects is not merely reflected in the placement of them inside the nearest heaven. As with most other ancient people, the authors of the Qur'an believed that meteors literally were “falling stars” ''(see: [[Shooting Stars in the Quran]])''. [[Mistranslations_of_Islamic_Scripture_(English)#.2867:5.29_Shooting_stars|Verse 67:5]] tells us they are weapons against devils and jinn.


{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|And we have, (from of old), adorned the lowest heaven with Lamps, and We have made such (Lamps) (as) missiles to drive away the Evil Ones, and have prepared for them the Penalty of the Blazing Fire.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|And we have, (from of old), adorned the lowest heaven with Lamps, and We have made such (Lamps) (as) missiles to drive away the Evil Ones, and have prepared for them the Penalty of the Blazing Fire.}}
Line 197: Line 320:
This appears to be part of the protective role of the heavens.
This appears to be part of the protective role of the heavens.


{{Quote|{{Quran|72|8}}|And (the Jinn who had listened to the Quran said): We had sought the heaven but had found it filled with strong warders and meteors.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6-10}}|Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars And as protection against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].}}


===The Earth and its Denizens===
See also {{Quran|15|16-18}} and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.


The authors of the Qur'an felt a lesser need to describe the nature of the earth than the heavens, since much of the earth’s nature was obvious to the people that lived upon it. There was simply much less to explain. But the descriptions that do exist provide us with unassailable conclusions.
==== Towers ====
The term used in 15:16 is burūjan, which is commonly translated, and has been understood by most to mean 'constellations/zodiac signs' or 'great stars'. However the word can also mean 'towers', and some classical commentators have suggested this meaning (along with mansions or castles),<ref>E.g. ''Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/15.16 verse 15:16.]'' (Though the tafsir/commentary is attributed to Ibn Abbas, the prophets cousin, it is widely accepted to be at least largely a forgery - however it does give us an educated medieval Muslim's view on this verse).</ref> and some modern Muslim translators have used this interpretation.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/15.16 See Quranx on verse 15:16.]'' Ahmad Khan has used 'towers' and Marmaduke Pickthall uses 'mansions'. </ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|16-18}}|We have set in heaven <b>constellations/great stars/towers (burūjan),</b> and decked them out fair to the beholders, and We have guarded them from every outcast Satan, except someone who may eavesdrop, whereat there pursues him a manifest flame.}}
Islamic scholars Gabriel Said Reynolds<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds. 1st Edition. ''[https://www.routledge.com/The-Quran-and-its-Biblical-Subtext/Reynolds/p/book/9780415524247# The Qur'an and its Biblical Subtext.]'' Copyright 2010. Published March 1, 2012 by Routledge 2012. <nowiki>ISBN 9780415524247</nowiki>. Taylor and Francis Group.  


First and foremost, the earth is flat. Repeatedly, the authors of the Qur'an use the same word to describe the “spreading out” of the earth that Arabs used to discuss the spreading out of a “carpet,” a usage that translators often make use of.
''A full in-depth analysis of the relevant verses and evidence stated for this meaning can be found on pp 114 - 131.''</ref> and Julien Decharneux<ref>''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110794083/html?lang=en Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47)]'' Decharneux, Julien. 2023. (p. 313). De Gruyter.</ref>support this interpretation of towers on the firmament, with the idea of the skies/heavens (samā) being a protected celestial fortress in both the Quran itself (e.g. {{Quran|41|12}}, {{Quran|21|32}}) and biblically related traditions.
 
===The throne (''<nowiki/>'arsh'') of Allāh===
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|19}}|And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|20|53}}|"He Who has, made for you the earth like a carpet spread out; has enabled you to go about therein by roads (and channels); and has sent down water from the sky." With it have We produced diverse pairs of plants each separate from the others.}}
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that Allāh seems to reside in the Qur'anic heaven, while his footstool (kursi) extends over the heavens and earth and his throne (arshi) is carried by angels ({{Quran|39|75}} and {{Quran|40|7}}). This is very much similar to the Judeo-Christian view.<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' pp. 208-210</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|43|10}}|(Yea, the same that) has made for you the earth (like a carpet) spread out, and has made for you roads (and channels) therein, in order that ye may find guidance (on the way);}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|67|16|17}}|Have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not cause the earth to swallow you when lo! it is convulsed? Or have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not let loose on you a hurricane? But ye shall know the manner of My warning.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|50|7}}|And the earth- We have spread it out, and set thereon mountains standing firm, and produced therein every kind of beautiful growth (in pairs)-}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|255}}|[...] His Throne doth extend over the heavens and the earth [...]}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|And We have spread out the (spacious) earth: How excellently We do spread out!}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|7}}|Those who bear the Throne, and all who are round about it, hymn the praises of their Lord [...]}}


In fact, at one point the Qur'an even emphasizes how much flatter the earth would be were it not for the mountains that disrupt the view.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|69|15|17}}|Then on that Day, the Resurrection will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm. And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them].}}As mentioned this throne sits on the cosmic waters in {{Quran|11|7}}, as similarly described in an apocryphal and pseudo epigraphical work known as <nowiki>'the Cave of treasures''</nowiki>,<ref>''..of all the kings of the children of Israel. And at length he forgot that he was a man, and he blasphemed and said, " '''I am God, and I sit upon the throne of God in the middle of the sea'''.' And Nebuchadnezzar the king killed him...''[https://ia802705.us.archive.org/34/items/budge-1927-cave-of-treasures/Budge_1927_Cave_of_Treasures.pdf#page=207 ''THE BOOK OF THE CAVE OF TREASURES pp.127'']


TRANSLATED FROM THE SYRIAC TEXT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM MS. ADD. 25875 BY SIR E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, KT. LONDON


{{Quote|{{Quran|18|47}}|One Day We shall remove the mountains, and thou wilt see the earth as a level stretch, and We shall gather them, all together, nor shall We leave out any one of them.}}
THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY. 1927.</ref> believed by many scholars to date to the early 7th century by a West-Syrian writer, who lived in the Sasanian-controlled part of Northern Mesopotamia hundreds of miles north of the Hijaz, who took many ideas from earlier Judeo-Christian works.<ref>Minov, Sergey (2017). "[https://www.academia.edu/31601350 ''Date and Provenance of the Syriac Cave of Treasures: A Reappraisal'']". Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 20 (1): 129–229. [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/hug-2018-200105/html doi:10.31826/hug-2018-200105.]</ref>


And in the same way one would stake down a tent or a carpet to keep it from shifting or blowing away, the mountains are described as serving [[The Qur'an and Mountains|this same purpose]].
===The locations of Heaven (jannah) and Hell (jahannam)===


{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves;}}
Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that for the Qur'an, there is almost no reference to what is beneath the earth, except as no more than a geographic location. There is no explicit concept of an underworld, unlike Mesopotamian mythologies, as well as those of Egypt and Greece.<ref>Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, ''The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself'' p. 212</ref> Tabataba'i and Mirsadri (2016) also note that while there is no explicit mention of an underworld, there is one mention to 'underneath the soil/ground, which "''the waters stored there are to supply the wells and fountains and the water needed for the vegetation (Kor 39,21)''," and note that other qur'anic references imply or state this is where the waters of the rain are stored ({{Quran|23|18}} {{Quran|13|17}} {{Quran|39|21}}).<ref>Ibid. pp. 212</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|78|7}}|And the mountains as pegs?}}
The Qur'an repeatedly described [[Jannah (Paradise)]] as comprising "Gardens from beneath which the rivers flow". Though not reflected in English translations, in every instance the definite article 'al' is used i.e. "the rivers". This is also noted by Tommaso Tesei, who has detailed how "sources confirm that during late antiquity it was widely held that paradise was a physical place situated on the other side of the ocean encircling the Earth. In accordance with this concept, it was generally assumed that the rivers flowing from paradise passed under this ocean to reach the inhabited part of the world." A notion of four rivers following a subterranean course from paradise into the inhabited world also occurs in contemporary near eastern and Syriac sources.<ref>Tesei, Tommaso. [https://www.academia.edu/12761000/_Some_Cosmological_Notions_from_Late_Antiquity_in_Q_18_60_65_The_Quran_in_Light_of_Its_Cultural_Context_._Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society_135.1_2015_19-32 ''Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context.''] Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19.</ref>


Perhaps the one unclear facet of Islamic cosmology is the fact that the Qur'an mentions without explanation that there are (like the heavens), [[Earth Made of Seven Layers|seven earths]]:
Though again not reflected in many English translations, the rivers are also always described as running below/underneath (taḥt / تحت) paradise and the people in paradise (e.g. Quran verses 3:15, 3:136, 3:195, 3:198, 4:13, 4:57, 4:112, 5:12, 5:18, 7:43, 25:10, 47:12, 98:8) rather than simply 'in' (fee /في) paradise, giving weight to this interpretation.


