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There has been much confusion spread in regards to the nature of [[Jihad]] in [[Islam]]. This article looks at and corrects the most common misconceptions.
Jihad جهاد in Arabic literally means "struggle" coming from the Arabic verb جاهد jaahada meaning to "strive." Jihad fi sabil Allah جهاد في سبيل الله is thus literally "struggle/striving on the path of god." Historically, the use of the word jihad has been very wide semantically, with applications from war to spiritual discipline to reform and many, many things in between. Despite these wide and varied applications, though, the main meaning of jihad in Islamic law from the origins of the religion to the classic period to the present day continues to be armed struggle. To scholars, this was either to expand the realm of Islamic political dominance or to defend Islamic lands from infidels, with the expansion of Islamic political dominance being part-and-parcel to a social and political system which advances the interest of the Muslim religion and induces the peoples conquered in this warfare to convert to Islam. This socio-political system, that of the [[dhimma]], is intimately connected to the institution of "jihad at-talab" جهاد الطلب the "jihad of request" involving the three-option offer that an Islamic force must make before commencing hostilities against an infidel enemy: 1. Conversion to Islam. 2. Payment of the [[jizyah]] and subjection to Islamic political dominion and the strictures of the [[dhimma]]. 3. Fighting until death.


==Jihad was Mostly Offensive Throughout History==
Jews and Christians were required to pay the ''jizyah'' while pagans were required to either accept Islam or die.<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |location=New York |date=17 August 2021|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref> Upon payment of the tax (''jizya''), the ''dhimmi'' would receive a receipt of payment, either in the form of a piece of paper or parchment or as a seal humiliatingly placed upon their neck, and was thereafter compelled to carry this receipt wherever he went within the realms of Islam - failure to produce an up-to-date ''jizya'' receipt on the request of a Muslim could result in death or forced conversion to Islam of the ''dhimmi'' in question<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yeʼor|first1=B|title=The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam|date=2011|publisher=Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|page=79}}</ref>.


According to Muslim scholar Dr. Hawarey, 80% of the battles Muhammad participated in were offensive.<ref>[http://military.hawarey.org/military_english.htm Military Operations in the Era of Prophet Mohammed (SAW)] - military.hawarey.org</ref>
Scholars from as early as the Umayyad period interpreted the Quran as legitimising expansionist warfare. Modernist scholars emphasise the hostile environment in which the verses were revealed and dispute the traditonal interpretations, including their extensive use of the doctine of [[Naskh_(Abrogation)|abrogation]].


===Qur'an===
==Jihad in the Qur'an and Sunnah==
===Jihad in the Qur'an===
The words "jihad" and "fighting" (قتال--Qitaal) appear frequently in the Medinan surahs of the Qur'an. In his academic book on this topic, Reuven Firestone documents in detail the traditional interpretations of such verses. Regarding the key fighting verses in general, Firestone notes the lack of consistent tradition in commentaries on how to interpret them, while the legal literature fits the verses into an evolutionary schema of increasing permission to fight, from defensive purposes all the way to aggressive warfare. Firestone himself considers the verses to be inconsistent and to reflect different factions of believers who sought to influence Muhammad with their views on fighting, noting the abundant evidence in the Quran itself that there were groups strongly disinclined to fight. Disregarding the traditional chronology of verses, which is inextricably tied to the evolutionary model of later interpretation, he groups verses according to these factions.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam'', New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 64-69</ref>


'''Verse 9:29'''
Many modern academic scholars are influenced by the traditional evolutionary model regarding permission to fight, though other academics, as well as modernist Muslim scholars (from as early as the 19th century) and increasingly, Muslims scholars more widely are emphasising the Quran as the primary historical source for this period, which later historical material should be interpreted in light of rather than the other way around.


{{Quote|{{Quran|9|29}}|'''Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.'''}}
According to Patricia Crone, modernist muslim scholars cast the conflicts fought by Muhammad as "defensive or pre-emptive", as did some earlier scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah.<ref>See page 159 in Patricia Crone, [https://www.ias.edu/sites/default/files/hs/Crone_Articles/Crone_la_ikraha.pdf ''No Compulsion in Religion: Q 2:256 in Mediaeval and Modern Interpretation''] In Le Shi’isme Imamite Quarante ans apres: Hommage ‘a Etan Kohlberg. Edited by Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher and Simon Hopkins. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2009, pp. 131–78</ref> These modernist Muslim scholars do not regard the Quran as anywhere giving a general dispensation for expansive warfare, which like some academic scholars, they argue was a later reinterpretation to legitimise the emerging Arab empire.


