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Other Traditions

Alongside the main consensus from Biblical Scholars that Jesus was really an eschatological preacher in the early first century AD who believed the Earth would end during his time and therefore couldn't be the Muslim Jesus, there are many other of the most considered authentic teachings of Jesus that clash with Islam considering the message of Messenger Uniformitarianism (cite Durie - reuse 51 citation),^[1] where all messengers from God/Allah are outside of minor variations said to essentially preach the same thing.

While the large differences between the New Testament / Gospels / Christian Jesus and the Muslim Jesus are clear to anyone who has read both the Qur'an and NT, (which takes from apocrypha considered inauthentic by NT scholars,^[2] and later Christian thought/writings ) are too large to list here, a summary of some of the most likely authentic traditions from Biblical historians (using historical-critical methods not Christian or Muslim theologians) are shown here as an example of the clashes.

- m but clearly differences to anyone familiar (usually put down to biblical corruption?) as new and late antique ideas take over, however even if one accepts biblical corruption idea, looking at the most likely saying from a historical critical view, notes many that are likely truly said by the real historical figure (biblical scholar 0 n skin in the game with Islam) For example - list them out here

Why - different to time and context, across all early sources etc.

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[number these and link rebuttal below somehow? - only quote the traditions that are

Dale/Allison (2009) notes that Jesus' banning divorce was an important teaching that stood out to early Christians, in contrast to Judaism (Deuteronomy 24:1-4) and Islam e.g. Quran 2:228-232, Q65:1-7, (Q4:19 https://quranx.com/hadiths/4.19 & Q4:35), Q33:49 ) -----------------------------------------------------------------

Father son Hebrew relationship Jesus used distinctly abandoned, instead using other things (other metaphors) in Arab society to describe the relationship between humans and God, such as a slave-master relationship,^[3] a Patron - Protege (needs explanation of what this is) ^[4]. having strongly condemned the idea that God could have offspring against the unscripted pagans (mushrikun) taking angels as daughters of god, then against God having a son^[5]

Lote tree's are a real type of tree (Ziziphus spina-christi) native to Arabia and the Middle East.^[6] Different to the tree of eternity/immortality (shajarati ul-khul'di) in paradise jannah, the Qur'an mentions The Lote Tree (sidr) of the utmost boundary (al-muntahā)^[7] near (but notably not in) the 'garden of abode', said to be 'covered' yaghshā by something unspecified in Q53:16, typically taken by exegetes to mean by angels, light and/or golden animals.^[8]

This furthest boundary/limit is said in the hadith, to place the cosmic tree in the sixth heaven, where even celestial creatures cannot go beyond as the limit of creation; said to be seen by Muhammad in his Night Journey (mi’rāj) on the Buraq (E.g. Sahih Muslim 1:329, Jami` at-Tirmidhi 5:44:3276, Sahih Bukhari 5:58:227 & Sunan an-Nasa'i 1:5:452), and by many Islamic exegetes.^[9]

This would align the cosmology of Islamic traditions supporting the idea that paradise (and therefore the garden of the abode) is in the seventh heaven,^[10] while some traditions support the idea that paradise is above the seventh heaven,^[11] both placing the tree relatively close to jannah. However others suggest that this specific garden of the abode (jannatu l-mawā) is a separate garden/paradise to the eternal one all righteous Muslims will eventually enter, being instead one where martyrs (those killed in war or for their religion) go before judgement day.^[12]

Either way there is no evidence of a celestial tree, which must be magic to survive outside of an Earthly plant ecosystem, but is rather an example of tree mythology.

(See also: https://sunnah.com/mishkat:5865 & https://sunnah.com/mishkat:5640, ) read; https://quranx.com/tafsirs/53.14 - exegetes also confirm this is where boundary is the boundary of the skies/heavens where things other than God cannot pass (at least until judgement day where paradise and hell can be entered).

AND Similarly seen next to the 4 main Near-East rivers (Nile, Euphratesm Tigres,) https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5610, which area said to flow from paradise: https://quranx.com/Hadith/Bukhari/USC-MSA/Volume-5/Book-58/Hadith-227/ )

cite: https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/107126/the-location-of-paradise-now#:~:text=Paradise%20that%20Allaah%20promised%20for,are%20many%20texts%20proving%20this.