{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|Allah is He Who created seven Firmaments and of the earth a similar number. Through the midst of them (all) descends His Command: that ye may know that Allah has power over all things, and that Allah comprehends, all things in (His) Knowledge.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|85}}|So Allah rewarded them for what they said with gardens [in Paradise] beneath which rivers flow, wherein they abide eternally. And that is the reward of doers of good.}}


The seven concentric domes of the heavens are fairly straightforward. The seven different earths are a bit more difficult to picture. One hint is given by the Qur'ans mention that in the same way “things” can “come down from” or “mount up to” the heavens, there are also things that can “come forth out of” or “enter within” the earth.
The concept also appears in numerous sahih hadiths about Muhammad's night journey which mention the Nile and Euphrates, for example:


{{Quote|{{Quran|57|4}}|He it is Who created the heavens and the earth in Six Days, and is moreover firmly established on the Throne (of Authority). He knows what enters within the earth and what comes forth out of it, what comes down from heaven and what mounts up to it. And He is with you wheresoever ye may be. And Allah sees well all that ye do.}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|7|69|514}}|The Prophet (ﷺ) added:


This leads to the conclusion that the seven earths are stacked one atop the other, similar to a stack of coins. This conclusion would certainly help us solve the one great remaining cosmological puzzle.
I was raised to the Lote Tree and saw four rivers, two of which were coming out and two going in. Those which were coming out were the Nile and the Euphrates, and those which were going in were two rivers in paradise. Then I was given three bowls, one containing milk, and another containing honey, and a third containing wine. I took the bowl containing milk and drank it. It was said to me, "You and your followers will be on the right path (of Islam)."
}}


===Where are Paradise and Hell?===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|9|93|608}}|[...]The Prophet (ﷺ) met Adam over the nearest Heaven. Gabriel said to the Prophet, "He is your father; greet him." The Prophet (ﷺ) greeted him and Adam returned his greeting and said, "Welcome, O my Son! O what a good son you are!" Behold, he saw two flowing rivers, while he was in the nearest sky. He asked, "What are these two rivers, O Gabriel?" Gabriel said, "These are the sources of the Nile and the Euphrates."[...]}}


Islamic cosmology takes a perfectly prosaic position in terms of Paradise and [[Hell]], and places them firmly within the cosmos that consists of the heavens and the earth. The description of Muhammad’s “night journey” shows each of the seven heavens already populated with the departed prophets in Paradise. This is consistent with the Qur'ans description of the size of Paradise.
Later Islamic cosmology takes a perfectly prosaic position in terms of Paradise and [[Hell]], and places them firmly within the cosmos that consists of the heavens and the earth. This is discussed with many narrations in an article on the Islamqa.info website.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/215011/where-is-paradise-and-where-is-hell Where is Paradise and where is Hell?] - IslamQA.info</ref> The description of Muhammad’s “night journey” shows each of the seven heavens already populated with the departed prophets in Paradise. This is consistent with the Qur'anic description of the size of Paradise.


{{Quote|{{Quran|3|133}}|Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden whose width is that (of the whole) of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous,-}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|133}}|Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden whose width is that (of the whole) of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous,-}}
Line 246: Line 373:
If the heavens (to include the seventh and largest) are already populated with denizens of Paradise, the width of Paradise would be precisely that of heaven and earth.
If the heavens (to include the seventh and largest) are already populated with denizens of Paradise, the width of Paradise would be precisely that of heaven and earth.


And since Paradise is on the other side of the first heaven, it follows that Hell is below the surface of the first earth, filling the spaces beneath and between the seven earths. This is consistent with the descriptions of hell as being a completely enclosed place.
And since Paradise is on the other side of the first heaven, it might seem reasonable that Hell is at the level of the lowest earth, as appears in hadith. This is consistent with Qur'anic descriptions of hell as being a completely enclosed place.


{{Quote|{{Quran|7|41}}|For them there is Hell, as a couch (below) and folds and folds of covering above: such is Our requital of those who do wrong.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|41}}|For them there is Hell, as a couch (below) and folds and folds of covering above: such is Our requital of those who do wrong.}}
Line 252: Line 379:
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|49}}|Among them is (many) a man who says: "Grant me exemption and draw me not into trial." Have they not fallen into trial already? and indeed Hell surrounds the Unbelievers (on all sides).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|49}}|Among them is (many) a man who says: "Grant me exemption and draw me not into trial." Have they not fallen into trial already? and indeed Hell surrounds the Unbelievers (on all sides).}}


Further, the direction of hell, when it is mentioned, is invariably “down.”''
And that humans who do not believe or are not righteous are told they will be put in the 'lowest of low' (which many classical tafsirs have stated means hell,<ref>E.g. ''Tanwir al-Miqbas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas on'' [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/95.5 ''verse 95:4-6'']. </ref> among other interpretations).
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|95|4-6}}|Indeed, We created humans in the best form.
But We will reduce them to the lowest of the low,
except those who believe and do good—they will have a never-ending reward.}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|52|13}}|That Day shall they be thrust down to the Fire of Hell, irresistibly.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|29}}|And those who disbelieved will [then] say, "Our Lord, show us those who misled us of the jinn and men [so] we may put them under our feet that they will be among the lowest."}}


Elsewhere, it is described as an underground dungeon.
The direction of hell on the day of judgement or from the perspective of those in paradise at least, when it is mentioned, is invariably “down.”


{{Quote|{{Quran|17|8}}|It may be that your Lord will have mercy on you, but if ye repeat (the crime) We shall repeat (the punishment), and We have appointed hell a dungeon for the disbelievers.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|52|13}}|That Day shall they be thrust down to the Fire of Hell, irresistibly.}}


And in yet another reference, an observer is directed to “look down” in order to witness a denizen of hell.
And in yet another reference, an observer is directed to “look down” in order to witness a denizen of hell.
Line 265: Line 396:
He looked down and saw him in the midst of the Fire.}}
He looked down and saw him in the midst of the Fire.}}


And so, we have the Islamic Universe in completion.
{{Quran|7|46}} mentions a partition (ḥijāb) separating paradise and hell, and {{Quran|57|13}} describes a "wall with a gate" that separates believers from hypocrites, implying that paradise is enclosed and sinners are kept outside. The heights of this partition are occupied by men, likely angelic guards, who also call out to both the residents of paradise and hell.<ref>''jannah | garden'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 195). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> Along with them calling out to each other {{Quran|7|44}}  and {{Quran|7|50}}.  


==Conclusion==
As Sinai 2023 notes, reconciling this walled, guarded image of paradise with other passages that depict it as an elevated garden on a mountaintop is challenging, however, variations in the imagery of paradise are also present in other traditions, such as Syriac Christian literature.<ref>Ibid. pp 195-196.</ref>


The Qur'an is not a book of science. As such, it makes no extended effort to describe the cosmos in the way a textbook might. Yet dealing as it does with universal questions of creation, purpose and fate it cannot avoid revealing its cosmological framework as it describes the workings of Allah.
And so, we have the Islamic Universe in completion.


In so doing, while it never comes out and says “this is the form of the universe,” a consistent and comprehensive cosmology still reveals itself. And to no surprise, this proves to be the mythical cosmos of 7<sup>th</sup> century Arabia rather than an accurate description of the real universe.
==See also==
*[[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth‎]]
*[[Geocentrism and the Quran]]
*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]
*[[The Islamic Whale]]
*[[Cosmology]] [[ru:Коранический_взгляд_на_Вселенную]]


In the Qur'an, the entire universe is very small and contains simply the earth and its surrounding heavens. There are no galaxies, other solar systems, or such a thing as “outer space.”
==External links==
 
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Djv-s8J_I5k Part 35: Seven Heavens and Seven Earths] - ''YouTube Video''
The earth is the top-most of seven, flat discs, surrounded by the seven solid concentric domes of the heavens. The celestial objects that do exist (sun, moon, stars and planets) are quite small, very close, and they follow semi-circular paths within the innermost of the seven heavenly domes. When they are not in the sky above the earth, they are resting somewhere underneath it, except while petitioning Allah’s permission to return the following day (or night). Paradise exists between the seven heavens, and hell exists between the seven earths.
 
