Early Conversions to Islam

Under Abu Bakr

Immediately following Muhammad's death, the first caliph, Abu Bakr (one of Muhammad's companions), begun the Apostasy Wars (wars of Ridda) against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph - an act that was deemed the equivalent of apostasy and thus merited death or, in this case, war. This stands out as the earliest instance of forced conversion in Islamic history at a massive level^[3][4], though was justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which finds ample precedence in Islamic scriptures and multiples instantiations in Muhammad's life.

In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.^[5]

India

In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took many prisoners and carried out conversions to Islam.^[6] In his later campaigns, in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, again, many conversions took place. Those soldiers who surrendered to him were converted to Islam. In Baran (Bulandshahr) alone 10,000 persons were converted to Islam including the king. Al Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."^[7] Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah speak of construction of mosques and schools and appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. Wherever Mahmud went, he insisted on the people to convert to Islam. ^[8] The raids by Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.^{[8][9][10][11]} Qutb ud-Din Aibak is said to have demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.^[12] Sikandar Butshikan (reigned 1394-1417) demolished Hindu temples and forcefully converted Hindus in Kashmir.^[13]

Persia

Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, decreed Twelver Shia Islam to be the official religion of state and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.^[14][15] Non-Muslims faced frequent persecutions and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.^[16] After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam, Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to become Muslims, and Sultan Husayn decreed forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.^[17] In 1839, during the Qajar era the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.^[18] Bagrat V was an Eastern Orthodox Christian. Timur invaded Georgia and defeated and captured him. Bagrat agreed to convert to Islam.^[19] Only after this, he was released. Timur plundered state of Jammu in 1399. He forced the Hindu ruler of Jammu to become a Muslim.^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]}

Indonesia

In 2017, many members of the Orang Rimba tribe in Indonesia, especially children, were being forced to renounce their folk religion and convert to Islam.^[29]

Syria

In 2018, Kurdish Christians were being forced to convert to Islam.^[30]