The utmost boundary at the end of t heavens confirmed by exegetes in https://quranx.com/tafsirs/53.14

" Jannat al-ma'va' literally means "the Jannat (Garden) that is to be an abode. " Hadrat Hasan Basri says that this is the same Jannat which the believers and righteous will be given in the Hereafter, and from this same verse he has argued that that Jannat is in the heavens. Qatadah says that this is the Jannat in which the souls of the martyrs are kept; it does not imply the Jannat that is to be given in the Hereafter. Ibn 'Abbas also says the same but adds that the Jannat to be granted to the believers in the Hereafter is not in the heavens but here on the earth.

Following on from Part 1, this is Part 2 of Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature found in the Qur'an. This material, drawing heavily on rabbinical commentaries on the bible, and late Syriac Christian thought found in homilies, was created far later than the biblical cannon; no-where near the time of the events that occurred. This suggests the stories were transmitted in an oral millennia along with local Arabian traditions^[13] where biblical and much later Jewish and Christian stories could be commonly mixed without the new community realizing.

Just like people on earth are not equal, with many having different ranks 'darajāt'^[14] (e.g. men are a rank above women Quran 2:228, some messengers are ranked higher than others Quran 2:253, and people generally Quran 6:165),^[15] those in the afterlife among the believers similarly have different ranks/degrees.^[16] Sinai (2023) notes verses such as Quran 8:2-4, Quran 20:75, Quran 4:95–96, Quran 9:20 and Quran 58:11 suggest that degrees of belief, action, and knowledge appear lead to these differences in eschatological rewards.^[17] This idea is further confirmed in hadith, such as Sahih Bukhari 9:93:519 and Qur'anic commentaries.^[18]

He notes a parallel that paradise comprises different ranks/orders is found in Ephrem's Hymns of Paradise (e.g. 2:10-13), and the vocabulary he employs in this context includes the Syriac word dargā, a cognate of the Arabic darajah used in the Qur'an.^[19] And that both the present world and the hereafter are portrayed as hierarchical, with earthly dualities (e.g., day/night, male/female) foreshadowing ultimate salvation or damnation - and that this way of thinking (worldly structures anticipate the stratified reality of the afterlife) parallels other traditions, such as Ephrem’s view of paradise as prefigured in sacred history (e.g., on Noah’s ark).^[19]

Reynolds notes that behind these verses is a legend found in the Talmud (Babylonian Talmud Gittin 68a-b) about demons who help Solomon build the Jerusalem temple (the Arabic word for elevated chamber in v. 13 is the same as is used for the Jerusalem temple sanctury in Quran 3:37-39). ^[20] It appears to stem from an idosyncratic exegesis on Solomon's words in Ecclesiastes 2:8.

Qur'anic Account

The story of the Queen of Sheba is an ancient one, dating back to the Old Testament (1 Kgs. 10:1-10 and 2 Chr. 9:1-12). Josephus also makes mention of the Queen of Sheba, as does the Qur'an, which interestingly embellishes the Old Testament account with the episodes of the hoopoe and the Queen of Sheba exposing her legs.

Below is the Quranic account of the story:

Targum Sheni

Regarding the above passage, Reynolds cites the Targum Sheni 1:1-3 (also known as The Second Targum of Esther).^[21] The Targums were translations (in this case, Aramaic) of the Hebrew scriptures, often with significant exegesis, paraphrase, or additional tales interwoven with the text.

A few verses earlier, Quran 27:16-17 also has a parallel at the start of the same Targum Sheni passage. Reynolds remarks that "The Qurʾān's declaration that Solomon was taught the 'speech of the birds' (v. 16) and that his army included 'jinn, humans and birds' (v. 17) reflects the Second Targum of Esther (the date of which is disputed, but may date originally from the fourth century AD; On its relationship with the Qurʾān see BEQ, 390-91; 393-98)."^[22] However, it must be cautioned that the date of the Targum Sheni (Second Targum of Esther) is extremely uncertain. It has received various datings from the 4th to 11th centuries AD (as Reynolds also mentions), though certainly in its final redaction includes material which post-dates the lower end of that range.^[23]

Dozens of details correspond between this passage and the Quranic verses when they are compared:

One cannot be too dogmatic about this parallelism, as the dating of Targum Sheni is not beyond doubt. Nevertheless, it is likely that the story of the Queen of Sheba pre-dates the Qur'an as the Targum is mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud. It is also clear that the post-Quranic dates often ascribed to Targum Sheni are that of the final redaction and not necessarily that of the Queen of Sheba myths.