All of this is submerged in a cosmic sea, above which is the throne of Allah.
 
{{Core Science}}
==See Also==
 
{{Hub4|Cosmology|Cosmology}}
* [[Quran Explains The Universe]] - ''Muslim article''
 
{{Translation-links-english|[[Olamning Qurondagi manzarasi|Uzbek]]}}


==References==
<references />
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[ar:علم_الكونيات_في_القرآن]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:THHuxley]]
[[ru:Коранический_взгляд_на_Вселенную]]

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The Qur'anic universe comprises "the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them". Many verses expand on the various elements of this scheme, without going into great detail. Overall, a picture emerges of a flat earth (and perhaps seven of these), above which are seven heavenly firmaments of uncertain shape (commonly assumed to be domed; more recently some historians have argued that the Qur'anic heavens are flat) and held up without visible pillars. Lamps adorn the lowest of these heavens. The sun and moon circulate in them in a partly ambiguous manner. Allāh resides in heaven above the creation, sitting on a throne. Academic work has situated this picture within the context of earlier Mesopotamian and Biblical cosmological concepts, while noting its own distinctive identity.

Relatively few modern academics have made dedicated attempts to piece together the cosmography of the Quran, in whole or in part. One of the most comprehensive such surveys has been conducted by Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri of Tehran University in 2016 (which can be read for free using a jstor.org monthly free article allowance).[1] They note that the new movement in the field commenced with Kevin van Bladel's work regarding individual elements of the picture in the context of the journeys of Dhu'l Qarnayn[2] and the heavenly cords (asbāb) by which he traversed the world, and which, for example, Pharaoh attempted to reach by building a tower[3].

By taking the Quranic descriptions in their own right and in the context of the more ancient cosmologies of Babylon and the Bible, but without appeal to later works of tafsir or hadith, which show the influence of Hellenistic (Greek) ideas acquired by the Muslims after the advent of Islam, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri argue that in various ways the Quranic cosmology has its own distinctive characteristics as well as inherited concepts, just as it interacts with the ideologies of its environment, taking some things and rejecting others. Their observations in particular are regularly cited in this article.

Cosmology of the Quran

The Heavens (al-samāwāt) and the Earth (al-arḍ)

Any accounting of the cosmology of the Qur'an must begin with the fact that the Islamic universe is extremely simple. It consists entirely of three components: "the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them" (see for example Quran 50:38), the latter of which contains such things as clouds (Quran 2:164) and birds (Quran 24:41). More often, just the heavens and earth are shorthand for the entirety of creation.

To Allah belong all things in heaven and earth: verily Allah is He (that is) free of all wants, worthy of all praise.
Quran 31:26

There is no indication of any of the other features of the universe that modern peoples take for granted. There is no concept of solar systems, of galaxies, or of “space.” There is no hint that the earth is a planet like the other planets visible from it, or that stars are other suns, just very far away. Qur'anic cosmology is primarily limited to that which is visible to the naked eye, and where it goes beyond this, invariably strays from what has been learned by scientific investigation.

The fundamental status of the “heavens and the earth” as the two main components of creation is emphasized repeatedly in the Qur'an, and it is the “separation” of the two that stands as the initial creative act of Allah (this verse has an interesting parallel in Syriac Christian literature).

Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?
Quran 21:30

Additionally, the Qur'an is clear that when Allāh created the heavens and the earth, the earth came first.

Say (O Muhammad, unto the idolaters): Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two Days, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He (and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds. He placed therein firm hills rising above it, and blessed it and measured therein its sustenance in four Days, alike for (all) who ask; Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We decked the nether heaven with lamps, and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower.
Qur'an 41:9-12

And

He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.
Quran 2:29

The Earth and its waters

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that the Qur'an "takes for granted" the flatness of the earth, a common motif among the scientifically naive people at that time, while it has "not even one hint of a spherical earth"[4] Meanwhile, certain Christian scholars of the 6th century influenced by the ancient Greeks, in dispute with their counterparts in the east, believed in its sphericity, as noted by van Bladel.[5] Damien Janos in another paper on Qur'anic cosmography has similarly noted that while the exact shape of its boundaries are not described, "what is clear is that the Qurʾān and the early Muslim tradition do not uphold the conception of a spherical earth and a spherical universe. This was a view that later prevailed in the learned circles of Muslim society as a result of the infiltration of Ptolemaic astronomy".[6]

Repeatedly, the Qur'an uses various Arabic terms that convey a flat earth, spread out like a carpet. For a much more comprehensive compilation of verses, see Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth.

And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.
Quran 15:19
And Allah has made the earth for you as a carpet (spread out),
Quran 71:19

In fact, at one point the Qur'an even emphasizes how much flatter the earth would be were it not for the mountains that disrupt the view.

One Day We shall remove the mountains, and thou wilt see the earth as a level stretch, and We shall gather them, all together, nor shall We leave out any one of them.
Quran 18:47

As Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note[7], the mountains are heavy masses described as pegs to prevent the earth from shaking.

And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves;
Quran 16:15
Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?
Quran 78:6-7

One unclear facet of Islamic cosmology is that the Qur'an likens the creation of the earth to the seven heavens:

Allah it is who hath created seven heavens, and of the earth the like thereof. The commandment cometh down among them slowly, that ye may know that Allah is Able to do all things, and that Allah surroundeth all things in knowledge..
Quran 65:12

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that the plural for the earth (al ard) is never used in the Quran, though most Muslim commentators interpreted this verse to mean seven earths. Instead, they consider the verse to be likening the earth to the heavens in shape and extent (i.e. a flat expanse) as part of a broader argument in their paper that the Qur'an describes a set of seven flat, stacked heavens (see below).[8]

In the hadiths, the idea of seven earths, one above the other is already apparent.

Narrated Salim's father: The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Any person who takes a piece of land unjustly will sink down the seven earths on the Day of Resurrection."
Sahih Bukhari 4:54:418
Sa'id b. Zaid reported: I heard Allah's Apostle say: He who took a span of earth wrongly would be made to wear around his neck seven earths on the Day of Resurrection.
Sahih Muslim 10:3923

(For a more comprehensive analysis of Islamic literature covering the the Seven Earths, see: Science and the Seven Earths).

Janos notes that Sumerian incantations dated to the 1st millenium BCE mention both the seven heavens and seven earths (citing Wayne Horowitz, who translated them as "the heavens are seven, the earths are seven").[9] Tabataba'i and Mirsadri similarly note from Horowitz that this tradition was popular in the near east in first millennia BCE and CE, though also that only the seven heavens, but not seven earths found their way into the Hebrew literature.[10]

While contrasting the Biblical view of fresh and salty waters with the two seas of certain Qur'anic verses (fresh and salty - see for example Quran 25:53 and the quest of Moses to find their junction in Quran 18:60), they note another difference to the Biblical and Mesopotamian cosmologies, which is that the Qur'an does not explicitly mention an ocean encircling the flat disk of the earth.[11]

The two seas are very much on the surface of the earth.

He hath loosed the two seas. They meet. There is a barrier between them. They encroach not (one upon the other). Which is it, of the favours of your Lord, that ye deny? There cometh forth from both of them the pearl and coral-stone. His are the ships displayed upon the sea, like banners.
Quran 55:19-24
And not alike are the two bodies of water. One is fresh and sweet, palatable for drinking, and one is salty and bitter. And from each you eat tender meat and extract ornaments which you wear, and you see the ships plowing through [them] that you might seek of His bounty; and perhaps you will be grateful.
Quran 35:12
And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period."
Quran 18:60

The seven Heavens and their denizens

The shape of the heavens

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Illustration of Qur'anic cosmography based on the analysis of Tabataba'i and Mirsadri. Their own copyrighted illustration is available in their paper[12] The shape of the heavens in the Qur'an is uncertain.

