Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam

The Book of Idols by Hisham ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819 CE) is a series of distantly remembered folk tales describing the outright idolatry of the pre-Islamic Arabs, with an overall narrative that this came to an end with the rise of Islam. Academic scholarship today recognises this as a false narrative, serving to bring the immediately pre-Islamic period into a sharper contrast with Islam.^[2][3] Our understanding of the religious landscape in pre-Islamic Arabia is being transformed in the 21st century by the study of epigraphic evidence (inscriptions on rocks, rock art, and their archaeological contexts), complemented with careful study of Quranic internal evidence and early Islamic sources, independent of later histographic works.

From the fourth century CE when Himyar began to embrace Judaism, pagan deities almost completely disappear from the epigraphic record of the South Arabian script family, commencing what is known as the monotheistic period in that southern part of Arabia. In their place, a single god, Rḥmnn (literally, The merciful) starts to appear, which eventually becomes the Quranic epithet al-Rahman (more on this below).^[4] Professor Ahmad al-Jallad, who is renowned for his work on the languages and writing systems of pre-Islamic Arabia, notes that the name raḥmān appears in a number of south Arabian pre-Islamic inscriptions and is derived from Jewish Aramaic raḥmānā.^[5] Sigrid Kjær observes that the use of Rahman (or Rahman-an with the definite article suffix) becomes truely monotheistic only in the sixth century CE, previously used in a monolatric context (the sole object of worship, even while other deities are acknowledged). The Quran has a chronological progression in the use of theonyms, with Rabb (lord) in the earliest phase, then al-Rahman, and later an almost exclusive use of the name Allah.^[6]

The word Allāh first appears in the epigraphic record as the name of one of many Nabataean deities in 1st century BCE or 1st century CE northern Arabia.^[7] The word possibly might have come from a contraction of al-ʾilāh (the god), though there are some linguistic difficulties with this idea. In any case it was the name of a deity at that time and there is no indication that it was associated with the monotheistic Judeo-Christian god. The name Abd Allah (like the name of Muhammad's father) first appears in a Nabataean pagan context. There they used the same construct also for other gods, for example ʿAbdu Manōti, "servant of Manāt". In Safaitic inscriptions (a script used in the north Arabian desert), the name Allāh is occasionally invoked, though other deities much more so. By the sixth century CE the name Allāh is applied in a monotheistic context around the Hijaz and at some point merges with the Christian al-ʾilāh (the god). Allah appears equated with al-Rahman (who in the south was associated with the Judeo-Christian God) in a pre-Islamic basmala inscription discovered in Yemen, as discussed in the next section below.^[8] Al-Jallad writes, "In contrast to South Arabia, the North Arabian monotheistic traditions of the 5th and 6th c. CE invoked al-ʾilāh/allāh. While al-ʾilāh is attested in clear Christian contexts, allāh is rarer and found in confessionally ambiguous contexts. It is impossible at this moment to decide whether the distinction between the two was simply regional or whether it betokened a confessional split. What is clear, however, is that “Raḥmān” was not used in pre-Islamic times in North Arabia."^[9]

The Basmala

The Islamic bismillah, "In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful" (Bismillah Ar-Rahman Ar-Raheem), is recited before the start of each surah and begins the al-Fatiha prayer. Within the surahs themselves, it occurs once only, in Quran 27:30.

In 2018 the first known pre-Islamic Basmala inscription was found on the side of a cliff in Yemen, reading in South Arabian Script, "In the name of Allah, Rahman; Rahman lord of the heavens" (bsmlh rḥmn rḥmn rb smwt). The rest of the inscription reads, "satisfy us by means of your favor, and grant us the essense of it (i.e. wisdom) to number our days". Writing about the discovery, Ahmad al-Jallad dates the inscription to the late 6th or early 7th century CE and observes that overall the inscription has a psalm like quality, likely impacted by Jewish or Christian liturgy. He interprets the second rḥmn as rḥm-n ("have mercy on us")^[10] He also notes that al-Rahman was originally a distinct deity to Allah, and not a mere descriptor of him seen in the Islamic basmalah. Maslamah, a Yemenite rival prophet to Muhammad, worshipped al-Rahman, the deity of ancient Himyar. Al-Jallad proposes that the basmala was used to synchronize the two monotheistic poles of Arabia, Allah in the north (where other deities completely disappear from the epigraphic record by the sixth century CE) with al-Rahman in the South. This equivalence was probably introduced during the Himyarite northward excursions in the sixth century. This regional difference is echoed in Quran 17:110. Ar-Raheem (the merciful) would then be an Islamic innovation appended to al-Rahman of the pre-Islamic Basmala which by then had come to represent an adjective describing Allah. ^[11] This pre-Islamic basmala and many other pre-Islamic inscriptions bear similarities with phrases and terminology found in the Quran.^[12] Rb smwt in the inscription ("Lord of the heavens") is similar to South Arabian inscriptions in the Sabaic language (mrʾ smyn w-ʾrḍn) a phrase which appears also in verses such as Quran 19:65 ("Lord of the heavens and the earth"; rabbu l-samāwāti wal-arḍi).^[13]

