Female Genital Mutilation in Islam

FGM is mentioned (at least) seven times in the Hadith. Four report Muhammad approving of FGM and two report Sahabah (Muhammad's companions) participating in FGM. The remaining hadith has little import doctrinally, but is of linguistic, historical and sociological interest.

Hadith: Muhammad and FGM

The fitrah is five things, including circumcision

Hadith methodology dictates that if it is not mentioned specifically or if the pronouns do not point to a certain gender, then the hadith is valid for both sexes (either directly or by analogy, or qiyas, in the case of women). Hence, the following hadith is applicable for both men and women.

A preservation of honor for women

Do not cut "severely"

Note that the judgement concerning what is severe is relative.

When the circumcised parts touch each other

To 'sit amidst four parts of a woman' is a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

Other Evidence in the Hadith

The following three hadith touch on FGM, but do not involve Muhammad. Because of this they have less doctrinal authority than the hadith in the previous section.

One Who Circumcises Other Ladies

This hadith includes an exchange of insults between Meccan warriors and Muhammad's companions prior to the battle of Uhud.

In Bukhari's al-Adab al-Mufrad

The following two hadiths come from Al-Adab Al-Mufrad. This is a collection of hadith about the manners of Muhammad and his companions, compiled by the Islamic scholar al-Bukhari. It contains 1,322 hadiths, most of which focus on Muhammad's companions rather than Muhammad himself. Al-Bukhari's evaluation of the hadiths within al-Adab al-Mufrad was not as rigorous as for his best-known collection - Sahih Bukhari. The Adab have less doctrinal authority than the hadith featuring Muhammad. However, scholars have ruled most of the hadith in the collection as being sahih (authentic) or hasan (sound).

Someone to Amuse Them

Go and Circumcise Them and Purify Them

There is no explicit reference to Female Genital Mutilation in the Qur'an. However, the Quran 30:30 requires Muslims to 'adhere to the fitrah'.

The word 'fitrah' appears only this once in the Qur'an, and is left undefined and unexplained. To know what 'fitrah means, traditional scholars turn to the hadith which make use of the word.

The hadith which offers the clearest explanation is one already mentioned in the previous section.

This hadith uses the Arabic word khitan for 'circumcision'.

Two other hadith ('Someone to Amuse Them' and 'Do not cut severely') use the word khitan in contexts where the procedure is unquestionably being performed on females (and only on females). Three other hadith ('The fitrah is five things, including circumcision', 'A preservation of honor for women' and 'When the circumcised parts touch each other') use the word 'khitan to refer to both FGM and Male Circumcision.

Thus, in the hadith the word 'khitan' is taken to refer to FGM, or to Male Circumcision, or to both. According to traditional interpretive methodology, Quran 30:30 by requiring one to 'adhere to the fitrah' indirectly, but ineluctably, advocates FGM.

A Madh'hab (مذهب) is a school of Islamic law or fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). Within Sunni Islam there are four mainstream schools of thought, which are accepted by one another, there is also the Shi'ite school of fiqh. The various schools of Islamic law all developed as theologians and jurists debated among themselves more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death on how to identify and interpret what Muhammad had left behind by way of oral traditions. The five major schools of Islamic law agree on many things. Adherence to a school of Islamic law appears to be more a matter of geography than conscience.

All schools of Islam favour FGM, but with varying levels of compulsion. No school of Islam can forbid FGM since nothing that Muhammad allowed can be prohibited. Contemporary scholars, however, are adept at phrasing fatwas in such a way as to appear to criticise or condemn FGM whilst stopping well short of forbidding it. (see section on Equivocation below).

  Differences in hermeneutics (methodologies of interpretation of texts, especially religious and philosophical texts) result in certain Hadith having more weight and influence with some schools than in others. The hadith Sunan Abu Dawud 41:5251 is an example of this:

Shafi’i and Hanbali scholars have evaluated this hadith as being sahih. Consequently, these schools consider FGM as being either obligatory or highly recommended, and FGM is very common or nearly universal amongst their followers. Maliki and Hanafi scholars have evaluated this Hadith as being mursal (good but missing an early link in its isnad) or daif (weak)– possibly explaining the lower rates of FGM amongst followers of these schools. It may be that followers of the Maliki and Hanafi schools who are devout (or who wish to appear devout) will tend to treat as obligatory practices that are merely recommended – since for the devout anything that is recommended should be definitely done.

Maliki Madhab

The Maliki school was founded by Malik ibn Anas in the 8th century, who ruled that FGM is recommended, but not obligatory.

Hanafi Madhab

This school is named after the scholar Abū Ḥanīfa an-Nu‘man ibn Thābit (d. 767) and is school with the largest number of followers among Sunni muslims. Abū Ḥanīfa maintained that FGM is not obligatory but optional or recommended.

The Hanafi school is the school of Islam under which there is the least incidence of FGM. Pakistani Muslims are generally Hanafi, and have, till recently, been the largest Muslim diaspora to the West. Pakistanis are also frequently English-speaking. Both of which facts increase the prevalence in the West of the narrative that FGM is nothing to do with Islam. With increasing immigration to the West from Shafi’i countries (Somalia in particular) this narrative is harder to maintain since (see below) FGM is obligatory under Shafi’i Islam.

Shafi'i Madhab

The Shafi’i school was founded by the Arab scholar Al-Shafi‘i in the early 9th century. The Shafi’i school rejects two interpretative heuristics that are accepted by other major schools of Islam: Istihsan (juristic preference) and Istislah (public interest), heuristics by which compassion and welfare can be integrated into Islamic law-making. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is obligatory in the Shafi'i madhab. Infibulation, the most severe form of FGM practiced under Islam, is almost entirely attributable to followers of the Shafi'i school of fiqh.

'Reliance of the Traveller' by by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) is the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law according to Shafi'i School.

Nuh Ha Mim Keller's 1991 translation of 'Reliance of the Traveller' translates the word 'bazr' ( بَظْرٌ ) as 'clitorial prepuce' instead of simply 'clitoris'.^[6] This is disputed because 1/ the usage is obscure and 2/ it leaves Arabic without a word for 'clitoris'.^[7]

Hanbali Madhab

The Hanbali school is named after the Iraqi scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855). Ahmad ibn Hanbal studied under Al-Shafi‘i (founder of the Shafi’i school) and inherited his deep concerns about the jurists of his time, who were ready to reinterpret the doctrines of the Koran and Hadiths to pander to public opinion and the demands of the rich and powerful. Ibn Hanbal advocated a return to the literal interpretation of Koran and Hadiths. This has made the Hanbali school intensely traditionalist. Today’s ultra-conservative Wahhabi–Salafist movement is an offshoot of this school. The Hanbali school, unlike the Hanafi and Maliki schools, reject Istihsan (jurist discretion) and Urf (the customs of Muslims) as a sound basis by which to derive Islamic law.

Shia Islam

The attitudes of Shia Islam towards FGM are as not clear-cut as with the schools of Sunni Islam. It is known that FGM is practised by Zaydis in Yemen, Ibadis in Oman and at least by parts of the Ismailis (the Dawoodi Bohras in particular) in India. A survey by WADI conducted in the region of Kirkuk in Iraq found that 23% of Shia girls and women had undergone FGM^[8].

Jafari

Ismaili

FGM appears to be common amongst the Dawoodi Bohras^[9] – an Ismaili sect found in India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Yemen and East Africa. Their current spiritual leader has recommended FGM as being necessary for purity and to avoid sin.

In 2017 two doctors and a third woman connected to the Dawoodi Bohra in Detroit, Michigan, were arrested on charges of conducting FGM on two seven-year-old girls in the United States. Their Attorney confirmed that FGM was, for her clients, a religious practice^[10]:

Muʿtazila

Muʿtazila is a rationalist school of Islamic theology that flourished in the cities of Basra and Baghdad during the 8th to the 10th centuries. The Mu'tazila developed an Islamic type of rationalism, partly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy.