According to Reynolds, Jacob's instruction to his sons to enter through different gates rather than one is a Midrashic tale found in Genesis Rabbah 91:6 "Do not enter through one gate."^[25]

In two verses the Quran states that Allah created every living thing from water:

It is significant that the first of the two verses, 21:30, is explicitly about the creation of the world. Reynolds notes an earlier parallel taught by the Syriac church father Ephrem (d. 373 CE). He writes, "[...] Ephrem, who explains that God created everything through water: 'Thus, through light and water the earth brought forth everything.' Ephrem, Commentary on Genesis, 1:1-10)."^[26] Ephrem's comment is in the context of the Genesis creation story, much like the first Quranic verse, 21:30. Ephrem says that when heaven and earth were created there were no trees or vegetation as it had not yet rained, so a fountain irrigated the earth. Tafsirs say that when the heaven and earth were separated rain fell so that plants could grow. There is also a similarity with Ephrem in the other verse (24:45), which mentions creatures that move on two, four or no legs. Ephrem explains that as well as the "trees, vegetation and plants", the "Scripture wishes to indicate that all animals, reptiles, cattle and birds came into being as a result of the combining of earth and water".^[27]

Reynolds (2020) notes that the idea that women should suckle their children for two years has a basis in the Talmud (b. Ketubbot 60a).^[28]

The prophet Noah is portrayed extremely differently to the one in Genesis,^[29] taking on Jewish and Christian traditions, characteristics, as well as terms from late antique Judeo-Christian writings,^[30] molded to suit Muhammad's situation in line with other messengers in the Qur'an.^[31]

The preaching of Noah

Surah 71 consists entirely of the preaching of Noah and his supplications to Allah.

Reynolds remarks that "The Qur'ānic character of Noah is quite unlike that of the Noah in Genesis, who does not speak a word until after the flood." Citing the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 108a, he observes that "[his preaching] is also suggested by a passage in the Talmud:

"The righteous Noah rebuked them, urging, 'Repent; for if not, the Holy One, blessed be He, will bring a deluge upon you and cause your bodies to float upon the water like gourds, as it is written, He is light [i.e., floats] upon the waters. Moreover, ye shall be taken as a curse for all future generations.' (b. Sanhedrin 108a)"

Reynolds further notes, "It is also prominent in the Syriac fathers, several of whom report that Noah preached to his people for a hundred years before God finally sent the flood." citing for example the Syriac authors Narsai, "On the Flood", 33, II. 227-30 and Jacob of Serugh, Homilies contre les juifs, 70, homily 2, II. 37-40.^[32]

The opponents reject Noah's preaching despite him doing so 'day and night' (Quran 71:5-6) in which they respond by putting their fingers in their ears Quran 71:7, on which Neuwirth (2024) notes that "the means of plugging one’s ears in order to shut oneself off from unpleasant news is also encountered in the Talmud (bKetubbot 5a)."^[33]

Noah's disbelieving wife

The Bible briefly mentions Noah's wife in one verse without further comment (Genesis 7:7), "And Noah and his sons and his wife and his sons’ wives entered the ark to escape the waters of the flood." Regarding the Quranic verse which speaks of her negatively, Reynolds briefly considers the possibility that the Quran has extended to their wives the parallelism between Noah (though not his wife) and Lot found in the New Testament (2 Peter 2), but then comments, "However, it is important to note that already in the pre-Islamic period certain groups had developed hostile legends about Noah's wife." He cites Epiphanius (d. 403 CE), Panarion 2:26, which relates the Gnostic belief that she was not allowed onto the ark, having burned it down three times before the flood.^[34]

Noah's flood waters overflowed from an oven

The Qur'anic version of the Noah's flood story describes the flood waters as overflowing from an oven. This element is not found even in more ancient versions of the story (Epic of Gilgamesh, Atra hasis, and Ziusudra).