Spelling

Allāh is written lh in this pre-Islamic basmalah inscription found in Yemen, which is a spelling also found in north Arabia where bilingual Safaitic-Greek inscriptions confirm it was vocalised as allāh.^[10][7] In 2022, an expedition by al-Jallad together with Hythem Sidky discovered that in 6th to early 7th century pre-Islamic inscriptions, the spelling on inscriptions between Medina and Tabuk is ʾlh (which was also the Nabatean spelling), or lh, or when used in construct (iḍāfah), lhy. However, the double lām spelling ʾllh occurs on inscriptions in the region between Mecca and Taif, which is significant in terms of the spelling found in the Quran. In terms of orthography, the double lām spelling of allāh as found in the Quran is an unusual orthographic practice, since in semitic scripts a doubled consonant is not written twice.^[14][7]

Beliefs of the Quranic Mushrikeen

Historian Patricia Crone in a detailed article on the Quranic mushrikeen pointed out that many believed in Allāh as the Judeo-Christian creator god, but associated with him one or more lesser partners, usually described as gods but sometimes his offspring, and that he took female angels for himself. Sometimes these gods are named, most of which have also been found in rock inscriptions. The mushrikeen also believed in jinns and demons, and some worshipped heavenly bodies. Ahab Bdaiwi adds that only rarely is outright paganism found of the kind described in later sources (like Ibn al-Kalbi).^[15][16][17]

Allāh in pre-Islamic poetry

Nicolai Sinai notes in his 2019 paper Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry, that Allāh also appears in authentic pre-Islamic poetry as the name of an extremely powerful, perhaps best described as a 'high god' of the pagans, and not just the Christian-Judeo God as recognised by Crone. As previous scholars have recognized, for the Qur'anic pagans, Allāh was a creator god with a wide range of powers. In pre-Islamic Arabic poetry we see they considered Allāh a creator of the heavens and Earth, the master of human destinies, provider of rain, and as a God who will avenge oaths not kept. Prayers and Sacrifices were addressed to Allāh, who determines outcome of present goings-on, which overlaps with the Qur'ans proclamation of the pagan opponents. And similarly the Qur'anic pagans, nor the mainstream of pagan pre-Islamic poets, view Allāh as playing an eschatological role (i.e. - the idea of a universal judgment of the resurrected).^[18]

General Judeo-Christian Monotheism in Arabia

At the time of Muhammad, the two largest Near-East Empires at the time were the Byzantine (Roman) Empire, of which Christianity was the state religion,^[19]and Judaism was still practiced.^[20] And the Sasanian (Persian) empire where the Nestorian/Church of the East, although not the state religion, was practiced,^[21] as was Judaism.^[22]These had extensive contact with Arab tribes in the centuries leading up to Islam.