The following is a selection of Fatwas, mainly extracts, from the 20th and 21st Century. They have been, as far as possible, arranged in chronological order. Note that many are secondary or even tertiary sources.

Favourable

(1939) “Female circumcision is only desirable, i.e., not compulsory, and it consists of cutting off part of the clitoris. More than that is forbidden in view of the Um Atiyah report: “Circumcise but do not go too far, for thus it is better for appearance and gives more pleasure to the husband”. This is the female circumcision which is desirable in Islam. Other forms such as that known among us as the Pharaonic are mutilations and mutilations are categorically forbidden.” The Mufti of Sudan – cited in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(1951) “Female circumcision is a part of the emblem of Islam and it is mentioned in the prophetic sunnah. [FGM’s bad effects] are neither certain nor proven, and therefore one cannot base himself on them to reject the circumcision in which the wise Legislator saw a wisdom” Sheikh Nassar – cited in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(1951)“ When it is proven by the precise research, and not by a temporary opinion given out to satisfy a particular tendency or to conform itself to traditions of given people, that a thing includes a damage for health or a depravity of the morals, it must be forbidden according to the religious law in order tho avoid the damage or the depravity. And until this is proven concerning female circumcision , this practice will continue according to what people are accustomed in the light of the Islamic law and the knowledge of the religious scholars since the time of the prophecy [of Muhammad] until this day, i.e. that the circumcision is a makrumah, and not an obligation or sunnah.” Sheikh Shaltut, of Al-Azhar University (1951) – cited in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(1981) “If a region stops, of common agreement, to practice male and female circumcision, the chief of the sate declares war against that region because circumcision is a part of the rituals of Islam and its specificities. This means that male and female circumcisions are obligatory.” sheikh Jad-al-Haq – cited in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(1985) “This attack against the female circumcision […] is undertaken by its adepts and its propagators, either because of ignorance or distraction like parrots, or because of bad intentions and hidden motives like foxes and wolves, or because of hostility and hate like collaborators and agents paid by traitors and enemies[…]. Their only worry is to satisfy their instincts and their passions. Their goal is to free themselves of all limits, morals, traditions and customs. They try to reverse our society according to their limping opinions , their black hearts and their sly mind, to make a society base on corruption, wantonness, atheism, anarchy and immorality” a professor of the faculty of Muslim theology in Mansurah, Egypt – cited in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(1986) "Thus it is clear that female circumcision is prescribed in Islam, and that it is one of the Sunnahs of the fitrah and it has a good effect of moderating the individual’s behaviour. As for the opinions of doctors who say that female circumcision is harmful, these are individual opinions which are not derived from any agreed scientific basis, and they do not form an established scientific opinion. ..." Fatwa of Dar al-Ifta’ al-Misriyyah

(2000) “Those who hate Islam and its rituals launched a ferocious campaign against female circumcision. This campaign is fed by Christian spite, sustained by the crusaders’ mass media and financed mainly by the American dollar […]. Even worse is when some Muslim countries promulgate laws forbidding physicians and circumcisers to perform the female circumcision and applying sanctions against those who violate these laws […]. By so doing, these States forbid what God permits. And that is where the danger resides […]. However, one knows that, according to the Muslim religion, the interdiction or the permission belongs to God […] and to no one else be he governed or governor, man or angel.” a Saudi sheikh – reported in in ‘Male and female circumcision: Religious, medical, social and legal debate‘ by Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh

(2002) “Ibn Quddamah said in al-Mughni: As for circumcision, it is obligatory for men and it is good in the case of woman, but it is not obligatory for them [...] the purpose of circumcising women is to regulate their desire, because if a woman is not circumcised her desire will be strong. Hence the words “O son of an uncircumcised woman” are used as an insult, because the uncircumcised woman has stronger desire. Hence immoral actions are more common among the women of the Tatars and the Franks, that are not found among the Muslim women.If the circumcision is too severe, the desire is weakened altogether, which is unpleasing for men; but if it is cut without going to extremes in that, the purpose will be achieved, which is moderating desire”” Circumcision: how it is done and the rulings on it, Islamqa

(2005) “Medical research […] does not show that the Sunnah circumcision – cutting only the outer part of the clitoris – has caused any medical complications […] Islam condones the Sunnah circumcision; it is acceptable. What’s forbidden in Islam is the pharaonic circumcision [...] Islamic scholars believe that female circumcision is different from male circumcision. They have a strong view that female circumcision is allowed, and that there is no evidence from Islamic sources prohibiting female circumcision, unless it is pharaonic.” IRIN interview with Sheikh Omer, a Muslim religious leader, Ethiopia

(2007) “[A]s far as Islam is concerned “we do observe circumcision not mutilation” Gambian imam: Prophet Muhammad spoke well of FGM

(2008) “The [Muslim] Brotherhood […] opposes banning [FGM] because it is a tradition that should remain an option for medical reasons and “beautification” purposes.” Egypt’s child protection law sparks controversy the Christian Science Monitor

(2009) “[The Hadiths] require […] every woman be circumcised, failing which she will be impure and not even able to handle food. Why, moreover, wish to forbid female circumcision in a country made up of 90% Muslims?” Abou Ly (l’Association des imams et oulémas du Sénégal), quoted and translated from “Quand les «savants musulmans» justifient les mutilations génitales féminines”

(2012) “The second strategy of the [Muslim Brotherhood] to contest the undesirability of FGM is to present it as a medical operation or procedure. By doing so, they encourage people to go to doctors – rather than midwives – who will perform the “operation” under anaesthesia and in accordance with proper surgical procedures […] Some people talk about taking their daughters to the doctor to check whether “they need it or not”, as if there is a physiological condition that would justify mutilating a woman’s reproductive organs […] Some doctors believe that not circumcising females leads to sexual arousal and that this could lead to the committing unlawful acts. So circumcision is a duty for the protection of the honour of the believing woman and for the preservation of her chastity and purity […] The third strategy deployed by the Brothers to promote FGM is to push for its decriminalization, under the premise that it is a matter that should be left to the personal choice of the girls’ guardians […] “the decision is up to the guardian and the doctor who decides on the extent to which the girl needs this operation”" Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood’s gift to Egyptian women

(2013) “The Indonesian Council of Ulema (MUI) is in favour of female circumcision (and men) that, although it can not be considered mandatory, it is still “morally recommended.” Kiai Hajj Amin Ma’ruf [the head of the council], pointed out that it is an “advisable practise on moral grounds”, at the same time, he rejects any attempt to declare this practice illegal or contrary to the principles. It comes under the sphere of “human rights,” said the Islamist leader, and is “guaranteed by the Constitution.”” Indonesian Ulema in favour of female circumcision: a “human right”

(2014) “In the Maldives […circumcision] is the ‘symbol that differentiates Muslims from non-Muslims [...] All four schools of Sunni jurisprudence however regard it as either ‘obligatory’ or ‘preferable [...FGM] is one of the five things that are part of fitrah, or nature, says the fatwa by Dr. Mohamed Iyaz Abdul Latheef, Vice President of the Fiqh Academy of the Maldives [...] the fatwa points to the increasing influence of Saudi Arabia. The cleric uses the Saudi Arabian Fatwa Committee’s concern over the decline of female circumcision in Muslim countries as a stamp of approval for the practice for all Muslims” cited in Cleric calls for FGM on Islamic grounds – MALDIVES

(2014)“For protecting our Islamic nation in Iraq and Syria, our land, and our people, we need to look after our women and their behavior while preventing them from the dreadful modern life they are surrounded with.“ ISIS fatwa – reported: FGM in Iraq: The hoax of a hoax?