'''Explanation of verse 9:29'''
In her article "War" for the Encyclopedia of the Quran, Crone says fighting is legitimised in the Quran for self defence, including pre-emptively ({{Quran|9|8}} and {{Quran|60|2}}), as well as for the defence of others ({{Quran|4|75}}) and against treaty breakers ({{Quran-range|9|13|14}}). She says that throughout the Quran it is stressed that fighting must stop when the enemy does so and the language of forgiveness is reiterated amidst the often militant language. To Crone, the only verse which seems to endorse aggressive warfare is {{Quran|9|29}}, though this perhaps can be read as a continuation of {{Quran-range|9|1|23}} concerning the treaty breakers.<ref name="CroneWarSummary">A brief summary of Crone's Encyclopedia of the Quran article can be seen[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Islamic_International_Law_and_Jihad_War/YgazDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA22&printsec=frontcover here]</ref>


{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5035 The Order to fight until there is no more Fitnah]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Allah then commanded fighting the disbelievers when He said:
Modernists stress the oppressive environment and danger faced by the early community, pointing out that the Quran itself mentions a number of times that the believers were forced to migrate to Medina. According to the first letter of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (d. 713 CE), the believers first migrated to Abyssinia before returning to Mecca, and later migrated to Medina due to what he calls ''al-fitnah al-ūlā'' and ''al-fitnah al-ākhira'' (the first and final trials of persecution), respectively. Similar terminology was used at a later time in reference to the Islamic civil wars in the early decades after Muhammad's death.


In the sections below, important Quranic themes and verses are examined, along with their interpretations by traditional Muslim scholars, Islamic modernists and modern academic scholars. Early Islamic historical literature is also discussed in relation to the interpretations of the verses.


(...until there is no more Fitnah) meaning, Shirk. This is the opinion of Ibn `Abbas, Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ar-Rabi`, Muqatil bin Hayyan, As-Suddi and Zayd bin Aslam.
====Early fighting verses====
There was a consensus among commentators that {{Quran|2|217}} was revealed following a caravan raid which was controversial in terms of whether or not the sacred months in which fighting was prohibited had finished.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad'' p. 57</ref> This raid was the first expedition mentioned by 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr in his letters about the early history of Islam. These letters are regarded as an important early source and the relevant letters are summarised in a later section in this article. In that verse, the Quran justifies killing in the sacred months in the context of the "fitna" (trial of oppression) and forced migration of the believers to Medina.


Allah's statement:
There was considerable discussion about the scope of the obligation to fight mentioned in the previous verse, Q 2:216, especially on whether it was a collective obligation (fard kifiya) that could be met by just a group of believers without involving everyone. In this regard, {{Quran|9|122}} was also a key verse ("And the believers should not all go out to fight [...]").<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad'' pp. 60-61</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|216|217}}|216 Fighting has been enjoined upon you while it is hateful to you. But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah Knows, while you know not.<BR />
217 They ask you about the sacred month - about fighting therein. Say, "Fighting therein is great [sin], but averting [people] from the way of Allah and disbelief in Him and [preventing access to] al-Masjid al-Haram and the expulsion of its people therefrom are greater [evil] in the sight of Allah. And fitnah is greater than killing." And they will continue to fight you until they turn you back from your religion if they are able. And whoever of you reverts from his religion [to disbelief] and dies while he is a disbeliever - for those, their deeds have become worthless in this world and the Hereafter, and those are the companions of the Fire, they will abide therein eternally.}}


(...and the religion (all and every kind of worship) is for Allah (Alone).) means, `So that the religion of Allah becomes dominant above all other religions.' It is reported in the Two Sahihs that Abu Musa Al-Ash`ari said: "The Prophet was asked, `O Allah's Messenger! A man fights out of bravery, and another fights to show off, which of them fights in the cause of Allah' The Prophet said:
===="Fight them until persecution is no more, and the religion is for Allah"====
 
Q 2:190-94 is regarded as a particularly important passage in terms of the principles for fighting.
 
(He who fights so that Allah's Word is superior, then he fights in Allah's cause.) In addition, it is reported in the Two Sahihs:
 
(I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight the people until they proclaim, `None has the right to be worshipped but Allah'. Whoever said it, then he will save his life and property from me, except for cases of the law, and their account will be with Allah.) }}
 
{{Quote|[http://quran.com/2/193 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:193]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|Fight them till there is no sedition, no idolatry, and the religion, all worship, is for God, alone and none are worshipped apart from Him; then if they desist, from idolatry, do not aggress against them. This is indicated by the following words, there shall be no enmity, no aggression through slaying or otherwise, save against evildoers. Those that desist, however, are not evildoers and should not be shown any enmity.}}
 
'''Verse 2:193'''
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|193}}|'''Fight them until there is no [more] fitnah and religion and every kind of worship is for Allah alone.'''}}
 
'''Explanation of verse 2:193'''
 
{{Quote|{{cite web quotebox|url=http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2567&Itemid=/ |title= The Order to fight People of the Scriptures until They give the Jizyah|}}<BR>Tafsir ibn Kathir|(Fight against those who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth among the People of the Scripture,)
 
This honorable Ayah was revealed with the order to fight the People of the Book, after the pagans were defeated, the people entered Allah's religion in large numbers, and the Arabian Peninsula was secured under the Muslims' control. Allah commanded His Messenger to fight the People of the Scriptures, Jews and Christians, on the ninth year of Hijrah, and he prepared his army to fight the Romans and called the people to Jihad announcing his intent and destination. The Messenger sent his intent to various Arab areas around Al-Madinah to gather forces, and he collected an army of thirty thousand. Some people from Al-Madinah and some hypocrites, in and around it, lagged behind, for that year was a year of drought and intense heat. The Messenger of Allah marched, heading towards Ash-Sham to fight the Romans until he reached Tabuk, where he set camp for about twenty days next to its water resources. He then prayed to Allah for a decision and went back to Al-Madinah because it was a hard year and the people were weak, as we will mention, Allah willing.}}
 
===Scholars===
 
<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Suyuti Imam Al-Suyuti]</span> (c. 1445-1505 AD) was a famous Egyptian writer, religious scholar, juristic expert and teacher.
 