This is particularly documented with the pro-Roman and pro-Sasanian Arab factions led by two dynasties, the Jafnids or “Ghassānids,” and the Naṣrids or “Lakhmids”,^[23] who are depicted in many other non-Arabic sources.^[24]

As Lindstedt (2023) notes, the Ghassānids and Lakhmids rose to important positions as allies and sort of buffer states of the Byzantine empire and the Sasanian empire toward the end of the third century ce.^[25] the Ghassānids had converted around the 5th century, and the Lakhmids had converted pre-Islam.^[26] The Ghassānids were said to possess some kind of religious scripture, though it is not known exactly what it was.^[27] Both the Ghassānids and Lakhmids sponsored Christianity by e.g. building churches, And the Ghassānid elite are known to have built churches throughout the 6th century from archaeology.^[28] It is possible that already the fourth-century Lakhmid king Marʾ al-Qays ibn ʿAmr had converted to Christianity, though sometimes the Lakhmids’ embrace of Christianity is dated to the late sixth century; be that as it may, Arabic and non-Arabic sources suggest that the Lakhmids and the inhabitants of the area they ruled became majority-Christian before Islam, though it is difficult to state this with certainty.^[29]

He also notes that the tribe of Taghlib converted in the late sixth century, as evidenced by poetry composed by members of that tribe, and the Ṣāliḥids and Tanūkhids also became Christian. According to the surviving evidence, most North Arabian tribes embraced Christianity in its miaphysite form.^[30]

Monotheist inscriptions, most likely Christian, have further been found in NorthWest of Arabia, in the localities of alʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh, in Saudi Arabia, northwest from Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ (ancient Hegra) and Al-Jawf - the localities lie a bit over 500km via road from Medina, which as Lindstedt notes, is a similar distance of the 450km from Mecca to Medina.^[31] Jewish presence was also recorded as being established across the Hijaz centuries before Islam, with inscriptions from 230ce in Tayma stating a Jew was the 'headman' of the town, and similarly from Hegra and Dedan, including in Nabatean Arabic, and similar one's dated to 356–367ce; of which Hoyland remarks, the two inscriptions “are very important texts for north Arabian Jewry, for they imply that some of them at least were members of the elite of this society. Since the texts are separated by more than 150 years, we can also assume some stability for this office."^[32]

Lindstedt (2023) notes that in all probability the majority of inhabitants of Arabia were Jews/Christians,^[33] with the majority in the north Christians, and the majority in the south Jewish.^[34] It should also be noted that some later, Islamic-era writers (such as historians, commentators and poets) also identified a number of place names in and around Mecca that suggest that there were Christians living in or visiting Mecca such as for pilgrimage.^[35] For example, al-Azraqī (d. 837 ce) notes that there was a maqbarat al-naṣārā, “graveyard of the Christians,” in Mecca (without qualifying it further); Establishing the date and existence of this graveyard is difficult, but it is difficult to know what motivation the Muslim authors might have had for forging such information (as it goes so against Muslim traditions that paint Mecca as a pagan city).^[36]

To the South lay the Himyarite Kingdom (centered in modern-day Yemen), in which Christianity and Judaism gained large footholds since the 4th century,^[37] with rulers converting.^[38] Christian Julien Robin notes the development of a Judeo-inspired monotheism in the region labeled ‘Raḥmānism’ by A. F. L. Beeston during this time.^[39] Which was later conquered by the Christian Kingdom of Aksum/Axum (based in modern-day Ethiopian, Eritrean, Djiboutian and Sudanese Kingdom, which lay to the West of Arabia across the red sea and also exerted imperial force into the Arabian peninsula in the centuries preceding Islam)^[40] in the 6th century, spreading their influence until the Persians invaded in the latter half of the century.^[41] Furthermore, as El-Badawi (2024) records "there is evidence from the Talmud, possibly dating to ca. 400 CE, that priests expelled by Josiah’s purging of the temple fled Jerusalem for Arabia. They reportedly settled among the Ishmaelites and reached as far as Hadramaut in South Arabia."^[42]

As alluded to, regardless of tracing exact terms, academic scholarship has long recognised the penetration of Judeo-Christian Monotheism into the Arabian peninsula and among Arab tribes long before Islam. These would have provided both the stories and general concepts to the Hijaz, whether through Christian and Jewish tribes living side-by-side with the Quran's initial community, or simply through travellers telling stories and/or proselytizing, the movement of slaves who knew them, trade and commerce, pilgrimage etc.

There was also reports of sectarian violence between competing monotheist groups in Arabia.