(2016) “An Islamic cleric from Russia’s North Caucasus has called for all Russian women to undergo female genital mutilation […] Ismail Berdiev, a member of the Presidential Council for Cooperation with Religious Communities, said that FGM was needed to combat “sexual immorality […] All women must be cut, so that there will be no depravity on Earth.” Russian Muslim Cleric Calls for Genital Mutilation of All Women,

(2018) “On Feb. 6, Somaliland announced a new fatwa, or religious edict, banning two of the three types of female cutting […] According to the organizations, the ruling made a certain type of FGM/C “mandatory” for every girl in Somaliland and at the same time banning the most extreme forms.” Aid agencies decry decision to encourage FGM in Somaliland

(2018) “[The Islamic Central Council of Switzerland’s] Secretary-General Ferah Uluca said that while the paper justifies the practice, it does not call on Muslims to perform it as a duty. Uluca said it is up to each parent to decide” Islamic Central Council of Switzerland justifies female genital mutilation

(2018) “Circumcision is prescribed for both males and females. The correct view is that […] circumcision of women is mustahabb [‘virtuous‘] but not obligatory […] Female circumcision has not been prescribed for no reason, rather there is wisdom behind it and it brings many benefits. Mentioning some of these benefits, Dr. Haamid al-Ghawaabi says […]” Medical benefits of female circumcision – islamqa

(2018) “Circumcision is not an inherited custom as some people claim, rather it is prescribed in Islam and the scholars are unanimously agreed that it is prescribed. Not a single Muslim scholar – as far as we know – has said that circumcision is not prescribed. Their evidence is to be found in the saheeh ahaadeeth of the Prophet, which prove that it is prescribed [...] With regard to the criticism of circumcision by some doctors, and their claim that it is harmful both physically and psychologically, This criticism of theirs is not valid. It is sufficient for us Muslims that something be proven to be from the Prophet [...], then we will follow it, and we are certain that it is beneficial and not harmful. If it were harmful, Allaah and His Messenger [...] would not have prescribed it for us [...] As for the opinions of doctors who say that female circumcision is harmful, these are individual opinions which are not derived from any agreed scientific basis, and they do not form an established scientific opinion […] medical theories about disease and the way to treat it are not fixed, rather they change with time and with ongoing research. So it is not correct to rely on them when criticizing circumcision which the Wise and All-Knowing Lawgiver has decreed in His wisdom for mankind. Experience has taught us that the wisdom behind some rulings and Sunnahs may be hidden from us. May Allaah help us all to follow the right path.”." Circumcision of girls and some doctors’ criticism thereof – islamqa

(2018) “[Dr Ali Selim, a spokesman for the Islamic Cultural Centre of Ireland in Clonskeagh], who is also a lecturer at Trinity College in Dublin […] argued that female circumcision was unfairly framed as a “dark-skin practice” and “barbaric,” insinuating that criticism is racist or prejudiced.” Irish Muslim Leader Backs Female Genital Mutilation

(date unknown) “I personally support [FGM] under the current circumstances in the modern world. Anyone who thinks that circumcision is the best way to protect his daughters should do it [...] The moderate opinion is in favor of practicing circumcision to reduce temptation.” Yusuf al-Qaradawi (born 1926) cited in ‘Modern Fatwas’ (1987)

(date unknown) "The calls which urge the banning of female circumcision are call [sic] that go against Islam, because there is no clear text in the Qur’aan or Sunnah and there is no opinion of the fuqaha’ that says that female circumcision is haraam. Female circumcision is either obligatory or recommended [...] The words of the doctors and others are not definitive. Scientific discoveries are still opening doors every day which change our old perceptions." Fatwa of Shaykh ‘Atiyah Saqar – the former head of the Fatwa Committee in al-Azhar

(date unknown) “Some (e.g. the late Rector of Al-Azhar University, Sheikh Gad Al-Haque) argued that since [Mohammed] did not ban female circumcision, it falls within the category of the permissble. As such, there is no ground for a total ban on it.” Is Female Circumcision Required

(date unknown, but citation from modern film footage) “I don’t know why a German, British or American entity (thinks it can) come to us to decide for us the circumcision of our daughters! Why should they decide on matters of our girls and women? We base our religion on Allah’s book and the sayings of our beloved prophet and our scholars [...] Look at any of the books of fiqh from our imams, respected leaders, and scholars–ask them. You will find that our scholars have said that circumcision of women–there are some who say that it is obligatory while others say that it is commendable [...] this does not mean that I am subjecting the religion to inspection from a doctor. No, my brothers, this does not mean that I subject evidence from the shari'a to review from a doctor!”” Muhammad Hassan Female Circumcision -

Critical

The following are extracts from fatwas critical of FGM, classified in such a way as to illustrate the range of arguments made for FGM being un-Islamic. These arguments are evaluated in the section Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam.

FGM is not required by Islam

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: FGM not required by Islam)

“All practices of female circumcision and mutilation are crimes and have no relationship with Islam. Whether it involves the removal of the skin or the cutting of the flesh of the female genital organs… it is not an obligation in Islam.” Dr Ahmed Talib, Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University

“In response to a question of the author of the book Razor and Tradition, which discusses Female Genital Mutilation, [Khamenei] noted that female circumcision is permissible but not obligatory (2011)” Fatwa of the Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei

FGM existed before Islam

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: FGM existed before Islam)

“While the exact origin of female circumcision is not known, it preceded Christianity and Islam.” Is Female Circumcision Required

There is no FGM in the Qur'an

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: there is no FGM in the Qur'an)

“The practice is not mentioned in the Quran” A Fatwa on FGM Could be Part of the Solution – Kurdistan 2010

The Qur'an forbids mutilation

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: the Qur'an forbids mutilation)

“Allah Almighty prohibits in the Holy Quran to cut a body part of human beings without any reason because a human being is the most beloved creature to the omnipotent Allah, and is the creature in whose beautiful creation the Almighty takes pride in.” Islam And Female Genital Mutilation, Pakistan, 2016

“The traditional form of excision is a practice totally banned by Islam because of the compelling evidence of the extensive damage it causes to women’s bodies and minds,” Egyptian Clerics Say Female Circumcision Un-Islamic, 2007

“God gave people dignity. In the Qur’an God says: “We have dignified the sons of Adam”. Therefore, God forbids any harm coming to man, irrespective of social status and gender.” Professor Ali Gom’a, Grand Mufti of Egypt, 2006

There is no record of Muhammad having his wives or daughters 'circumcised'

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: There is no record of Muhammad having his wives or daughters circumcised)

“[Mohammed] had four daughters and we have no strong sources to prove if even one of them was circumcised” Islam And Female Genital Mutilation, Pakistan, 2016

The FGM hadith are weak

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: the FGM Hadith are weak)

“In a Hadith it is mentioned:”Circumcision is Sunnah for men and an honorable thing for women.” Due to the weakness of this hadith and other hadiths that refer to female circumcision with some of their narrators being known for deceptiveness and others whose narrations carry no weight scholars of Islamic Law have differed widely regarding its legal ruling.” does female circumcision have its place in Islaam, 2006

Islam should adapt to contemporary mores

“Today, female genital mutilation is not common among Shiites but the usage narrative show that it does not hurt if it can be done with its conditions, including compliance with health issues. But because the social norms have changed today, this action would not be acceptable like many other topics which their sentences were changed due to circumstances and facts.” The point of view of the Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran on Female Genital Mutilation, 2014

Muhammad wanted to forbid FGM but couldn't

(see Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam: Muhammad wanted to forbid FGM but couldn't)

“Islam did not forbid [FGM] at that time because it was not possible to suddenly forbid a ritual with strong roots in Arabic culture; rather it preferred to gradually express its negative opinions. This is how Islam treated slavery as well, (gradual preparation of the society for the final forbiddance of slavery).” Sayyad Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah, Grand Sheikh of Lebanon

Islamic sources

The hadith 'One Who Circumcises Other Ladies' suggests that FGM was practiced by the Banu Quraysh, Mohammed's native tribe, and that the FGM reported in the Hadith (which therefore took place after Mohammed's migration to Medina) was a practice carried over from pre-Islamic Mecca.