Note that in his translation, Yusuf Ali mistranslates the Aramaic loan word for the oven (alttannooru ٱلتَّنُّورُ)^[35] as "fountains". The Arabic verb translated "gushed forth" (fara فَارَ) means overflowed or boiled in the context of water in a cooking pot^[36], as well as in the other verse where it is used, Quran 67:7. Here is Pickthall's more accurate translation:

At one time academic scholars thought this verse alluded to a Midrashic exegesis in which the flood waters were boiling hot (b. Sanhedrin 108b, Rosh Hashanah 12a:4). More recent scholarship, particularly by Olivier Mongellaz in 2024,^[37] has identified that these verses most likely reflect a late antique legend in which water gushing up through a bread oven (a large hole dug into the ground) was a sign warning Noah's family of the imminent flood. The interpretation as Noah's own oven is attributed to a number of early commentators (such as Ibn Abbas, Mujahid), while others understood it to be the area of land where the flood waters first rose. Qurtubi said: "The sayings of commentators appear to be different as to the meaning of tannur, but this, in reality, is not a difference. When water began to bulge out, it overflowed from the bread baking oven, and from out of the surface of the land". Significantly, Mongellaz has argued on literary grounds that a fragmentary Arabic text falsely attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, and which mentions the overflowing bread oven story, is independent of the Islamic tradition and was originally written in a very specific environment which has parallels with the context in which certain parts of the Quran were written.

Noah's ark left behind as a sign

Unlike the bible, which does not mention the ark as a sign for future generations, Neuwirth (2024) notes the salvation of Noah is made physically plausible to the listeners through the reference to the material verifiability of the ark, which could be taken from various late antique traditions, for example Flavius Josephus (b. 37AD) reports in the Jewish Antiquities (I 3.5 § 92) of the existence of the remains of Noah’s ark in Armenia (Clementz 1959: 22).^[38] She also notes that the appeal to the willingness of the listeners to be admonished by the sign (āya) of Noah’s ark is also reminiscent of the Talmudic story (bSanhedrin 96a) of the death of Sennacherib, who was led to a fateful decision by seeing the remains of Noah’s ark.^[38]

Alongside the biblical account of Moses and the Pharoah, there are some key aspects that match Jewish Rabbinic and Christian non-biblical traditions. Even the place where Moses communicates with God in the story of the burning bush, the word used ṭuwan in e.g. Quran 20:12 (for the folded land, implying double the holiness)^[39] does not have a parallel in the bible,^[40] but does in other Judeo-Christian (later) works.^[41] And the idea of eschatology in Moses's story such as Quran 20:15, with reward in the afterlife being mentioned, is not contained in the biblical story of Moses, Neuwirth (2024) notes moves the story into a late antiquity interpretation.^[42] Key details in the stories include:

The prophecy of baby Moses

Alongside the scene of Exodus 1:8-2:10 where the Hebrews in Egyptian bondage are told to kill all male babies to control the growing Israelite population, where Moses's mother places his basket in the Nile to escape; Neuwirth (2024) citing Speyer, notes that the prophecy to Moses’s mother that an enemy—of Moses as well as of God himself—would take him in reflects a Midrashic interpretation of Exodus Rabba (1:31: “So the daughter of Pharaoh raised the daughter, who was once to take revenge on her father”). The event is explicitly based on a divine intention, namely, to make Moses his chosen one.^[43]

And similarly the next verse unlike the bible focuses on the emotional impact of the event on Moses’s mother, Neuwirth notes is comparable to Midrash Exodus Rabba 1:25.^[44] Moses's salvation from persecution after manslaughter is commemorated with similar consideration of Moses’s mental condition.^[45]

Moses not suckled by Egyptians

Reynolds comments, "On this passage cf. Exodus 2:7-9. The Qurʾān's declaration (v. 12) 'We had forbidden him to be suckled by any nurse' (v. 12) reflects a tradition in the Babylonian Talmud that Moses (from whose mouth would come forth the word of God) refused the impure breasts of the Egyptian women:

Then said his sister to Pharaoh's daughter, Shall I go and call thee a nurse of the Hebrew women? Why just 'of the Hebrew women'? - It teaches that they handed about to all the Egyptian women but he would not suck. He said: Shall a mouth which will speak with [God] suck what is unclean! (b. Sotah 12b)"^[46]

Moses's speech impediment

Moses has some kind of speech impediment when going to speak to Pharaoh in the Qurʾān.