Holyland (2008)^[43] notes the recorded involvement of Syriac Christian church authorities with emerging Arab Christianity during the early centuries CE. He highlights several examples of this interaction; such as Alexander, the bishop of Mabbugh (northeast of modern Aleppo, Syria), who built a church at Rusafa dedicated to St. Sergius, a saint revered by Arab tribes in the region. Syriac Christian figures like Jacob of Serug and Severus, the patriarch of Antioch, also wrote texts celebrating St. Sergius. In the early sixth century CE, Philoxenus, another bishop of Mabbugh, consecrated the first bishops of Najran in southwest Arabia in early sixth century CE. Other notable figures such as Elias, a martyr from south Arabia, who had been a monk at the convent of Mar Abraham of Tella (east of modern Edessa, Turkey), and Jacob of Serug and John the Psalter from the monastery of Aphtonia at Qenneshre (east of Aleppo) wrote works honoring Christian martyrs from Najran. So while there was no established center for Syriac Christianity in the Hijaz, there were clear lines of communication and influence passing through it.^[44]

Abrahamic revivalism

Muḥammad emphasizes following "the religion of Abraham" rather than Jews or Christians (Quran 2:135, Quran 3:67). The Qurʾān elevates Abraham's son Ishmael, who was believed to be the ancestor of the Arabs based on later writers' interpretations of the biblical 'Ishmaelites'^[45] (however in the bible it is his other son Isaac whom a covenant is established, while Ishmael is specifically left out).^[46] In the Qurʾān Ishmael is now a prophet, and it describes him and Abraham building a temple (Quran 2:125-127), identified in Islamic tradition as the Ka'aba in Mecca. This narrative of his followers descending from Ishmael not only aligns Arab monotheism with Abraham's legacy through genealogy but also establishes a religious charter for the Meccan sanctuary and pilgrimage, providing Muḥammad a significant foundation for his teachings.

Michael Cook 2024 notes that this idea that the Arabs were descendants of Abraham Quran 22:78 pre-dates the Qurʾān, and was well-known in the cultural millennia to the Arabs, as Sozomenus, a Christian (born c. 380, Bethelea, near Gaza, Palestine—died c. 450, Constantinople, Byzantine Empire [now Istanbul, Turkey.])^[47] wrote that some had learned of this fact and began practicing a Jewish inspired monotheism over paganism in his own time, several centuries before Islam.

In Islamic tradition

It is also worth noting that even in the traditional account, while doubted by modern academics (as mentioned above), there are both Jews and Christians who appear.

Islamic Prophet Narratives

As many Islamic scholars with a variety of views on the religions' origins, for example Nicolai Sinai,^[48] Angelika Neuwirth,^[49] Robert G. Hoyland,^[50] Andrew Bannister^[51] and Stephen Shoemaker,^[52] have noted, that the Qur'an appears to recall Biblical and Arabian stories in an allusive way that pre-supposes the audience is already familiar with the wider more detailed story and characters. This suggests that these were commonly known in the environment that it was originally preached in, and we see further evidence of this alongside the proximity of Judeo-Christian monotheists, with examples have been found in pre-Islamic poetry.^[53]

The Quran frequently mentions a secure sanctuary or house where rituals take place, which it names "the Ka'bah, the sacred house" in Quran 5:95-97. Traditionally, this is identified with the "foundations of the house" raised by Abraham and Ishmael in Quran 2:127, which is probably the intended implication. See also Quran 3:96 which says the first house for mankind where Abraham used to pray was built at Bakkah, generally understood to mean Mecca, and Quran 14:35-41 where the sacred house built by Abraham is described in the same terms as the Ka'bah in other verses. Even more explicit is Quran 22:26-29 where the site of the house of Abraham is identified with the "ancient house" which it permits pilgrims to circumambulate. There is, however, little to no direct evidence on the pre-Islamic history of the Ka'bah in Mecca. In contrast, there is some significant indirect evidence bearing on the question and it does not favour the traditional understanding.