The Hadith tells how, prior to the battle of Uhud, Hamza, one of Mohammed’s companions, taunts the Meccan warrior, Siba. Hamza implies that Siba is like ‘Ibn Um Anmar’ – a woman who was a known circumciser of women. The more descriptive phrase muqteh al-basr – ‘one who cuts clitorises‘ – is used rather than the usual khitan.

This taunt suggests that clitoridectomy was practiced by the Quraysh, and that it was a role reserved for women, probably of low-status, hence its insulting nature when directed against a warrior. The taunt could only be effective if it humiliated Siba in the eyes of both his fellow Meccan warriors and also the Muslim warriors. Thus its use implies that members of both camps had knowledge of the practice and a shared culture of clitoridectomy. The fact that a circumciser of women could be famous (or notorious) also suggests that it was an established practice with the Meccan Quraysh.

Non-Islamic sources

There is evidence that FGM was practiced before the birth of Muhammad in the Middle East and along the African coast of the Red Sea. The following are listed in roughly chronological order.

There are reports that some Egyptian mummies show signs of FGC. However this appears to be disputed.

A spell or prayer found on an Egyptian coffin dating from sometime between 1991–1786 BC appears to refer to an uncircumcised girl.

An analysis of this hieroglyph by the Egyptologist Saphinaz-Amal Naguib suggests that the procedure referred to was not the infibulation that has become commonly associated with Ancient Egypt (hence ‘pharaonic’ circumcision), but rather clitoridectomy. This seems to be confirmed by other later Greek descriptions of the Egyptian practice.

A fragment referring to a fifth-century B.C. history by Xanthos of Lydia (Western Asiatic Turkey) uses the word 'castrated' in relation to women. It may refer to FGM, or some method of permanently sterilizing women.

'There are several classical references from the geographer Agatharchides of Cnidus (fl. 2nd century BC., who identified a tribe living on the west coast of the Red Sea which excised their women in the manner of the Egyptians, and that another group cut of in infancy with razors the whole portion that others circumcise'. ^[11]

A papyrus dated from 163 BC refers to the operation being performed on girls in Memphis, Egypt, to coincide with the time when they received their dowries.

Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. AD 24), a Turkish-born Greek geographer, observed the practice whilst travelling up the Nile.

Another passage from Strabo suggests that Jews practiced FGM some time after Moses’ death.

The Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC – 50 AD) reports in his ‘Questions on Genesis’^[12]:

The Greek physician Galen (129-c. 200 AD) notes that the Romans developed a procedure which involved slipping fibulae (the latin word for ‘brooches’) through the labia majora of female slaves as a form of contraception. He also notes in his ‘Introductio sive Medicus’:

Greek physician, Soranus of Ephesus (1st/2nd century AD. Ephesus was a Greek colony found on the west coast of Turkey) also noted the same procedure. One of the titles in his manual of gynecology is ‘On an excessively large clitoris’. The actual text of this chapter has not survived. However there exists a translation, probably from the the sixth century AD:

Caelius Aurelianus, a fifth-century AD physician from Sicca Veneria (modern el-Kef in Tunisia), synthesised much of Soranus’s work. In a chapter entitled ‘On an excessively large clitoris’, he wrote:

Closer to the time of Mohammed, the Byzantine Greek physician Aëtius of Amida (fl. mid-fifth century to mid-sixth century. Amida was located where modern Diyarbakır now stands in east Turkey) describes a clitoridectomy, citing the physician Philomenes:

Paulus of Aegina (Aegina is one of the Saronic islands of Greece), a 7th Century AD urologic surgeon, was something of an expert and gives his version of how to perform the procedure (the word ‘nympha’ usually refers the labia minora, but here seems to be being also used of the clitoris):

The origins of FGM

The previous section shows that FGM existed before Islam. The fact that FGM can exist without it being justified by religious doctrine suggests that its causes may in part be social.

The roots of FGM as lying in polygyny, particularly the kind of extreme polygyny that existed at the heart of empires, where some men could become powerful and wealthy enough to be able to afford harems of hundreds of concubines (the word 'concubine' is a euphemism for sex-slave).^[13][14][15]

In a monogamous marriage a husband and wife can spend much time together (and thus better monitor each others fidelity), can grow close to one another, and their sexual and emotional needs are more-or-less proportional. In polygynous societies the rich and high-status men who can afford to keep multiple wives face a problem guaranteeing the fidelity of their many wives. And the more they have the greater that problem becomes. A polygynous man may have anything from two to a thousand 'concubines' whom he must satisfy emotionally and sexually, provide with offspring and keep faithful. If the needs of his wives are not satisfied, they will be tempted to look elsewhere, and this may result in the high-status man rearing children that are not his own.

Consequently, polygynous societies evolve technologies and practices which assure the chastity of both wives and potential wives.

• harems keep 'concubines' locked away, guarded by eunuchs;
• footbinding (as once practiced by the Chinese) reduces the physical independence of girls and women;
• chaperoning and gender segregation eliminate interactions between the sexes;
• arranged and child marriages obviate the dangers that romance and courtship pose to a girl's chastity and reputation;
• veiling makes girls less interesting and identifiable to males;
• FGM reduces women's capacity for sexual pleasure both physically (through the removal of the clitoris and labia, or sealing the vagina shut) and mentally (through the effects of trauma).

Hypergyny is the urge for women to marry into higher strata of society. Polygynous societies are extremely hypergynous. It is considered preferable to be the nth wife of a rich man than the only wife of a poor man. This is because in polygynous societies

• a married high-status man remains available to further marriages (unlike in monogamous societies);
• the only acceptable role for a girl to aspire to is that of 'wife'. A girl can only better her life by marrying a rich man;
• the wealth gradient tends to be steeper – the poor poorer, the rich richer ;
• marriages involve the payment of a brideprice by the groom (or his family) to the bride (or her family), which will be higher from a rich man than from a poor man;
• marriage to high status men is highly advantageous to the bride's family, who will benefit from the bride-price and from having a high-status male as a relative.

To stand a chance of making an 'advantageous' marriage girls must meet the requirements of the high-status polygynous men. She, and her family, must persuade him that she is 'pure', chaste and will be faithful. They demonstrate this by adopting (or having their daughter adopt) the Chastity Assurance practices required by polygynous elite man, whether it be FGM or other such practices listed above. The intensely hypergynous nature of polygynous societies means that the marriage requirements of high-status polygynous men cascade down through the ranks of society, and are rapidly adopted by all families.

In polygynous societies the marriage market heavily favours polygynous elite men, because they are relatively few elite polygynous men whilst there are many lower-ranking potential brides. Low-ranking families must therefore compete with each other and persuade higher-ranking men to marry their daughters. It is not enough to simply adopt the elite’s marriage-practices, the daughter has to be made to stand out from the crowd of other candidates hoping to make a hypergynous match.

A girl’s fidelity, purity and chastity becomes her most important selling-point and the more spectacularly she can advertise this the better. Families therefore seek to make conspicuous the ‘honour’ of their lines, the purity of their females, and their commitment to the values of chastity, fidelity and modesty. In a process analogous to Sexual Selection in Nature, female modesty takes on a competitive value rather than an intrinsic one and this provokes an ‘inflation’ of modesty practices and attitudes: “one wrong word about my sister and I will kill you”…”the smaller the foot, the better the family”….”the more extreme the cutting the better the girl’s reputation”…”the more harshly a family punishes its daughters’ immodesty, the more likely she is to be pure”…

FGM becomes a symbol, a proxy, for chastity and fidelity. Girls and families who do not observe these Chastity Assurance practices are stigmatised as 'impure', contaminating and guaranteed to be unfaithful if anyone should have the misfortune to marry them. They are 'untouchable' and suffer discrimination, ostracism and persecution. Only the daughters of the poorest families, who can not afford to engage in such practices, remain unmutilated. They serve as public demonstrations of the ignominy that results from not following modesty practices. The avoidance of stigma becomes as much an incentive to mutilate one's daughters as making a good marriage.