While many classical Muslim scholars, and modern academics (due to their interpretation of other ancient cosmologies) tend to assume that the Qur'anic heavens are domed, Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that there is no indication in the Qur'an that they touch the earth's boundaries. The sun and moon are placed in the heavens (Quran 71:16 and Quran 78:13), the lowest of which are adorned with lamps Quran 41:12. Janos discusses verses Quran 21:30 and Quran 36:40 in which the sun and moon (as well as night and day) move in a "falak" (an ambiguous term that may have meant a circuitous course/sphere/hemisphere - see Geocentrism and the Quran), but notes that this was not considered semantically identical with the samawat, or heavens, and they were not necessarily conceived as having the same shape.[13]

It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge.
Quran 2:29
So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command.
Quran 41:12

The following is a summary of the arguments Tabataba'i and Mirsadri employ to argue that the Qur'anic heavens are flat:[14]

  • They interpret Quran 51:47 ("We have built the heaven with might, and We it is Who make the vast extent (thereof).") to mean that the heavens are continually expanded, which favours a flat expanse rather than a dome (it could be added in that case that the next verse about spreading the earth, with the same grammatical form, too fits this view). They also consider that verses mentioning invisible pillars (see below) favour a flat, roof like firmament.
  • Verses in which the seven heavens are likened to the earth (their interpretation of Quran 67:12 mentioned above), including in terms of their width e.g. Quran 57:21 "a Garden whereof the breadth is as the breadth of the heavens and the earth".
  • These heavens are arranged in layers (Quran 67:3, Quran 71:15), which more obviously suggests flatness, and this word tibiqan is similar to the Babylonian tubuqati, suggesting that seven superimposed flat heavens is a belief they have in common.
  • While interest in the heavens (as opposed to their contents) is largely absent from pre-Islamic poetry, the poems of Umayya ibn Abī al‐Ṣalt (d. 5 / 626) likened the heavens to seven floors one above another, and the carpet shaped earth to the uplifted heaven ("And [he] shaped the earth as a carpet then he ordained it, [the area] under the firmament [are] just like those he uplifted").
  • Despite the obvious potential use of tents as an analogy for the heavens, the Qur'an does not do so. Mountains act as pegs to stabilise the earth rather than hold down a heavenly tent canopy.
  • The notion of a flat sky was common in ancient Mesopotamia and the near east (as also noted by Janos, citing Horowitz[15]) though some scholars instead say that the universal belief of the scientifically naive peoples of the world was that it was dome shaped. Those who suppose that the pre-Islamic Arabs had a dome shaped conception due to their tent dwellings ignore the evidence that Mecca was an urban environment with flat roofs.
  • They argue that the Qur'an's ideological antipathy to the Bedouins would have extended to their use of tents for pagan practices, and for this reason may have rejected any possible existing analogies with the heavens.

They note that Janos too favours a flat heavens interpretation. For him, it was enough that the Qur'anic firmament is likened to a bināʾ (structure) or saqf (roof) (Quran 2:22, Quran 21:32, Quran 40:64); They note that the word saqf originally seems to have referred to flat roofs, including in the Qur'an Quran 16:26, Quran 43:33; and arranged in layers as mentioned above - they agree with him on the strength of this latter point, though he is also open to the dome-shaped view based on tafsir sources rather than any internal evidence, while van Bladel relies mainly on pre-Qur'anic sources for his discussion of whether the Qur'anic heavens are a dome, tent or roof.[3]

Further evidence that they do not mention is found in Quran 21:104 and Quran 39:67, which state that the heavens will be rolled up/folded up come the day of judgement.

The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll.
Quran 21:104
No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!
Quran 39:67

On the other hand, the moon, and probably the sun, are within the seven heavens according to Quran 71:15-16, which may lend support to the assumption shared by some of Muhammad's companions and various classical scholars that the heavens are domed, given that these celestial bodies, as well as the night and day, are said to float in a falak (see above). This verse is mentioned by Tabataba'i and Mirsadri without comment on the potential difficulty.[16] In van Bladel's analysis of the Qur'anic cosmography, the sky has gates[3], which perhaps offers a solution (in the Syriac Alexander legend, the sun passes through gates, but in a dome rather than flat sky[2]).

See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?
Quran 71:15-16

Solid firmaments held without visible pillars

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri notice that, as with other ancient cosmologies, the Qur'anic sky/heaven is a solid object.[17] Unlike with the heavenly pillars in the Bible, the Qur'anic heavens are raised without visible pillars[18] (Quran 13:2 and Quran 31:10; Ibn Kathir in his tafsir notes two views on what is a somewhat ambiguous phrasing, as though the author was hedging his bets: "'there are pillars, but you cannot see them,' according to Ibn `Abbas, Mujahid, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, and several other scholars. Iyas bin Mu`awiyah said, 'The heaven is like a dome over the earth, meaning, without pillars.'"[19]).

It is Allah who erected the heavens without pillars that you [can] see; [...]
Quran 13:2

While Tabataba'i and Mirsadri take these to be invisible pillars, Julien Decharneux in his book on Quranic Cosmology reads these verses as denying that any form of pillars hold up the firmament, noting that other verses refer to Allāh holding the heavens (Quran 22:65 and Quran 35:41). He observes that this is in contrast to the Biblical view but in line with various Syriac Christian writings in the centuries leading up to Islam.[20]

Great are the works of God; deep and wondrous are his thoughts. He suspended the sky without pillars [d-lā ʿamūdē], and made firm the earth without supports.
Aphrahat, Demonstrations 14:34, quoted by Julien Decharneux[21]

Remzā (mentioned below) commonly refers to a 'sign, gesture or symbol' in Syriac, associated with divine powers.[22]

[The firmament] became like an arch hanging and standing without foundation [d-lā šatīsē], borne not by columns [law ʿamūdē], but by the remzā.
Jacob of Sarugh, Homilies 3:35, quoted by Julien Decharneux[23]

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that various verses describe the heavens as a structure or edifice with no fissures, though fragments of it may fall on the earth.

[And] who created seven heavens in layers. You do not see in the creation of the Most Merciful any inconsistency. So return [your] vision [to the sky]; do you see any breaks?
Quran 67:3

And the fact that the sky/heaven is solid is shown by the concept of pieces falling and potentially injuring residents of the earth.

See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).
Quran 34:9

These heavens are described as strong.

And We have built above you seven strong (heavens)
Quran 78:12

In fact, they are so substantial that it is even conceivable to climb up onto them using a ladder.

If their spurning is hard on thy mind, yet if thou wert able to seek a tunnel in the ground or a ladder to the skies and bring them a sign,- (what good?).
Quran 6:35

It is a guarded roof (presumably a reference to shooting stars chasing devils in other verses):

And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.
Quran 21:32

Quran 81:11 adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while Quran 21:104 states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and Quran 39:67 says that the heavens will then be held in Allāh's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat Quran 77:9), rent asunder with clouds (Quran 25:25), split (inshaqqat Quran 55:37, Quran 84:1, Quran 69:16 with angels appearing at its edges Quran 69:17). The heaven will become as gateways (Quran 78:19, a possibility also alluded to in Quran 15:13-15).

To further expound on the nature of the seven heavens, the hadith are helpful. Here we learn the distances between each heaven, as well as what is on the other side of the furthermost.

Narrated Al-Abbas ibn AbdulMuttalib: I was sitting in al-Batha with a company among whom the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was sitting, when a cloud passed above them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) looked at it and said: What do you call this?

They said: Sahab.

He said: And muzn? They said: And muzn. He said: And anan? They said: And anan. AbuDawud said: I am not quite confident about the word anan. He asked: Do you know the distance between Heaven and Earth? They replied: We do not know. He then said: The distance between them is seventy-one, seventy-two, or seventy-three years. The heaven which is above it is at a similar distance (going on till he counted seven heavens). Above the seventh heaven there is a sea, the distance between whose surface and bottom is like that between one heaven and the next. Above that there are eight mountain goats the distance between whose hoofs and haunches is like the distance between one heaven and the next. Then Allah, the Blessed and the Exalted, is above that.
Sunan Abu Dawud 40:4705

Ignoring the giant mountain goats which are never mentioned in the Qur'an itself, the outermost heaven lies beneath a sea that is as deep as the distances between adjacent heavens. That Allāh’s “throne” is upon such waters is mentioned in the Qur'an as well as the hadith.

It is He who created the heavens and the earth in six days—and His Throne was [then] upon the waters—that He may test you [to see] which of you is best in conduct. Yet if you say, ‘You will indeed be raised up after death,’ the faithless will surely say, ‘This is nothing but plain magic.’
Quran 11:7

There are however no mentions of galaxies, quasars, galaxy clusters or empty space. Simply water, a throne, and Allāh himself.

Additional details concerning the individual heavens are found in the accounts of Muhammad’s “night journey.” Rather than quoting at length, readers are referred to Sahih Bukhari 9:93:608 for the long version. But here are the key points.