In his paper Foundations of the house, Joseph Witztum discusses this verse (Quran 2:127). He argues that the Quranic scene reflects a number of post-Biblical traditions building on Genesis 22 where Abraham goes to sacrifice Isaac (in the Quran, instead it is Ishmael). In later exegetical traditions, Abraham builds an altar for the sacrifice and Isaac willingly offers himself for slaughter. By the time of Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews 1:227 (1st century CE), Isaac even helps in its construction. In the 4th to 5th centuries several (mostly Syriac) Christian homilies take up this motif. Then a 6th century CE Syriac homily by Jacob of Serugh on Genesis 22 describes them as building not just an altar but a "house" (Syriac: bayta), like in the Quran (Arabic: bayt). Witztum argues that the Quran transfers this imagery associated with Jerusalem to Mecca.^[54] The clearly late development of the idea that Abraham build a sacred house in which to sacrifice his son undermines the idea that there is any history to the story, let alone that the Ka'bah in Mecca is the location where it happened. For many more examples of Syriac Christian narrative elements in the Quran, see the article Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature

Witztum's findings are also summarised by Gabriel Said Reynolds in his academic commentary on the Quran. At the same time Reynolds notes that the 5th century CE Byzantine historian Sozomen (d. 450 CE) records that the Arabs made an annual pilgrimage to Hebron near Jerusalem where Abraham traditionally received a divine visitation (Genesis 18). Reynolds suggests the possibility that this Arab pilgrimage was eventually transferred to Mecca.^[55] Indeed, it seems strange that these Arabs would go all the way to Hebron for pilgrimage if Abraham's house was already identified with a sanctuary in Mecca at that time. Professor Sean Anthony has written a useful further discussion on the topic.^[56] Patricia Crone is widely considered to have established that Mecca was of no wider importance at the time of Islam's emergence, was not on the major trade route, and traded in goods like leather, wool and other pastoral products.^[57]

A place called Macoraba in Arabia is mentioned in a geographic work by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. Many academic scholars believe this is a reference to Mecca (first proposed in the 16th century), and some even think that the name derives from an ancient South Arabian word for temple, mkrb. Others historians such as Patricia Crone and Ian D. Morris have argued that there is no good reason to believe Macoraba and Mecca are the same place. The idea has never been backed by any significant academic investigation, nor has any other ancient source been shown to describe Mecca or its temple.^[58]

It seems that Muhammad unwittingly merely continued a pre-Islamic tradition of worship and pilgrimage at the Ka'bah. Its identification with the house of Abraham is without any historical foundation. Evidence suggests that not even the story that Abraham and his son built a sacred house at all had any significant antiquity.

Later narratives recorded in hadiths

According to the hadith, the Ka'bah in Mecca was a center of idol-worship, housing 360 idols:

In one hadith Muhammad said it was built 40 years prior to the Temple at Jerusalem:

The Temple at Jerusalem was built by Solomon around 958-951 BC, whereas Abraham is alleged to have lived around 2000 BC so both Abraham and Ishmael would have been dead by then.

According to another hadith Muhammad even considered dismantling it:

Religious language

Islamic scholar Peter Webb (2023) notes that Qur'anic religious language is found in pre-Islamic poetry such as muʿtamir, formed from the same root as the Muslim ʿumrah, to describe a pilgrim, and several pre-Islamic poets invoke the word ḥijaj (lit. ‘pilgrimages’, a plural of ḥijjah) to express the concept of ‘years’, especially ‘years gone by’.ʿUmrah/muʿtamir, to Webb's knowledge, do not appear as terms for reckoning time in poetry, whereas that metaphorical aspect attaches to ḥijaj alone, suggesting that ḥajj likely did connote an annually-occurring pilgrimage (while ʿumrah did not), and that a regular pattern of annual pilgrimages known as hajjes was sufficiently well-established to enable the term ‘pilgrimage’ to serve as a metaphor for the passage of time itself.^[59] Several pre-Islamic poets refer to the Hajj sacrifice animals in precisely the same term as the Qur’an’s hady, which suggests more continuity than change.^[60]

Shaving hair

The shaving hair ritual during Ḥajj, found in hadith such as:

And for example Sahih Bukhari 2:26:786, Sahih Muslim 7:2992 and Sunan Ibn Majah 4:25:3044, has been found in pre-Islamic poetry as part of the pilgrimage, where Webb (2023) notes:

As well in the Abū Dhuʾyab al-Hudhalī (a roughly contemporary of Muhammad) corpus.^[61]

Tawaf between Safa and Marwa

Doing Tawaf between Safa and Marwa is an Islamic ritual associated with the pilgrimage to Mecca. Safa and Marwa are two mounts, located at Mecca. This ritual entails Muslims walking frantically between the two mounts, seven times.