Biblical Scholar James Kugel (1997)^[47] notes that later Jewish and Christian commentators found it necessary to explain Moses's statement in the Old Testament “Oh my Lord, I am not a man of words … but I am heavy of speech and heavy of tongue” (Exodus 4:10), as he was believed to be a highly educated man who had been supposedly been schooled in every branch of wisdom, including eloquence.

He notes "it occurred to interpreters that Moses might have been referring here not to any lacuna in his education, but to an actual speech defect, some physical deformity of his mouth or tongue that prevented him from speaking in the usual fashion." We see this in:^[48]

"I am not by nature eloquent; my tongue with difficulty speaks, I stammer, so that I cannot speak before the king." —Ezekiel the Tragedian, Exaggē 113– 115 (3rd-2nd century BCE)

He [Moses] pleased his parents by his beauty, but grieved them by his speech impediment. —Ephraem, Commentary on Exodus 2: 4 (d. 373 AD)

Others even added stories on how he might have acquired that deformity, such as Josephus in Jewish Antiquities 2: 232– 236 (published ~93/94 AD), connecting their explanation of Moses’ speech problems to the tradition of Pharaoh’s wise men and their warnings about a boy that might grow up and save Israel.^[49]

Pharaohs questions

Neuwirth (2024) comments that the list of further detailed questions to Moses in Surah 26 'The Poets' / al-shuʿarāʾ (i.e. in Quran 26:22-29), citing Speyer, reflect a more detailed episode from Midrash Exodus Rabba 5:18, which also starts from Pharaoh’s self-praise as God.^[50]

The Drowning of Pharaoh

Reynolds comments, "The question of Pharaoh's survival appears in an opinion found in the (late fourth century AD) Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (cr. Gavin McDowell):

"And the waters returned and covered the chariot etc. [Exo 14:27]. Even Pharaoh, according to the words of R. Judah, as it is said, 'The chariots of Pharaoh and his force, etc.' [Exo 15:4]. R. Nehimiah says: Except for Pharaoh. About him it says, 'However, for this purpose I have let you live' [Exo 9:16]. Others say that in the end Pharaoh went down and drowned, as it is said, 'Then went the horse of Pharaoh, etc.' [Exo 15:19]. (Beshallah 7)"^[51]

Main article: Shooting Stars in the Quran

The idea of shooting stars chasing away eavesdropping devils has Zoroastrian, Jewish, and probably Arabian roots. This was noted by Patricia Crone in the commentary published following the 2012-13 Qur'an Seminar (a series of academic conferences).^[52] She argues that though the Zoroastrian sources were written after the Quran, their contents date to the Sassanian period, before the rise of Islam. Here the fixed stars and constellations are warriors led by the sun and moon to repel demons represented by moving bodies (planets and comets) from passing to the upper heaven. It is in the Jewish Testament of Solomon (1st to 3rd century CE) where the demons who fly up among the stars are not warriors but rather try to listen into God's decisions about men. Here, people see shooting stars as the exhausted demons falling back to earth. Eavesdropping demons also feature in the Babylonian Talmud.

The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in Quran 22:65 and Quran 35:41 with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth.

In his 2023 academic book on Quranic cosmology, Julien Decharneux observes that the 6th century CE Syriac Christian writer Jacob of Serugh repeatedly used birdflight as an illustration of the concept of remzā ("[The remzā] is, both in Narsai and Jacob, the medium through which God’s power operates."^[53]) A very close similarity with Q. 16:79 can be seen in this homily:

A more elaborat passage makes the parallel with the Quranic concept clearer:

Just as the Quran uses the same verb to say that Allah holds up the birds and the heavens (as noted above), Jacob uses the concept of remzā (God's action in the world) also for the firmament.