Each of the seven heavens is populated by multiple angels and a few other folks as well. These heavens are entered through doors in the solid domes, each with an angelic guard and each populated by a resident prophet. For example, immediately above the dome of the first heaven is where Muhammad met Adam, and discovered (in the absence of true geographic knowledge) the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the idea that the rivers of paradise are connected to Earth is also found in Sahih Bukhari 4:54:429 and Sahih Muslim 40:6807, also likely potentially to the word 'sarab' in Quran 18:61).[24] The second heaven is the home of the Prophet Idris. Aaron is in the fourth heaven, Abraham the sixth, and Moses the seventh.

The scale (al-mīzān)

The sun and the moon [move] by precise calculation,

And the stars and trees prostrate.
And the heaven He raised and imposed the balance
That you not transgress within the balance.
And establish weight in justice and do not make deficient the balance.

And the earth He laid [out] for the creatures.
Quran 55:5

A mysterious verse occurs in the 55th surah, al-Rahman. In an opening passage entirely about the signs to be seen in the creation of the heavens and earth, verse 7 says "And the heaven He raised and imposed the balance". The word translated "balance" in verse 7 is al-mīzān, used elsewhere to mean scales of justice. Academic scholars generally believe the next two verses digressing about justice in terms of literal scales were placed there by a confused editor when the Quran was compiled. As so often with 21st century academic scholarship of the Quran, the meaning has become clearer by comparing with contemporary Syriac literature. Julien Decharneux has identified a precedent in two 6th century CE writers, Narsai and Jacob of Sarugh, two of the Syriac Christian authors whose writings are often paralleled in the Quran:

On the second day, the command proceeds forth: “Let there be a firmament!” And it divided the waters, half for the height [i.e. the heavenly realm] and half for the earth. “Let the firmament become a solid instrument in the middle of waters. And let it support the waters above its surface lest it be burnt up.” O Command which stiffened the waters, watery substance, and made them a solid substance that it supports the waters. O Scale [matqālā] which divided the waters, the great cistern, and gathered them in two oceans for the heights and for the abysses.
Narsai, Homilies on Creation 1:47–54 translated by Julien Decharneux[25]
He made the firmament, a dwelling-place, on Day Two. He commanded the wind which was hovering above the raging sea, and it stood between water and water to separate them. His command went into action and He separated them and weighed them [w-tqal ennūn], and set them in their places as He pleased.
Jacob of Sarugh, Homilies 3:29, quoted by Julien Decharneux[26]

Thus it seems that here the Quran is referring to a firmament that fairly divided the waters above and below it.

The gates of the heavens

As Nicolai Sinai notes,[27] this is further supported by the sky (al-samā) having gates, a common cosmological idea in antiquity[28] (see: Quran 7:40, Quran 15:14, Quran 78:19, Quran 5:11 of which Allāh holds the keys Quran 42:12), of which the opening causes the water to fall and drown the people of Noah once he's safe in the boat (Quran 54:11-12; cf. Genesis 7:11 and 8:2[29]), which would seem to presuppose the Biblical notion that the firmament separates the waters above.

Then We opened the gates of the sky with pouring waters
Quran 54:11

The sky is also the source of vivifying precipitation[30] (e.g., Quran 2:22, Quran 30:24, Quran 43:11, Quran 45:5, Quran 50:9, Quran 71:11 and Quran 41:39), with it's life giving qualities to 'dead' soil shown as proof of Gods ability to resurrect the dead (e.g. Q 43:11 '“and Who sent down out of heaven water in measure; and We revived thereby a land that was dead; even so you shall be brought forth”), in line with the contemporary view of the qualities of the celestial waters, that are consistent with the fish miraculously regaining life in Q 18:61 and 63, that meaningfully takes place where the heavenly ocean joins the lower part of the world,[31] which Angelika Neuwirth notes is the exegetical view most in line with the Qur'anic evidence.[32]

And deluge from below

As Wheeler and Noegel (2010) note,[33] Muslim traditions embrace the concept of a three-tiered universe: the heavens above, earth in the middle, and hell below, often depicted as an underground, fiery, or watery realm. Alongside Islamic traditions which place it here, they note Qur'anic evidence in that it describes hell as being filled with boiling water beneath the Earth (e.g. see: Quran 56:42-44, Quran 55:43-44, and Quran 22:19-22).

When flooding the Earth in the Qur'anic story of Noah and the Ark, along with the (presumably normal) water falling from the gates above in the sky just mentioned, the great flood is also described as originating from beneath the earth, stating the waters boil in an 'oven' in contrast with those above. This water comes via springs bursting through the Earth, suggesting a connection between them to hell or at least the lower world.

And We caused to burst the earth (with) springs, so met the water(s) for a matter already predestined.
Quran 54:12

The mentioned 'oven' boiling water from the Earth to flood it could be a metaphor for hell in the following verses, as Wheeler and Noegel (2010) note it is also described as a 'pit' in which there are fires (e.g. Quran 101:9-11).[34]

The Arabic verb most commonly translated as "gushed forth" (fāra فَارَ) in the following two verses (we have used the Arberry translation stating 'boiled') means "boiled" in the context of water in a cooking pot,[35] as well as in the other verse where the same root is used as a verb Quran 67:7.

Until, when Our command came, and the Oven boiled, We said, 'Embark in it two of every kind, and thy family -- except for him against whom the word has already been spoken and whosoever believes.' And there believed not with him except a few.
Quran 11:40
Then We said to him, 'Make thou the Ark under Our eyes and as We reveal, and then, when Our command comes and the Oven boils, insert in it two of every kind and thy, family -- except for him against whom the word already has been spoken; and address Me not concerning those who have done evil; they shall be drowned.
Quran 23:27

Other evidence not mentioned by them includes the warm muddy spring the sun sets in at night and possibly comes out of on the other side of the world.

The Sky-ways (asbāb) of the Heavens

Traditional Islamic scholarship[36] has recognised that the sky/heavens (al-samā) are equipped with what appear to be pathways or conduits, aptly named sky-ways by Tomaso Tesei,[37] called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural) in classical Arabic and in the Qur'an, that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)[38] that support or run along the high edifice of heaven and which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. In effect, asbāb in the Quran are "heavenly ways" or "heavenly courses" that humans might attempt to traverse to gain access to the highest reaches of heaven, but that God alone controls[39] leaving only chosen righteous individuals to ascend, like many ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern traditions, including pre-Islamic Arabic poetry using the same term.[40] Tradition has recognised them in Q40:36-37 and Q38:10,[41] in the verses Q40:36-37, where Pharaoh asks Haman to build a tower to reach the heavens (asbāb) to see the deity of Moses, but is blocked by Allāh, while in Q38:10 questions whether the heavens and the earth belong to anyone other than God and challenges others to ascend by these ways.

And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.
Quran 40:36-37
Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access
Quran 38:10

Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.[42]

For other uses of 'sabab' elsewhere in the Quran, divergent views are often given by exegetes, including its literal meaning of a rope one ascends/descends by,[43] and separately a generic ' way' or 'road', which often results in the stretching the meaning of other words in the verses, which a further discussion of the forced meanings can be read for free in Kevin van Bladel's full 2007 article "Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context", on pages 229-230.

Van Bladel (2007) and Sinai (2023)[44] note that the term has a specific and consistent meaning of sky-ways (rather than a normal 'way', 'pathway' or 'road' as is often translated), with most cases referring to Allāh blocking those trying to ascend them. However, in the final story, 'sabab' is used for Dhul-Qarnayn, in Quran 18:84, Quran 18:85, Quran 18:89 and Quran 18:92, whom is given these sky-ways/cords by Allāh to travel across the Earth from where the sun rises to where it sets, further matching the original Syriac Alexander Legend tale Dhul-Qarnayn is based off.[45] This suggests that these cords (asbāb) also stretch across the sky. This interpretation is supported in some early Islamic scholars such as al-Ṭabarī (d. 923 AD) in his Qur'anic commentary, and Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam (d. 871 AD) in his Kitāb Futuḥ Misr, who have Dhul-Qarnayn being brought up them (took him up 'araja bihi) by an angel.[46]  

The places of ascent (al-maʿāriji)

Also mentioned are the (l-maʿāriji ٱلْمَعَارِجِ) meaning 'A ladder, or series of steps or stairs, a thing resembling a ladder or stairway, or places of ascent'[47] where angels can ascend, as taken by many traditional and modern commentators.[48]

From Allah, Owner (of) the ways of ascent.
Quran 70:3

Angelika Neuwirth notes on this cosmological function ".. imposed by God, the “Lord of the ladders.” If one understands this predication, which occurs only once in the Qur’an, in agreement with the threatening context (verses 5–7), then one would have to think of maʿārij as the ladders knotted from fraying ropes in the Christian image tradition, across which those awakened from death go over the abyss into heaven, so that only the good are safe from falling into the abyss—a conception which is also reflected in the traditional Islamic ṣirāṭ image of a rope ladder stretched across an abyss, which occurs in later literature."[49]

Sinai et al. (2024) note that the word maʿārij, which corresponds to Ethiopian maʿāreg (cf. Ethiopian ʿarga , yeʿrag , “to climb up”), which in the Ethiopian Bible translation refers to the ladder to heaven that Jacob sees in Genesis 28:10, is otherwise only used once elsewhere in Quran 43:33 as a profane (non-religious/normal) staircase in a house, implying this is meant to be a tangible object.[50]

The seven paths/ways (ṭarāiqa)

We are told there are seven paths/ways/courses ṭarāiqa[51] above (fawqa)[52] us.