The universality of FGM within a local intramarrying community generates folk beliefs: that women must have excessively lascivious natures to require such scrupulous guarding and restraint; that the clitoris will grow to the length of a goose’s neck if not removed during childhood; that contact with the clitoris kills, be it the baby during its birth or the husband during intercourse; that an 'uncut' vulva is ugly; that FGM enhances a woman’s facial beauty; that FGM improves a woman's health and hygiene; that a ‘cut’ vulva is more pleasurable to the husband; that FGM enhances fertility. These folk beliefs are self-enforcing because the believed consequences of violating them are sufficiently grave that their truth is never tested – they are ‘belief traps’. This is the case not only with those folk beliefs which threaten death, but also those which postulate the un-marriageability of the uncut girl.

FGM persists even if its originating conditions lapse, and even when the majority of the community wish to abandon the practice. In a community where it is a pre-condition of marriage that a girl should be mutilated, a parent who doesn't have his daughters mutilated risks having unmarried daughters to support those daughters for the rest of his life, and also suffer the stigma and persecution that comes with having uncut daughters. Thus the consequences of not having his daughters mutilated only serve to reinforce, in the eyes of the community, the necessity of having one's daughters mutilated. The only way a community can abandon FGM is if the whole community, or a significant part of it, in a coordinated manner, pledges to not mutilate their daughters and also, crucially, pledges to only marry their sons to unmutilated girls. This approach - the Pledge Association method - worked spectacularly well with footbinding in China. However, it has been much less successful with FGM, probably because whilst footbinding was a secular practice, FGM is a religious one.

Islamic Doctrine that creates social conditions favourable to FGM

As might be evident from the previous section, Islam, by allowing and encouraging polygyny, not only reproduces the originating conditions for FGM but also enshrines in law and custom secondary consequences of polygyny, such as bride-price, veiling, gender segregation, arranged marriage, child marriage, and excessive preoccupation with feminine 'purity'. Indeed, Islam could be characterised as: the codification and sacralisation of polygyny, and of the consequences of polygyny.

A society's kinship system shapes the rest of the culture around itself and has far reaching implications - determining laws, beliefs and institutions that, at first sight, can appear unrelated to kinship and reproduction.

Thus, even if Islamic doctrine didn't explicitly mandate/allow FGM, it is possible that FGM would still be associated with Islam, since by sacralising the causes of FGM and also its consequences it erects round the practice an institutional and normative armature that culturally justifies and normalises it.

Monogamous kinship systems approach a state of equilibrium where every man and woman can expect to find a spouse. This state of equilibrium is impossible in a polygynous system. Females become a commodity with both inherent value (their beauty, and their reproductive and home-making capacities) and status value (the more you have the higher your status). This fuels a dynamic where the demand for marriageable females always exceeds the supply, where elite men can never have enough wives and poor men are doomed to systemic bachelorhood.

The 'bride-famine' that develops amongst poor low-status men is alleviated by introducing ever more females to the marriage market: children, cousins, and females captured in raids (either to be taken as wives by the raiders, or sold as sex-slaves to the elite). Where such raids are not an option - celibate young men direct their sexual frustration towards females closer to home: the girls and women of their community. This makes for sexually violent societies. And this ambiance of sexual violence further amplifies the anxieties of families and husbands with regard to the chastity and purity of their females - leading them to sequester and protect their females even more from young men. This is a positive feedback dynamic whose endpoint is the complete absence and invisibility of non-familial females from the lives of the low-status young men, who are doomed to systemic chronic bachelorhood.

The supposed perfection of Islam, makes it hard for Muslims to identify the social causes of the sexual violence endemic to their societies. It is instead attributed to notions that female sexuality is excessive, indiscriminate and dangerous if left unchecked by chastity assurance measures such as FGM. Islam thus creates a concurrence of dysfunctional marital, sexual and kinship practices. It overvalues the chastity and purity of females whilst, at the same time, creating sexually violent societies which put that very chastity and purity at increased risk. The solutions Islam offers to this conundrum exacerbate the problems thus creating a social and normative context in which chastity assurance measures such as FGM, become useful or even necessary.

Sex-slavery

Islam permits sex-slavery, nor limits the number of sex-slaves a man can own.

Gerry Mackie suggests that it is extreme polygyny that gives rise to chastity assurance measures such as FGM. In a closed system (where females are not imported), the extent of polygyny is limited by the number of females in the system and the number of of systemically agamous young men (which, being a cause of crime, conflict and unrest, is a destabilizing force).^[13] Extreme polygyny is therefore only possible if sex-slaves are introduced into the system. We can note that the famously large harems of the Sultans, Shahs and Sheiks scrupulously respected Islamic law (e.g. the Sultan Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif of Morocco^[16] had four wives and at least 500 'concubines', and Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar, the second Shah of Iran, also had 4 wives, but also a harem of 800-1000 'concubines'). Extreme polygyny without sex-slavery (i.e. females forcibly imported into the system) creates correspondingly extreme bride-famines at the bottom of society, and also deprives the affected men of a means whereby to relieve that famine. This makes for unstable societies - where the interdiction on capturing sex-slaves would not, anyway, be respected.

Furthermore polygyny that is strictly restricted to a maximum of four wives (with no sex-slavery permitted) loses its power as a status symbol and becomes less desirable to elite men, and likewise diminishes the community's hypergynous drive. Thus in the absence of sex-slavery polygyny tends to diminish and die out.

Historians estimate that two thirds of slaves under Islam were girls or women. Whilst local raids on neighbors fuel tribal polygyny, Islamic polygyny drew on sources of slaves from far afield - especially Africa. This involved captured women and children in long treks across the continent, often to Ethiopia or Zanzibar for transportation to Arabia. These treks were risky and took a heavy toll on those in captivity. Virgins (and therefore prepubescent or adolescent girls) were the most valuable slaves. Infibulation (the sealing up of the vagina) developed as a technology to protect the virginity of these girls over these long hazardous treks (four out of five slaves died during the forced march to the slave trading post at Zanzibar. There appears to be a correlation between the historical centres of the Islamic slave trade and the distribution of infibulation today, and the influence of the Islamic slave trade could explain the pervasiveness of FGM in Islamic Africa today.

It should be noted that boys suffered an even worse fate than girls. In a process analogous to infibulation (see description below) captured boys between the age of ten and fifteen were systematically castrated in order to become eunuchs to guard the harems of elite Muslim men. Malek Chebel estimates the death rate had a 10% survival rate,^[17] Charles Gordon (1833 – 1885), governor of Khartoum, estimated the procedure had a 0.5% survival rate. Because of their rarity, eunuchs were worth about twelve times the other slaves because of the death rate from the operation.

Mahr

The payment of bride-price (mahr) by the groom (or his family) to the bride (or her family) is mandatory in Islamic law.

All marriages in polygynous kinship systems involve some kind of bride-price. The scarcity of marriageable women which polygyny causes turns them into a valuable asset, that is cashed in when she is 'sold' in marriage. The scarcer marriageable women are the greater the dowries. This makes marriage unaffordable to low-ranking young men, even if they do manage to find a bride. But if a girl is perceived to be unchaste, or if she’s been a victim of sexual violence, she becomes impure and un-marriageable and loses all her economic value. This leaves her family stuck with a valueless commodity that they must support for the rest of their lives. This creates a further incentive for parents to engage in chastity assurance practices such as FGM.