According to a hadith in Bukhari, this was originally a pre-Islamic practice, which may explain the phrase "there is no blame upon him" in the above quoted verse.

A tradition also exists about Hagar running between these two mounts in search of water until she found the Zamzam Well.

Requirement of Ihram

Ihram is a state a Muslim enters into for his pilgrimage to Mecca. It involves a series of procedures like ritual washing, wearing 'Ihram garments', etc. The practice of reciting talbiyah (invocations) at the point of entering Ihram goes back to the pre-Islamic Arabs. The early Islamic historian Muqātil b. Sulaymān (d. 150/767) describes 56 such invocations read before Ihram, each tribe having their own.^[62]

Ihram was according to hadith in Sahih Bukhari originally a pagan requirement for worshiping idols during pre-Islamic times. Muhammad retained this practice for Islam. Muslims assume Ihram to perform the Hajj or Umrah.

Circumambulation 7 Times

A few verses in the Quran permits circumambulation around the sacred house, which it states was a command originally given to Abraham at the same place. Circumambulation means to circle around. In Islam, pilgrims do this seven times around the Ka'bah at Mecca.

The historian Robert Hoyland says regarding the same practice in pre-Islamic religion:

Judaism and Christianity (the religions of those who are considered People of the Book) do not practice ritual circumambulation to please God. Two of the other major faiths with similar practice are Hinduism and Buddhism (called Parikrama). Both of these faiths are accused by traditional Islam of “paganism” and practicing idolatry.

If hadiths are to be believed, Muhammad performed circumambulation around the Ka'bah even before he had cast out the idols therefrom. While such accounts may be doubted, see the end of the introduction sections of the article Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature regarding early Muslim eyewitness accounts of Judeo-Christian religious icons in the Ka'ba.

The pagan gods of pre-Islamic Arabia were worshiped in the form of rectangular stones or rocks. For example, the pagan deity 'Al-Lat', mentioned in Quran 53:19, and believed by pre-Islamic pagans to be one of the daughters of Allah, was once venerated as a cubic rock at Ta'if in Saudi Arabia according to Islamic sources on the subject written after the rise of Islam. An edifice was built over the rock to mark it apart as a house of worship.

Encyclopedia Britannica online says the following about pre-Islamic religious sanctuaries.

The Jewish Encyclopedia online states:

Touching the black stone seemed uncomfortably close to idolatry for some early Islamic scholars, though the tradition was accepted based on the practice of the earliest Caliphs.^[64][65]

According to a tradition in Ibn Ishaq's Sira, Muhammad was chosen by the Quraysh to place the black stone in the newly rebuilt Kaaba when he was 35 years old, 5 years before his prophethood commenced.^[66]

Pagans prior to Islam would pray five times per day towards Mecca.^[67] Muhammad retained for Islam this pre-Islamic practice, sanctioning it with a story of a night trip to heaven on a mythical beast called al-Buraq. In heaven, the Hadith tells us that Allah demanded 50 prayers per day per Muslim. Upon advice from Moses, Muhammed bargains with Allah and successfully reduces it to five prayers per day.

Zoroastrians are also expected to recite their (kusti) prayers at least five times a day having first cleansed themselves by washing (ablution). These Islamic practices show Zoroastrian influence.^[68] But, contrary to the Muslims, Zoroastrians pray in the direction of the Sun (at each time of the day) and/or of the Holy Fire (if they are in a Fire Temple). ^[69]

The Quran contains a mention of four scared months, and gives an admonishment against those who alter them year by year.

In extra-Qur'anic material such as the hadith and commentaries we learn that these months are called Dhul Qadha, Dhul Hijjah, Muharram and Rajab, which the pre-Islamic pagan Arabs used to consider sacred during the time of Jahiliyyah, where tribal fighting would be agreed to stop and pilgrimage could be performed safely.^[70] Sinning in these months is considered greater than others.^[71]

Fasting on the day of Ashura (i.e. 10^th of Muharram) is an optional fast observed annually by Sunni Muslims and to a lesser extent in Shia Islam. There were two conflicting hadith traditions as to its origin.^[72] In one tradition, it is connected with the Jews of Medina, while the other attributes it to the Quraysh. One version of the first narrative has it that Muhammad observed this fast until it was abrogated by the obligation to fast in Ramadan. This is also found in the alternative narrative tracing it to the pagan Arabs which is shown below.