Reynolds (2020) notes the repeated argument that God can resurrect the dead using the analogy that he can bring life back to barren (or dead) land may be connected to a Jewish tradition that God will resurrect the dead with dew, for example, in b. Shabbat 88b.^[57]

Cf: Quran 16:65, Quran 43:11, Quran 50:6-11, Quran 57:17

The idea of multiple layered heavens above each other, including seven among other numbers, dates back to at least ancient Mesopotamian times.^[58] The seven skies/heavens however, are not mentioned in the bible, though a 'third' heaven is specifically mentioned in the new Testament with Corinthians 12:2. Reynolds (2018) notes that the cosmology of seven heavens specifically however is found in both Jewish Talmudic and apocrypha texts (e.g., BT, Ḥagīgā, 12b) and Christian traditions (e.g. church fathers, Irenaeus (Proof of the Apostolic Preaching 9); in the Ascension of Isaiah, a composite text extant in Ethiopic with Jewish origins but redacted by Christians, Isaiah travels to the seventh heaven.^[59] Other non-biblical Judeo-Christian works range in the number of heavens, including three (family α of Testament of Levi),  five (3 Baruch), and seven (long and shorter recensions of 2 Enoch).^[60]

Durie (2018) notes the violence of the Qur'an shares more commonality with contemporary late antique religious (primarily Christian) violence and warfare rather than being directly biblically based.^[61]

Textual overlap

Covering the continuity and similarities between late antique religious violence & warfare and the Qur'an (and other Islamic traditions) is too big a topic to cover here; perhaps the most in-depth academic work looking at the continuity between this and Islam is Thomas Sizgorich's Violence and Belief in Late Antiquity: Militant Devotion in Christianity and Islam, however Sinai (2017) notes alongside similar ideas and theology, there are some direct textual references.

Martyrs sidestep judgement day

After death, humans are typically said to spend their time in an intermediate state known to traditional Islamic scholars as the barzakh while they wait.^[62] However, as in the above verses, one exception to this rule is Martyrs being with God straight away rather than being judged at judgment day, a non-biblical idea having parallels with late antique Christian thought.

Sinai (2017) similarly notes strong ideological parallels a 6th century hagiographical text (the Panegyric on Macarius, Bishop of Tkow by Pseudo-Dioscorus of Alexandria) of a 5th-century martyr, Egyptian Bishop Macarius of Tkow who was martyred for opposing the council of Chalcedon. Citing Michael Gaddis's summary of the document, ‘He was both willing to die for his faith, and willing to kill for it.’ he notes the same idea in Quran 9:111 … they fight in the way of Allah, kill, and are killed.. ^[63] As well as citing English historian of the Byzantine Empire James Howard-Johnston "..James Howard-Johnston draws attention to a passage in the Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (d. 818), which reports that at about the same time when the Qur’an promised those ‘killed in the path of God’ immediate entry to paradise, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius similarly announced that those fighting the Sasanians would be recompensed with eternal life. In Heraclius’s address as reported by Theophanes Confessor, we find some of the same general ingredients that are noticeable in Qur’anic calls to militancy…"^[64] He notes these similarities are likely caused by being on the fringes of the Roman empire.^[65]

Martyrdom in the Torah and Gospels

Muslims who fight are promised paradise, which the Qur'an claims is also a promise in the Torah and Gospel.

Nickel (2020)^[66] and Reynolds (2018) however notes that this is not found there:

While his commentary on 2:154 (pp. 76) once again highlights the Syriac parallel:

Further Martyrdom Influence

Neuwirth (2024) also notes the influence of Christian martyrdom stories on the sudden conversion and prayers/asking for forgiveness to God of Pharaoh's magician's, who are originally opponents of Moses until he shows them proof of his prophecy via a miracle in the face of a sudden and violent death as threatened by the arrogant ruler (e.g. in Quran 26:50-51 and Quran 20:71-73).^[67] Both Jewish and Christian traditions present individual “anti-Moses” sorcerers named Jannes and Jambres, who continue to appear in later interpretations; citing Nora Schmid, she notes that, although there is no explicit textual reference and the magicians are typically depicted in a negative light, they came to be associated with penance and martyrdom in Christian tradition - in the Qurʾan, this idea is developed further: the forgiveness that Jannes and Jambres either did not receive or only partially received in earlier sources is ultimately granted.^[68]