Child marriage

Islamic law sets no lower age at which a girl can be married off.

Introducing little girls into the marriage market is a response to the the scarcity of women caused by polygyny and child marriage is universal to polygynous societies. Dowry further incentives child-marriage, as it becomes advantageous for parents to ‘sell-off’ their daughters before adolescence, when reputations (and therefore also the girl's economic value) are at greater risk. The bride-price for a child is generally less than for an adolescent or adult woman. This makes children a more affordable to poor and low-status men. Polygyny increases mens' paternity anxieties and doubts, and also creates anxieties connected to the management of multiple wives – therefore submissiveness, obedience, manipulability are valued in a wife - characteristics more pronounced in younger brides. It has been observed that polygamous men select younger girls as wives (even as first wives) than monogamous men.

In monogamous societies, the incest taboo extends not only to daughters but also to women young enough to be a man's daughter. This separation of generations does not naturally occur in polygynous cultures. Polygyny thus sexualises the society's perception of prepubescent girls, making them vulnerable to the sexual violence endemic to polygynous societies. This drives down the age at which chastity assurance practices (including FGM) are felt to be required.

Sexual dysfunction and incest

Long-term prisoners and boys in single-sex boarding schools, when deprived of contact with female coevals, tend to direct their sexuality at the next best things available viz other boys or other prisoners. Under Islamic restrictions boys and girls are deprived of contact with unrelated coevals of the opposite sex. The next best thing available - those whose faces are visible, to whom they can talk, whom they might touch - will be mothers, aunts or sisters - or other boys, babies and children, or even livestock. The evidence for the effects of this on sexual health is anecdotal, but one can hypothesise that rates of incest, bestiality, paedophilia and otherwise deviant sexuality will be higher in polygynous societies, especially where multiple chastity assurance practices are in place, and that paedophilia, incest and bestiality are considered more acceptable than in monogamous cultures, where chastity assurance practices are absent. FGM, infibulation in particular, may serve as much to protect a girl's chastity from the attentions of immediate family members, as from sexual violence of the wider community.

Violence against girls and women

Islamic law permits wife beating.

Social scientists such as Joseph Heinrich, et al. and William H. Tucker have shown that polygynous societies are by their very nature belligerent and sexually violent. These societies develop chastity assurance measures to protect girls and women from this sexual violence.

The bride-famine created by polygyny dooms a sizeable proportion of young men to systemic bachelorhood. The resulting sexual frustrations can be relieved by them capturing females from neighbouring tribes and countries. However, a more available and less dangerous option is to engage in sexual violence towards girls and women of their own community.

Polygyny by increasing the society's anxieties around the 'purity', chastity and reputations of girls and women, gives rise to 'honour culture' – whereby excessive measures and excessive punishments are used to control girls and women, and to stop the family's honour being sullied by any (actual or percieved) unchastity of female members. This honour, once lost, can only be restored by severe and violent punishment and revenge, including murder of the female family member and/or the male that compromised her honour.

Polygynyous societies (including Islamic ones) are pervaded by a generalised violence that normalise practices such as FGM: sexual violence, male circumcision, the licitness of wife-beating, public executions and amputations, the glorification of violence in the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the requirement of Jihad, and animal cruelty, including halal slaughter and the mass public slaughter of animals during Eid, – all act to desensitize the culture to the violent nature of practices such as FGM.

The polygynous family

Polygynous households tend to be characterised by:

• competition and rivalry among co-wives
• increased spousal age gaps
• decreased genetic inter-relatedness within the household
• reduced confidence as to the husband's paternity of the children (which increases his sexual jealousy and anxiety)
• more step-parents.

All these factors correlate with increased neglect of, and violence towards, children, either from the father or from step-mothers. Data from 22 sub-Saharan African countries finding that children of (rich) polygynous families were 24.4% more likely to die compared with children of (poor) monogamous families. Fathers have less involvement with their many wives, and even less involvement with their even more numerous children (Osama bin laden’s father had 54 children by 22 wives and is reputed to have not known many of his children's names). Islam encourages parents, relatives and teachers to treat and discipline children in ways that are considered unnecessarily harsh in the non-Muslim world.

All this and the physical violence and wife-beating that is common in polygynous/Islamic families normalises the cruelty of FGM.

As the above quote (dating Mar 27, 2017) confirms, the idea that FGM might be un-Islamic appears to be quite recent. In recent decades there has been a flurry of fatwas concerning FGM in response to a world-wide increasing sensitivity to the rights of women and children, and a growing international awareness of the practice of FGM. The earliest fatwa clearly critical of FGM appears to be one from 1984^[5]

An Ngram for the terms ‘fgm’, ‘female genital mutilation’ and ‘female circumcision’ shows a sharp and steady rise in the more condemnatory terms (‘mutilation’ and 'FGM' rather than ‘circumcision’) in English-language literature starting around 1989. This coincides with the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, which first identified female genital mutilation as a harmful traditional practice, and mandated that governments abolish it as one of several 'traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children'.^[18] Soon afterwards reports and condemnations were issued by organisations such as the World Health Organisation (1995),^[19] the Council of Europe (1995), and UNICEF & UNFPA (1997).^[20] Parts of the Islamic world, especially those parts which don't practice FGM, for the first time in Islamic history, began to endeveour to de-link FGM from Islam.

In recent decades many agencies and charities have engaged themselves in the fight against FGM^[21]. These agencies (and other individuals working to combat FGM) face a particular challenge: when interacting with populations who practice FGM, telling the truth is guaranteed to make matters worse. For example how should a worker for an anti-FGM charity, who is giving a lecture to a roomful of Somali mothers in the hope of persuading them to abandon the practice, respond the the question 'is FGM Islamic?'

If the charity worker tells those mothers about the FGM hadith, and about how FGM is part of the fitrah (which Qur'an 30:30 exhorts Muslims to adhere to - see FGM in the Qur'an), and how the Shafi'i (the school of fiqh which Somalia follows) scholars are unanimous in making FGM mandatory - those mothers will leave the lecture more likely to have their daughters mutilated, rather than less likely, as intended. This dilemma faces not just on-the-ground charity workers, but the whole hierarchy of institutions devoted to combating FGM, and a variety of strategies have emerged to resolve the dilemma. Most involve some form of obfuscation or diversion which gives the impression of showing FGM to be un-Islamic whilst, on closer examination, doing no such thing.

The 'FGM as un-Islamic' narrative is also reinforced by the fact that it is a minority of Muslims that practice FGM. Muslims who don't practice FGM have become more aware of FGM over the past decades, and generally share the objections of non-Muslims towards the practice. And, in addition, are troubled by its association with Islam.Immigration to the West has tended to come from these non-practicing schools and traditions - from the Maghreb, Pakistan and Turkey, where the presiding school of fiqh is Hanafi - the school of fiqh under which there is the least incidence of FGM. These immigrant populations have effectively imported the 'FGM is un-Islamic' narrative to the West.

The following section addresses some of the principal arguments used to support the 'FGM is Un-Islamic' position.

Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam

FGM is not required by Islam

Probably the most cited instance of this argument is a fatwa issued by Dr Ahmed Talib, the former Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious university for Sunni Islamic learning.

In this fatwa Dr Talib so emphatically condemns FGM that the implication of his final phrase could pass unnoticed. If one assumes Dr Talib to have weighed his words and meant what his words mean, then FGM’s legitimacy stops short of ‘obligatory’. 'Not an obligation' includes everything from 'forbidden' to 'highly recommended', and the fact something is 'not obligatory’ in no way implies that it is forbidden or even undesirable. Examples of acts that are 'not obligatory' include owning a dog, giving to charity, child sexual abuse and murder. For Dr Talib to conclude that ‘FGM is not obligatory under Islam’ suggests that he was unable to state that ‘FGM is forbidden under Islam’. And 'not obligatory', 'allowed' or 'tolerated' are no more acceptable legal or ethical positions for a practice such as FGM than they would be for murder, child sexual abuse or rape.