We have indeed fashioned above you seven paths (ṭarāiqa). Never were We unaware of the task of creation.
Quran 23:17

Usually taken by exegetes to be a reference to the seven heavens, as they are paths for the angels, or the seven paths of the visible celestial objects moving that can be seen without a telescope known to the Arabs (the sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn).[53] Modern academics on the Corpus Coranicum project note it most likely means heavens, but may also be the asbāb / sky-ways, mentioning: Ṭarāʾiq etymologically evokes the idea of ​​(walkable) paths and thus possible ways of accessing the divine presence.[54]

The stars, the sun, and the moon

The stars are inside the closest heaven, as the Qur'an is quite explicit on this point.

We have indeed decked the lower heaven with beauty (in) the stars.
Quran 37:6
So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.
Quran 41:12

The sun and moon are a bit more ambiguous, as all we know is that they are in the heavens, and not explicitly inside the lowest of them.

See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, And made the moon a light in their midst, and made the sun as a (Glorious) Lamp?
Quran 71:15-16
Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne (of authority); He has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth regulate all affairs, explaining the signs in detail, that ye may believe with certainty in the meeting with your Lord.
Quran 13:2

These two lights, as well as the night and day float in a circuitous course/sphere/hemisphere (a falak).

It is He Who created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course.
Quran 21:33
It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).
Quran 36:40

And at the end of their daily paths across the sky, the sun (and presumably also the moon and stars) pass through the earth’s flat surface near the far Western edge using openings filled with water.

Until, when he reached the setting of the sun, he found it set in a spring of murky water: Near it he found a People: We said: "O Zul-qarnain! (thou hast authority,) either to punish them, or to treat them with kindness."
Quran 18:86

Once out of view of the humans that populate the top of the earthly disc, their motion stops, and they rest for the night in particular resting places.

And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise.
Quran 36:38

At some point during the night, however (and here again turning to the hadith for details) the sun must negotiate its return the next day with a direct appeal for Allāh’s permission.

It is narrated on the authority of Abu Dharr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) one day said: Do you know where the sun goes? They replied: Allah and His Apostle know best. He (the Holy Prophet) observed: Verily it (the sun) glides till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it falls prostrate and remains there until it is asked: Rise up and go to the place whence you came, and it goes back and continues emerging out from its rising place and then glides till it reaches its place of rest under the Throne and falls prostrate and remains in that state until it is asked: Rise up and return to the place whence you came, and it returns and emerges out from it rising place and the it glides (in such a normal way) that the people do not discern anything ( unusual in it) till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it would be said to it: Rise up and emerge out from the place of your setting, and it will rise from the place of its setting. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said. Do you know when it would happen? It would happen at the time when faith will not benefit one who has not previously believed or has derived no good from the faith.
Sahih Muslim 1:297

The hadith also occurs in Sahih Bukhari 4:54:421 (note that Khan inaccurately translates maghribiki here as "the west" instead of "your setting place") where it is presented as the interpretation of Quran 36:38 quoted above.

With permission to rise received, the sun passes back through the flat earth near its Eastern edge to commence the next day. While no “muddy pools” are specifically mentioned for the sunrise, the description of people living nearby the exit point mirrors the description of the place where the sun set.

Until, when he came to the rising of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had provided no covering protection against the sun.
Quran 18:90

Solar and lunar eclipses

The Qur'an demonstrates no understanding whatsoever of eclipses. Perhaps this is understandable. The hadith claim that Muhammad only experienced one solar eclipse during his lifetime, an experience which frightened him into a spectacular act of piety. But the Qur'an only makes a single reference to eclipses, and that is a lunar eclipse that will take place at the end of the world.

In fact, the Qur'an actually makes a statement that would conceivably make eclipses impossible.

It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).
Quran 36:40

For a solar eclipse to occur however, the sun and the moon actually must (from the perspective of the earth) "catch up" to each other in their "orbits." But since the moon itself is not visible at that time, the authors of the Qur'an never noticed this.

But then, when discussing the end of time the Qur'an assumes that a lunar eclipse (which can only occur when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth) can occur at the same time that the sun and moon finally do “catch up” to each other.

He asketh: “When will be this Day of Resurrection?”
But when sight is confounded
And the moon is eclipsed
And sun and moon are united,
Qur'an 75:6-9

The “uniting” of the sun and the moon not only demonstrates a singular instance when they do “catch up” with each other, but suggests that its author assumed the common perception that the sun and moon are of comparable size and distance.

The stars, planets, and meteors

It is not obvious from the translations of the Qur'an that the authors of the Qur'an actually distinguished between stars and planets, as the same word is often translated to mean either. But as ancient peoples generally knew that planets were different from ordinary stars (they moved) it is a safe assumption that the earliest Muslims were equally aware.

But the mistaken (if understandable) belief that stars are very small nearby objects is not merely reflected in the placement of them inside the nearest heaven. As with most other ancient people, the authors of the Qur'an believed that meteors literally were “falling stars” (see: Shooting Stars in the Quran). Verse 67:5 tells us they are weapons against devils and jinn.

And we have, (from of old), adorned the lowest heaven with Lamps, and We have made such (Lamps) (as) missiles to drive away the Evil Ones, and have prepared for them the Penalty of the Blazing Fire.
Quran 67:5

This appears to be part of the protective role of the heavens.

Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars And as protection against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].
Quran 37:6-10

See also Quran 15:16-18 and Quran 72:8-9.

Towers

The term used in 15:16 is burūjan, which is commonly translated, and has been understood by most to mean 'constellations/zodiac signs' or 'great stars'. However the word can also mean 'towers', and some classical commentators have suggested this meaning (along with mansions or castles),[55] and some modern Muslim translators have used this interpretation.[56]

We have set in heaven constellations/great stars/towers (burūjan), and decked them out fair to the beholders, and We have guarded them from every outcast Satan, except someone who may eavesdrop, whereat there pursues him a manifest flame.
Quran 15:16-18

Islamic scholars Gabriel Said Reynolds[57] and Julien Decharneux[58]support this interpretation of towers on the firmament, with the idea of the skies/heavens (samā) being a protected celestial fortress in both the Quran itself (e.g. Quran 41:12, Quran 21:32) and biblically related traditions.