Reynolds (2020) notes the Qur’ans provides vivid depictions of hell are highly unlike the New Testament, where Jesus refers to afterlife punishment mostly allusively. The closest the Gospels describe hell is through the few images of “fire,” “wailing,” and “gnashing of teeth.”, for example in Matthew’s Parable of the Weeds, Jesus explains that at the end of the age, the Son of Man will send his angels that will cast evildoers into a fiery furnace where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matt 13:40–42).^[69] He notes the much more constant an vivid Qur'anic descriptions far better match later Christian works that expanded the descriptions to be more gruesome, in order to scare the reader/audience.^[70]

Sinai (2017) in his paper titled "The Eschatological Kerygma of the Early Qur’an" notes many overlap with Syriac Homilies on the afterlife as well as other apocalyptic ideas and terminology.^[71]

The term sakīnah is a Rabbinic rather than a biblical one^[72] describing the physical manifestation of God on Earth.^[73]

This Rabbinic Hebrew/Aramaic term appears as a Qur'anic noun six times. Most Qur’anic references to sakīnah describe God giving believers tranquility and reassurance in times of opposition.^[73] One exception is Q2:247–48, where the ark is called a “sakīnah from your Lord,” echoing Jewish or Christian ideas of God’s shekīnah presence linked to the Ark of the Covenant, however, the Qur’an itself does not associate sakīnah with divine presence.^[73] Instead, the term, which resembles the Hebrew/Aramiac word phonologically, was absorbed into Arabic and generally means “tranquility” or “reassurance”, so not semantically matching. Durie (2018) notes in this sense, sakīnah in Q2:248 may be a "linguistic fossil"; borrowed from earlier traditions without being understood, so reinterpreted with a new, purely Arabic meaning based on the root (s-k-n (“rest, stationary, still”)) in that language.^[73]

Sinai (2023) sums up:

Sinai (2023 notes the Qur’an uses khalāq (“share, portion”) in verses threatening that some will have “no share in the hereafter” (e.g., Q 2:102, 2:200, 3:77).^[74] Unlike the usual Arabic root kh-l-q (“to create”), khalāq seems to be a loanword, likely from Hebrew ḥēleq or Aramaic ḥulaqa, both meaning “share” or “allotted fate.”^[74] This phrasing strongly resembles rabbinic expressions about having (or lacking) a “share in the world to come,” widely attested in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, and Midrash.^[74] The Qur’an’s diction thus reflects Rabbinical Jewish idiom, likely adopted in a Medinan context, making khalāq, like ummī (“scriptureless”) and baraʾa (“to create”) etc. an example of Jewish terminology integrated into Qur’anic usage.^[74]

Some are not exact matches but very similar, showing potential influence if not direct copies of these texts.

The Qur'an (and traditional Islamic exegetes)^[75] state that the soul is taken away by Allah during the night.

Tesei (2016) notes this idea may mimic a late antique Syriac Christian parallel in the poetical language used by Ephrem, who in the Nisibene hymns (7:15) mentions sleep resembles death, and other Christian writers (such as Babai) wrote about sleep metaphorically Jesus's death and waking up like the resurrection;^[76] with this idea taken literally by Muhammad.

Reynolds (2020) notes the repeated argument that God can resurrect the dead using the analogy that he can bring life back to barren (or dead) land may be connected to a Jewish tradition that God will resurrect the dead with dew, for example, in b. Shabbat 88b.^[57]

Cf: Quran 16:65, Quran 43:11, Quran 50:6-11, Quran 57:17

The /r/AcademicQuran SubReddit are also compiling a list of Talmudic Parallels with the hadith listed here talmudparallels, and also linked Levi Jacober's 1935, Ph.D. dissertation 'The traditions of al-Bukhārī and their aggadic parallels', which collects the numerous traditions of al-Bukhari which bear a striking similarity to the aggadic (non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism) traditions to be found chiefly in the Talmud and the Midrashim for those interested in this topic further.

• Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam

• Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature - Part 1
• Historical Errors in the Quran