It should also be noted that the Shafi'i school of Islam and some Hanbali scholars have ruled FGM obligatory.

There is no FGM in the Qur'an

It is correct that there is no mention of FGM in the Qur'an. But according to traditional interpretive methodology Qur'an 30:30, by requiring one to 'adhere to the fitrah', indirectly, but ineluctably, advocates FGM (see FGM in the Qur'an). There is likewise no mention of male circumcision in the Qur'an.

Indeed, most of what constitutes Islam is found not in the Qur'an but in the Sunnah (the hadith and sirat). The Qur'an has 91 verses commanding to follow Muhammad's example to the last detail. However the Qur'an contains virtually none of Muhammad's life. Muslims can only know about Muhammad's life by turning to the hadith and sirat. Most of the practical details of how what it means to be a Muslim come from the Sunnah. None of the Five Pillars of Islam are explained in the Qur'an, which, for example, tells Muslims to pray, but not how to pray.

FGM existed before Islam

This argument assumes that if a practice existed before Islam then it can not be Islamic.

The archaeological and historical record prove that FGM did indeed exist before Islam (see FGM before Islam). However, if this meant that FGM was disqualified from being Islamic - then monotheism, ideas of heaven and hell, male circumcision, pilgrimage to Mecca, praying, the veneration of the Kaaba, abstention from pork, giving to charity, interdictions on lying and murder, and much more would also be un-Islamic - previous religions and societies having held these beliefs and engaged in these practices. Indeed, if Islam were only that which was unique to Islam, almost nothing that has been considered Islamic over the last 1400 would remain.

Mohammed took a pre-Islamic localized tradition and integrated it into the religion he was inventing. He thus sacralised FGM, guaranteeing that it would flourish wherever, and for as long as, Islam existed. But in addition, he sacralised the causes of FGM - polygyny and many of its consequences (sex-slavery, child marriage, bride-price, sexual violence - see The Sociology of FGM) thus 'locking-in' the practice into a legal, normative and institutional structure. Practices such as FGM tend to die out on exposure to non-tribal, monogamous cultural influences - footbinding, sati, slavery, child marriage and non-Islamic FGM have all been eliminated or curtailed where the West has had influence. Islam, because it is diametrically opposed to such influences and values has perpetuated the conditions where FGM can continue to flourish.

FGM is an African practice

It is true that FGM existed in parts of Africa before the invention of Islam – notably Egypt and the West coast of the Red Sea (see FGM before Islam: non-Islamic Sources). But the hadith report that FGM was also practiced in Arabia before the invention of Islam, not least by Mohammed's tribe, the Banu Quraysh. It should also be noted that:

1. most of Africa does not practice FGM,
2. about 40% of FGM happens outside of Africa, in South Asia in particular.^[2]
3. It appears to have been the Islam's plundering of Africa for sex slaves that spread FGM to its current extent (which closely coincides with that of Islam).

It is also well documented that FGM was brought to Indonesia by Muslim traders and conquerors in the 13^th Century. Indonesia is of the Shaafi school (the madhab that makes FGM obligatory) and has +90% rates of FGM amongst its Muslims. This suggests that FGM is not so much an African practice as an Islamic one.

Christians practice FGM too

This argument assumes that if Christians engage in a practice then it can not be Islamic.

If this were true, then what is 'Islamic' is influenced by what Christians do (or don't do) - something that Muslims would undoubtedly reject.

On the map showing the prevalence of Female Genital Cutting, many Western Christian countries are assigned the rubric 'rare or limited to particular ethnic minority enclaves'. This does not indicate that Christians in those countries engage in FGM, but rather reflects the presence of FGM-practicing immigrants, who are almost entirely Muslim.

However, about 20% of global FGM is attributable to non-Muslims, and are for the most part Christians.^[2] But these Christians nearly all live as isolated and persecuted minorities within a dominant Islamic FGM-practicing culture. FGM is an islamic purity practice, and within FGM-practicing societies girls who are not cut are considered impure. Any contact or proximity with them, or sharing of objects will be considered as contaminating. Individuals, families and communities that do not follow the dominant culture's purity observances are perceived as gravely threatening the spiritual and religious lives of that community since, for example, a Muslim's prayers will be rendered invalid if he is inadvertently contaminated, and will continue to be invalid until he correctly purifies himself.

This means that in such Islamic communities, non-Muslims who do not follow the communities purity observances are shunned, stigmatised, discriminated against and persecuted. An example of this recently occurred in Pakistan when a Christian woman, Asia Bibi, drank from a Muslim's cup - and brought upon herself, her family and her community much violence, hatred and persecution.^[22]

Hence, non-Muslims come under great pressure to adopt the dominant Islamic purity practices in order to minimise persecution. The Copts are Christian and make up 10 to 15% of the population of Egypt. Copts practice FGM at about a 74% (compared to 92% Muslims). Copts acknowledge that they practice FGM in order to minimise persecution. It is Christian minorities such as the Copts who appear to be the most ready to abandon FGM when it becomes safe for them to do so.^[23]

There are however three countries where FGM appears to be practiced by Christian majorities – Ethiopia, Eritrea and Liberia. The FGM in Liberia is practiced as part of the initiation into secret women's societies. FGM in Ethiopia and Eritrea is due to a combination of historical factors: much of their history the surrounding Islamic states for centuries kept them isolated from mainstream Christianity, and they were the hubs of the Islamic slave trade, where slave girls captured in West Africa were infibulated to guarantee their virginity and thus raise their price, in preparation for the slave markets of the Islamic Middle East. This Islamic practice was adopted by the locals, and has persisted.

The following graphs (adapted from graphs found at https://www.28toomany.org/research-resources/) combine rates of decline of FGM practice in a variety of African countries with (in green and mauve) the proportion of the population that is Muslim. Note that the lower the proportion of the nation that is Muslim, the steeper rate of decline of FGM-practice.

• rates of decline of FGM in African countries with (in green and red) the proportion of the population that is Muslim
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  Somaliland

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  Sudan

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  Senegal

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  Djibouti

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  Guinea

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  Eritrea

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  Tanzania

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  Ethiopia

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  Benin

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  Liberia

Not all Muslims practice FGM

This argument assumes that only those practices which all Muslims engage in can be Islamic.

This is, in turn, is based on the assumption that a religion is defined only by that which it makes universally obligatory. But religions are also defined by - and responsible for - what they recommend, encourage, allow, discourage and forbid. For example, the Eucharist (Holy Communion) is undoubtedly Christian. But it is recommended, not obligatory, and not all Christians take the Eucharist. And polygyny is unquestionably Islamic, but not every Muslim has several wives.

Not all Islamic practices are obligatory: polygyny and child marriage are not obligatory, and whilst a Muslim must complete 5 prayers a day, there are optional (nawafil) prayers which confer additional rewards. Fasting outside of the month of Ramadhan, or giving sadaqah (voluntary charity) are also optional. The Shafi'i school makes FGM obligatory, the Maliki school recommends it, and the Hanafi school allows it. The schools' different levels of obligation are reflected in the incidence of FGM. And where it is merely 'allowed' or 'tolerated' are we surprised that parents abstain from an act that goes against parents deepest instincts?

The variations in the stances of the schools of fiqh to a large extent account for why not all Muslims practice FGM. There is also the encroachment of Christian and Western values, improving levels of education and progress in women's rights. However, the most condemnatory stance Islamic scholars can take on FGM is that it can't be forbidden, that it is 'allowed'.