The throne ('arsh) of Allāh

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri note that Allāh seems to reside in the Qur'anic heaven, while his footstool (kursi) extends over the heavens and earth and his throne (arshi) is carried by angels (Quran 39:75 and Quran 40:7). This is very much similar to the Judeo-Christian view.[59]

Have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not cause the earth to swallow you when lo! it is convulsed? Or have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not let loose on you a hurricane? But ye shall know the manner of My warning.
Quran 67:16-17
[...] His Throne doth extend over the heavens and the earth [...]
Quran 2:255
Those who bear the Throne, and all who are round about it, hymn the praises of their Lord [...]
Quran 40:7
Then on that Day, the Resurrection will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm. And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them].
Quran 69:15-17

As mentioned this throne sits on the cosmic waters in Quran 11:7, as similarly described in an apocryphal and pseudo epigraphical work known as 'the Cave of treasures'',[60] believed by many scholars to date to the early 7th century by a West-Syrian writer, who lived in the Sasanian-controlled part of Northern Mesopotamia hundreds of miles north of the Hijaz, who took many ideas from earlier Judeo-Christian works.[61]

The locations of Heaven (jannah) and Hell (jahannam)

Tabataba'i and Mirsadri observe that for the Qur'an, there is almost no reference to what is beneath the earth, except as no more than a geographic location. There is no explicit concept of an underworld, unlike Mesopotamian mythologies, as well as those of Egypt and Greece.[62] Tabataba'i and Mirsadri (2016) also note that while there is no explicit mention of an underworld, there is one mention to 'underneath the soil/ground, which "the waters stored there are to supply the wells and fountains and the water needed for the vegetation (Kor 39,21)," and note that other qur'anic references imply or state this is where the waters of the rain are stored (Quran 23:18 Quran 13:17 Quran 39:21).[63]

The Qur'an repeatedly described Jannah (Paradise) as comprising "Gardens from beneath which the rivers flow". Though not reflected in English translations, in every instance the definite article 'al' is used i.e. "the rivers". This is also noted by Tommaso Tesei, who has detailed how "sources confirm that during late antiquity it was widely held that paradise was a physical place situated on the other side of the ocean encircling the Earth. In accordance with this concept, it was generally assumed that the rivers flowing from paradise passed under this ocean to reach the inhabited part of the world." A notion of four rivers following a subterranean course from paradise into the inhabited world also occurs in contemporary near eastern and Syriac sources.[64]

Though again not reflected in many English translations, the rivers are also always described as running below/underneath (taḥt / تحت) paradise and the people in paradise (e.g. Quran verses 3:15, 3:136, 3:195, 3:198, 4:13, 4:57, 4:112, 5:12, 5:18, 7:43, 25:10, 47:12, 98:8) rather than simply 'in' (fee /في) paradise, giving weight to this interpretation.

So Allah rewarded them for what they said with gardens [in Paradise] beneath which rivers flow, wherein they abide eternally. And that is the reward of doers of good.
Quran 5:85

The concept also appears in numerous sahih hadiths about Muhammad's night journey which mention the Nile and Euphrates, for example:

The Prophet (ﷺ) added:

I was raised to the Lote Tree and saw four rivers, two of which were coming out and two going in. Those which were coming out were the Nile and the Euphrates, and those which were going in were two rivers in paradise. Then I was given three bowls, one containing milk, and another containing honey, and a third containing wine. I took the bowl containing milk and drank it. It was said to me, "You and your followers will be on the right path (of Islam)."


Sahih Bukhari 7:69:514
[...]The Prophet (ﷺ) met Adam over the nearest Heaven. Gabriel said to the Prophet, "He is your father; greet him." The Prophet (ﷺ) greeted him and Adam returned his greeting and said, "Welcome, O my Son! O what a good son you are!" Behold, he saw two flowing rivers, while he was in the nearest sky. He asked, "What are these two rivers, O Gabriel?" Gabriel said, "These are the sources of the Nile and the Euphrates."[...]
Sahih Bukhari 9:93:608

Later Islamic cosmology takes a perfectly prosaic position in terms of Paradise and Hell, and places them firmly within the cosmos that consists of the heavens and the earth. This is discussed with many narrations in an article on the Islamqa.info website.[65] The description of Muhammad’s “night journey” shows each of the seven heavens already populated with the departed prophets in Paradise. This is consistent with the Qur'anic description of the size of Paradise.

Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for a Garden whose width is that (of the whole) of the heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous,-
Quran 3:133
Be ye foremost (in seeking) Forgiveness from your Lord, and a Garden (of Bliss), the width whereof is as the width of heaven and earth, prepared for those who believe in Allah and His messengers: that is the Grace of Allah, which He bestows on whom he pleases: and Allah is the Lord of Grace abounding.
Quran 57:21

If the heavens (to include the seventh and largest) are already populated with denizens of Paradise, the width of Paradise would be precisely that of heaven and earth.

And since Paradise is on the other side of the first heaven, it might seem reasonable that Hell is at the level of the lowest earth, as appears in hadith. This is consistent with Qur'anic descriptions of hell as being a completely enclosed place.

For them there is Hell, as a couch (below) and folds and folds of covering above: such is Our requital of those who do wrong.
Quran 7:41
Among them is (many) a man who says: "Grant me exemption and draw me not into trial." Have they not fallen into trial already? and indeed Hell surrounds the Unbelievers (on all sides).
Quran 9:49

And that humans who do not believe or are not righteous are told they will be put in the 'lowest of low' (which many classical tafsirs have stated means hell,[66] among other interpretations).

Indeed, We created humans in the best form.

But We will reduce them to the lowest of the low,

except those who believe and do good—they will have a never-ending reward.
Quran 95:4-6
And those who disbelieved will [then] say, "Our Lord, show us those who misled us of the jinn and men [so] we may put them under our feet that they will be among the lowest."
Quran 41:29

The direction of hell on the day of judgement or from the perspective of those in paradise at least, when it is mentioned, is invariably “down.”

That Day shall they be thrust down to the Fire of Hell, irresistibly.
Quran 52:13

And in yet another reference, an observer is directed to “look down” in order to witness a denizen of hell.

(A voice) said: "Would ye like to look down?" He looked down and saw him in the midst of the Fire.
Qur'an 37:54-55

Quran 7:46 mentions a partition (ḥijāb) separating paradise and hell, and Quran 57:13 describes a "wall with a gate" that separates believers from hypocrites, implying that paradise is enclosed and sinners are kept outside. The heights of this partition are occupied by men, likely angelic guards, who also call out to both the residents of paradise and hell.[67] Along with them calling out to each other Quran 7:44 and Quran 7:50.

As Sinai 2023 notes, reconciling this walled, guarded image of paradise with other passages that depict it as an elevated garden on a mountaintop is challenging, however, variations in the imagery of paradise are also present in other traditions, such as Syriac Christian literature.[68]

And so, we have the Islamic Universe in completion.