There are many 'oaths' in the Quran often at the start of surahs 'swearing' on something.

Stewart (2012)^[73] notes that the oaths at the beginning of many Qur'anic surahs (along with other Qur'anic features) belong to a pre-Islamic oracular tradition tied to soothsaying. These oaths often invoke celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars, as well as natural phenomena such as night, day, and specific times. Historically, some of these celestial entities were worshiped as deities, including by the Quraysh tribe. In the Qur'an, however, their predictable regularity is emphasized as a sign of God's control over the universe. The use of oaths referencing specific times of day reflects a continuation of pre-Islamic poetic and oracular conventions. Examples include swearing by the dawn, twilight, morning, and other specific times, as seen in various verses (e.g., Quran 92:1-2, Quran 74:32-34, Quran 81:18, Quran 89:1, Quran 84:15). Mysterious letters and references to scripture are sometimes combined with an oath, as in Qāf * wa-l-Qurʾāni l-majīd *, “Q. By the Glorious  Qurʾān” (Q 50:1); Nūn wa-l-qalami wa-mā yasṭurūn, “N. By the pen and what they record” (Q 68:1); Ḥā mīm wa-l-kitābi l-mubīn, “Ḥ. M. By the clear Book” (43:1–2; 44:1–2).^[74] He notes on the origin of these kind of oaths in pre-Islamic Arabia.

In Quran 5:38 the penalty for theft is given as hand amputation. In hadiths the penalty for married adulterers is Stoning, (though only lashings are mentioned for zina in the Quran).

Walter Young has shown that the hadd penalties of stoning adulters and hand amputation for theft had pre-Islamic parallels in Arab customary law. Young writes:

Main article: Shooting Stars in the Quran

The idea of shooting stars chasing away eavesdropping devils has Zoroastrian, Jewish, and probably Arabian roots. This was noted by Patricia Crone in the commentary published following the 2012-13 Qur'an Seminar (a series of academic conferences).^[76] She argues that though the Zoroastrian sources were written after the Quran, their contents date to the Sassanian period, before the rise of Islam. Here the fixed stars and constellations are warriors led by the sun and moon to repel demons represented by moving bodies (planets and comets) from passing to the upper heaven. It is in the Jewish Testament of Solomon (1st to 3rd century CE) where the demons who fly up among the stars are not warriors but rather try to listen into God's decisions about men. Here, people see shooting stars as the exhausted demons falling back to earth. Eavesdropping demons also feature in the Babylonian Talmud.

Allah as "Moon God"

See the section above on the origins of the name Allah. A popular internet polemic propogates the idea that Allah derives from the Arabian moon Goddess al-Lah. This idea was proposed in 1901 by the early twentieth century German scholar Hugo Winckler. It is universally dismissed by academic scholars today on both historical and linguistic grounds.

Crescent Moon symbol and Hubal

Another popular internet claim is that the Islamic crescent moon symbol derives from the hadith reports that an Arabian moon god, Hubal was worshipped at the Ka'bah. In fact, the star and crescent moon symbol was actually adopted by coins of the early Islamic empire in continuity with those of the Sasanian empire which it had conquered, but only became a symbol of Islam some centuries later when it was used as a flag symbol by the Ottomans. Originally it has an origin on Greco-Roman coins in a pagan context, some argue with Summerian lineage, and was also present on Byzantine Christian coins as a simple iconographic motif. See the Crescent Moon article for more detail.

According to Ibn Hisham, Muhammad's pagan grandfather Abd al-Muttalib almost slaughtered Muhammad's father Abdallah at the Ka’aba, to Hubal:

According to tradition, the Ka’bah, Islam's holiest shrine, had been a place where such pagan human sacrifices and slaughters have taken place for Hubal. When Muhammad founded Islam, according to Islamic sources he discarded Hubal and all the other pagan gods. At the Battle of Badr, his enemy Abu Sufyan praised the high position of moon god Hubal, saying "O Hubal, be high". Muhammad asked his followers to yell back, "Allah is higher".^[78] This is supposed to be the origin of the commonly uttered phrase "Allahu Akbar" in Arabic.

• The Origins of the Qur'an
• Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature

Translations

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