But FGM is not an ethically neutral act, such as the Eucharist - swallowing a wafer - or Baptism - sprinkling water on a baby's head. FGM is an act of mutilation and torture carried out on a child. 'Allowing' is no more the appropriate base-line for such an act than it would be for child sexual abuse, rape or murder. A legal system does not need to make child sexual abuse compulsory for it to be defined as being favourable to child sexual abuse - it is sufficient that it allows child sexual abuse to earn itself that label.

Thus the fact that not all Muslims practice FGM is a consequence of some schools allowing FGM, others recommending it, and others mandating it. That some communities, where they have the freedom to choose, have historically chosen not to engage in FGM does not alter the fact that Islam's basic position of allowing FGM, makes FGM Islamic.

The FGM Hadith are weak

This argument is often mobilised to discredit inconvenient hadith.

Four of the seven 'FGM hadith', report Muhammad favouring FGM.

Two of these ('The fitrah is five things' and 'When the circumcised parts touch') are included in both sahih Bukhari and sahih Muslim. Both hadith compilations are considered wholly authoritative. Moreover these two hadith are also some of the best-supported hadith in these compilations. 'When the circumcised parts touch' is a 'tacit approval' in that it reports Muhammad referring in passing to FGM without him expressing disapproval of it - this is understood to count as his approval.

The two other hadith that report Muhammad's attitude towards FGM ('A preservation of honour for women' and 'Do not cut severely') are not generally considered as sahih, but hasan (good) or daif (weak).

Al-Bukhari also compiled the two adab ('Someone to Amuse Them' and 'Go and Circumcise Them and Purify Them') which touch on FGM. Al-Bukhari's evaluation of the hadiths within al-Adab al-Mufrad was not as rigorous as for his best-known collection - Sahih Bukhari. However, scholars have ruled most of the hadith in the collection as being sahih or hasan.

A seventh hadith ('One who circumcises other ladies') is also compiled by Bukhari and is thus sahih. It is not of interest doctrinally, but contains useful historical, sociological and linguistic information (see 'FGM before Islam: Islamic sources').

Doctrine cannot be generated from a weak hadith alone. However Dr. Yusuf Al-Qaradawi (a central figure affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood)^[24] decrees that a weak hadith can be used if:

1. the hadith not be very weak;
2. the hadith be within the scope of an authentic legal principle that is applied and accepted in either the Qur’an or Sunnah;
3. its weakness, not authenticity, be realized when applying it.

For example the information that Muhammad considered a form of FGM excessively sever can be taken from 'Do not cut severely', even assuming it a daif hadith, since it is not in contradiction with the stronger FGM hadith and does not contradict the Qur'an.

The hadith - whether daif, hasan, or sahih - all provide evidence that some form of FGM was practiced by Muhammad's followers. All of Islam treats the Quran and the Sunnah as the prime sources of doctrine. However, where an issue is not resolved by these secondary heuristics (daleel) are used for elucidating doctrine - and these heuristics are worked through in a hierarchical manner until the issue is resolved.

The Hanbali, Shafi'i and Maliki schools of Sunni Islam have as their principle daleels the consideration what the companions of Muhammad did or thought (Ijma, Ijtihad and Amal). The Hanafi school prioritises analogical deduction (Qiyas). Thus the deeds and words of the Muhammad's companions are second only to the Quran and Sunnah in determining what is Islamic or not - and are especially important where scholars find that the Qur'an and Hadith don't resolve an issue. The exception is the Hanafi school, which ascribes a lesser importance to the deeds and words of the Sahabah - which may explain why the Hanafi madhab rules FGM as merely 'optional' and why Hanafi Muslims generally don't practice FGM.^{[25] [26]}

The Qur'an forbids mutilation

This argument engages in the fallacy of Petitio Principi, or 'Begging the Question' (assuming in the premise of an argument that which one wishes to prove in the conclusion).

Islam forbids all mutilations to the human body – except those that it permits. Male circumcision, for example, is a mutilation that Islamic law permits, and therefore it is not forbidden. Likewise the amputation of hand and feet. Beheading, stoning, and crucifixion - which all involve mutilation prior to the victim's death - are all also permitted in Islamic law.

There is no record of Muhammad having his wives or daughters circumcised

There is also no record of Muhammad undergoing circumcision himself, or having his sons circumcised. There is no record of Mohammed having practiced many things which are justified or required by Islamic law: for example there is no record of Muhammad limiting himself to just four wives.

Indeed, it is unlikely that Muhammad would have needed to command or require the circumcision of his wives, since females in Mohammed’s circle would have been circumcised in childhood. In the hadith narrated by Umm ‘Alqama the persons being cut are clearly children and the function of Islamic FGM (see The Sociology of FGM) requires that it be prepubescents who are submitted to FGM, not adolescents or adults.

FGM in Islamic cultures is matriarchal custom, a taboo and secretive affair, usually arranged by female relatives. The hadith 'do not cut severely' and 'One who circumcises other ladies' depict women performing the mutilation, not men. Male family members are excluded and may not even realise that their community engages in the practice. ^[27] For example, it is possible for an educated young man from Oman (which is reported to have a 95.5% FGM-rate. ^[28]) to be not only unaware that FGM exists in his country, but also to be unaware that his own mother and sisters have undergone the procedure.

Muhammad wanted to forbid FGM but couldn't

The full argument is that Muhammad wanted to forbid FGM could not because he felt that the society wherein he lived was not ready to immediately do this, so in the Qur'an and by his Sunnah he prepared the ground for eventual abolition of the practice. The same argument is often made with respect to Islamic slavery.

What evidence is there that Muhammad wished FGM to be abolished?

The hadith that scholars are so ready to dismiss as daif (weak) when used as evidence that Muhammad approved of FGM, is sometimes mobilised, and treated as if it were sahih when used as evidence that he wanted to moderate the practice....

Other than this there is no evidence - instead he affirmed the practices that cause FGM: polygyny, sex-slavery - and also affirmed sister-practices (practices that emerge from the same causes, that create a normative, legal and isntitutional sturcutre that supports, justifies and normalises FGM) - child marriage, bride-price...

Muhammad was not shy of forbidding things which would have been dear to the people he ruled over - pigs and pork products, alcohol, gambling, music and singing - things that, when indulged in with moderation, give harmless pleasure.

One of the major ‘selling points’ of Mohammed’s new religion was that it overturned and rejected the established practices of pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism. Mohammed suddenly imposed on his followers such new practices as male circumcision, abstention from alcohol, pork, games, gambling, music, singing and art, ritual ablutions, praying 5 times a day… and these new rules were followed. It seems unlikely that refraining from FGM - a practice that goes against the deepest instincts of any parent - would be ‘one reform too many’ for his followers.

One can speculate how things would be different if, in the Qur'an, he had forbidden FGM with the same force he did alcohol, and not approved of it in his words and deeds in the Hadith. Would Islamic history and the Islamic world today would so rife with FGM?

Mohammed has served to fix slavery and FGM, rather than reduce it. We can see that slavery and fGM are still rife in the islamic world whereas FGM and slavery are disappearing from the non-Islamic world?.

Likewise, if Muhammad had personally abstained from slavery, instead of being an enthusiastic and relentless capturer, trader and enjoyer of slaves - this argument might be more coherent.

the Qur'an's and hadith's approval of FGM and slavery have been a major factor in the justification of perpetuation of the practice. One can speculate whether FGM would still be endemic to the Islamic world if the Qur'an contained a single verse explicitly forbidding it, or if there were not FGM in the hadith.

Mohammed successfully demanded that his followers abstain from pleasurable and/or beneficial things such as eating pork, drinking alcohol, interest in debt, the public display of women’s faces, instrumental music, and art that depicts the human form, the easy mixing and socialisation of men and women – how much more willingly would his followers have abandoned a practice that is harmful, and that must be distressing for loving parents to perform and witness?

• Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Female Genital Mutilation