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ Tabatabaʾi, Mohammad A.; Mirsadri, Saida, "The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself", Arabica 63 (3/4): 201-234, 2016, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24811784  also available on academia.edu
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Van Bladel, Kevin, “The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, In The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context, Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 van Bladel, Kevin, "Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198 
  4. ↑ Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself p. 211
  5. ↑ Van Bladel, Kevin, Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context pp. 224-226
  6. ↑ Janos, Damien, "Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective: some notes on the formation of a religious wordview", Religion 42 (2): 215-231, 2012  See pp. 217-218
  7. ↑ Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself p. 211
  8. ↑ Ibid. pp. 211 and 221
  9. ↑ Janos, Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective p. 221
  10. ↑ Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself p. 209
  11. ↑ Ibid. pp. 213-214
  12. ↑ Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself pp. 217
  13. ↑ Janos, Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective pp. 223-229
  14. ↑ Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself pp. 218-234
  15. ↑ Janos, Qurʾānic cosmography in its historical perspective pp. 216-217
  16. ↑ Tabataba'i and Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself pp. 215
  17. ↑ Ibid. p. 209
  18. ↑ Ibid. pp. 216 and 220
  19. ↑ (English) Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for verse 13:2
    (Arabic) Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for verse 13:2
  20. ↑ Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 144-148
  21. ↑ Ibid. p. 146
  22. ↑ Ibid. pp 210-211
  23. ↑ Ibid. p. 146
  24. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19
  25. ↑ Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 208
  26. ↑ Ibid. p. 209
  27. ↑ Samāʾ | heaven, sky Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412). Princeton University Press.
  28. ↑ Anthony, Sean W., Dr.. Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. Kindle Edition. Location 1134 - 1145. The cosmological notion of humankind being blocked from accessing Paradise by gates and, thus, the existence of a heavenly gatekeeper is quite an ancient one and by no means exclusive to Jewish, Christian, or Muslim sacred cosmology. Indeed, where “the keys to heaven” as opposed to “the keys of Paradise” motif appears first in the Islamic tradition is in the Qurʾan itself.
  29. ↑ Genesis 7:11-8:2. New American Bible (Revised Edition) (NABRE). BibleGateway.com.
  30. ↑ Samāʾ | heaven, sky entry. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412). Princeton University Press.
  31. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, (pp. 28-29) https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19
  32. ↑ Cosmology Entry. Space in cosmological context. Encyclopaedia Of The Qur’an. pp. 445-446. Angelika Neuwirth. 2001. Read online for free here: Encyclopaedia Of The Qur’an ( 6 Volumes). Page 15/325 / 482 of 3956 of PDF
  33. ↑ Scott Noegel and Brannon Wheeler (eds.), The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, Scarecrow Press, 2010, pp. 66-68 under a section titled "Cosmology and Cosmogony": "..The Bible and the Quran share some cosmological and cosmogonic views rooted in ancient Near Eastern conceptions of the world, such as the notion of a male creator God and his battle against the watery forces of Chaos, the division of the world into lower and upper realms in which the upper realm holds sway over the lower, and a teleological view of time with a definite beginning and end with which historical existence is contrasted. In terms of the structure of the world, Jewish and Muslim texts basically hold to the concept of a three-storied universe. The bottom level is often described as hell or the chthonic realm that is beneath the earth. In the biblical tradition, the Earth is conceived of as floating on a vast body of water. Exod 20:4, for example, delineates the heavens above, the earth below, and the water underneath the earth. The Quran depicts hell as consisting of liquid or boiling water with the earth spread out on top of it (Q 22:19-22, 55:43-44, 56:42-44). Hell also is described as a pit in which are the fires beneath the earth (Q 101:9-11). The great deluge is described as gushing forth from the earth (Q 54:12) and underground fountains (Gen 6:l1), perhaps reflecting an older cosmic battle myth in which water is personified as the monster of chaos that a god or hero conquers in creating and ordering the world. Much like the classical Greek conception, the earth or the middle realm of the cosmos is envisioned as a flat disc surrounded by the world ocean on all sides. The Quran describes the earth as flat and spread out (Q 71:19), wide and expansive (Q 29:56). There are points on the earth that serve as conduits or points of contact with the lower realms (pits, caves, water sources) and the upper realms (mountains, trees, high buildings)..."
  34. ↑ Ibid.
  35. ↑ root fā wāw rā (ف و ر) Lanes Lexicon: fāra فَارَ Lane's Lexicon Dictionary p2456 & p2457
  36. ↑ van Bladel, Kevin, "Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. pp. 229 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198
  37. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso. 2014. “The Prophecy of Ḏū-l-Qarnayn (Q 18:83–102) and the Origins of the Qurʾānic Corpus.” In Miscellanea Arabica 2013–2014, edited by Angelo Arioli, 273–290. Rome: Aracne. As referenced in footnote 280. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press.
  38. ↑ Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press.
  39. ↑ van Bladel, Kevin, "Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. pp. 226 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198
  40. ↑ Ibid. pp. 231-232
  41. ↑ Ibid. pp. 229
  42. ↑ Ibid. pp. 237
  43. ↑ Sa Ba Ba سبب - Lane's Lexicon Book 1 Page 1285
  44. ↑ Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 411-412). Princeton University Press. The sky is equipped with what appear to be pathways or conduits, called asbāb (singular: sabab), that lead up to the top of the cosmic dome and which Pharaoh vainly aspires to ascend in order to look upon God (Q 40:36–37; cf. 38:10 and 22:15; see van Bladel 2007, 228–230).80 These heavenly pathways, aptly glossed as “sky-ways” (Tesei 2014, 280), would also seem to be intended in Q 18:84.85.89.92, which recount the travels of Dhū l-Qarnayn via different sababs that facilitate his extraordinary displacement from the place where the sun sets (Q 18:86) to the place where it rises (Q 18:90) to yet another place at the far edge of the civilised world (Q 18:93).81 Assuming that the word sabab carries the same significance in Surah 18, on the one hand, and in Q 38:10 and 40:36–37, on the other, the heavenly pathways would seem to run not only vertically upwards to the top of the heavenly dome but also to connect distant locations on the periphery of the earth, perhaps resembling cross beams traversing the lower reaches of the heavenly dome. The literal meaning of sabab, of course, is “rope” or “cord,” and the underlying idea may be that the sky is a tent, with vertical and transverse ropes forming part of its “girding or structure” (van Bladel 2007, 234–235). Though there is plainly some tension between picturing the sky as a solid edifice and as a tent, it is quite conceivable that the Qur’an attests to different manners of imagining the heavenly dome that  were current in its cultural milieu. That the idea of heavenly asbāb had a wider circulation in the Qur’anic environment is, in any case, demonstrated by two verses of early Arabic poetry that van Bladel cites from a poem by al-Aʿshā Maymūn and from the Muʿallaqah of Zuhayr, both of which make reference, in parallel phraseology, to ascending “the asbāb of heaven (asbāb al-samāʾ) with a ladder (bi-sullam)” (Ḥusayn 1983, no. 15:32, and DSAAP, Zuhayr, no. 16:54; see van Bladel 2007, 231–232).82
  45. ↑ van Bladel, Kevin, "Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. pp. 227 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198
  46. ↑ Ibid. pp. 227-228
  47. ↑ Lane's Lexicon Root: عرج مِعْرَاجٌ l-maʿāriji - Lane's Lexicon p1997
  48. ↑ See: e.g. commentaries on verse 70:3
  49. ↑ Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (Kindle Edition: pp. 186). Oxford University Press.
  50. ↑ Corpus Coranicum Sura 70 — al-Maʿāriǧ — “The Ladder to Heaven” Translated and analyzed by Nicolai Sinai. Chronological-literary commentary on the Koran, edited by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences by Nicolai Sinai with the collaboration of Nora K. Schmid, using preliminary work by Angelika Neuwirth. Beta version: as of October 17, 2024
  51. ↑ Lane's Lexicon root: طرق Lane's lexicon - ṭarāiqa p 1848 & p 1849
  52. ↑ Lanes Lexicon root: فوق Lanes Lexicon - fawqa p 2460
  53. ↑ E.g. Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on verse 23:17; And verily We created above you seven paths, that is, [seven] heavens (tarā’iq is the plural of tarīqa [so called] because they are the paths used by the angels) and of creation, that lies beneath these [paths], We are never unmindful, lest these should fall upon them and destroy them. Nay, but We hold them back, as [stated] in the verse: And He holds back the heaven lest it should fall upon the earth [Q. 22:65].  & Tafsir Ibn Kathir on verse 23:17 also notes this refers to the seven heavens & Tafsir Maududi on verse 23:17 notes the seven visible moving 'planets' by the naked eye.
  54. ↑ Corpus Coranicum Commentary on Surah 23 Verse 17 Chronological-literary commentary on the Koran, Part 2: the Late Middle Meccan Surahs, edited by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences by Dirk Hartwig and Angelika Neuwirth. Beta version: as of November 5, 2024
  55. ↑ E.g. Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs on verse 15:16. (Though the tafsir/commentary is attributed to Ibn Abbas, the prophets cousin, it is widely accepted to be at least largely a forgery - however it does give us an educated medieval Muslim's view on this verse).
  56. ↑ See Quranx on verse 15:16. Ahmad Khan has used 'towers' and Marmaduke Pickthall uses 'mansions'.
  57. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds. 1st Edition. The Qur'an and its Biblical Subtext. Copyright 2010. Published March 1, 2012 by Routledge 2012. ISBN 9780415524247. Taylor and Francis Group. A full in-depth analysis of the relevant verses and evidence stated for this meaning can be found on pp 114 - 131.
  58. ↑ Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background (Studies in the History and Culture of the Middle East Book 47) Decharneux, Julien. 2023. (p. 313). De Gruyter.
  59. ↑ Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself pp. 208-210
  60. ↑ ..of all the kings of the children of Israel. And at length he forgot that he was a man, and he blasphemed and said, " I am God, and I sit upon the throne of God in the middle of the sea.' And Nebuchadnezzar the king killed him...THE BOOK OF THE CAVE OF TREASURES pp.127 TRANSLATED FROM THE SYRIAC TEXT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM MS. ADD. 25875 BY SIR E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, KT. LONDON THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY. 1927.
  61. ↑ Minov, Sergey (2017). "Date and Provenance of the Syriac Cave of Treasures: A Reappraisal". Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 20 (1): 129–229. doi:10.31826/hug-2018-200105.
  62. ↑ Mohammad Ali Tabatabaʾi and Saida Mirsadri, The Qurʾānic Cosmology, as an Identity in Itself p. 212
  63. ↑ Ibid. pp. 212
  64. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso. Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity in Q 18:60–65: The Quran in Light of Its Cultural Context. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 135, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 2015, pp. 19–32, https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.135.1.19.
  65. ↑ Where is Paradise and where is Hell? - IslamQA.info
  66. ↑ E.g. Tanwir al-Miqbas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas on verse 95:4-6.
  67. ↑ jannah | garden Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 195). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.
  68. ↑ Ibid. pp 195-196.
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