{{Quote|Suyuti, Durr al-Manthur(Beirut Edition), vol. 3, p. 228|Fight those who don't believe in God nor in the Last Day [Unless they believe in the Prophet God bless him and grant him peace] nor hold what is forbidden that which God and His emissary have forbidden [e.g., wine] nor embrace the true faith [which is firm, and abrogates other faiths, i.e., the Islamic religion] from among [for distinguishing] those who were given the Book [i.e., the Jews and Christians] unless they give the head-tax [i.e., the annual taxes imposed on them] ''(/'an yadin/)'' humbly submissive, and obedient to Islam's rule.<ref>Suyuti, ''Durr al-Manthur'' ... (Beirut, n.d.), vol. 3, p. 228, where Suyuti quotes various traditions.</ref>}}
Al Azhar University Scholar, Dr. M. Sa’id Ramadan Al-Buti:
 
{{Quote|Dr. M. Sa’id Ramadan Al-Buti - "Jurisprudence of Muhammad’s Biography", Pg. 135|
"The theory that our religion is a peaceful and loving religion is a wrong theory...The Holy war as it is known in Islam is basically an offensive war, and it is the duty of all Muslims of every age, when the needed military power is available, because our prophet Muhammad said that he is ordered by Allah to fight all people until they say ‘No God but Allah,’ and he is his messenger...It is meaningless to talk about the holy war as only defensive, otherwise, what did the prophet mean when he said, "from now on even if they don’t invade you, you must invade them.""}}
 
Leader of the Afghan Jihad, <span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]
 
{{Quote|[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html%20IslamicEmirate.com Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad]<BR>Sheikh Abdullah Azzam|"Jihad Against the Kuffar is of two Types:  Offensive Jihad (where the enemy is attacked in his own territory) ... [and] Defensive Jihad. This is expelling the Kuffar from our land, and it is Fard Ayn [personal religious obligation on Muslim individuals], a compulsory duty upon all ...
 
...Where the Kuffar [infidels] are not gathering to fight the Muslims, the fighting becomes Fard Kifaya [religious obligation on Muslim society]  with the minimum requirement of appointing believers to guard borders, and the sending of an army at least once a year to terrorise the enemies of Allah. It is a duty of the Imam (Caliph) to assemble and send out an army unit into the land of war once or twice every year. Moreover, it is the responsibility of the Muslim population to assist him, and if he does not send an army he is in sin.- And the Ulama have mentioned that this type of jihad is for maintaining the payment of [[Jizyah|Jizya]]. The scholars of the principles of religion have also said: " Jihad is Daw'ah [Islamic preaching] with a force, and is obligatory to perform with all available capabilities, until there remains only Muslims or people who submit to Islam."<ref>Defence of the Muslim Lands: The First Obligation After Iman - Abdullah Azzam</ref>}}
 
<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taymiyyah Ibn Taymiyyah]</span> (1263 - 1328) was one of the most famous Islamic scholars and theologians to ever live. As a member of the school founded by Ibn Hanbal, he sought the return of Islam to its sources, the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|The penalties that the ''Sharia'' has introduced for those who disobey God and his Messengers of two kinds: the punishment of those who are under the sway [of an imam], both individuals and collectivities, as has been mentioned before [in the chapter on criminal law], and, secondly, the punishment of recalcitrant groups, such as those that can only be brought under the sway of the Imam by a decisive fight. That then is the jihad against the unbelievers (kuffar), the enemies of God and His Messenger. For whoever has heard the summons of the Messenger of God, Peace be upon him, and has not responded to it must be fought, "''until there is no Fitna and the religion of God's entirely''" (K. 2:193, 8:39).<ref>Excerpted from Rudolph Peters, ''[http://hss.fullerton.edu/comparative/jihad_relmora.pdf Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam]'' (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1996), pp. 44-54.</ref>}}
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|"Since lawful warfare is essentially Jihad and since its aim is that religion is entirely for Allah and the word of Allah is uppermost, therefore, according to all Muslims, those who stand in the way of this aim must be fought.<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah">Shaykh ul-Islaam Taqi ud-Deen Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah - '[http://www.fisabeelillah.org/books/manhaj/The-Religious-And-Moral-Doctrine-Of-Jihad.pdf The Religious and Moral Doctrine of Jihaad]' - p.28, © Copyright 2001 Maktabah Al Ansaar Publications, ISBN: 0-9539847-5-3 </ref>}}
 
Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) was an Islamic scholar and a prominent Sufi. He is regarded as having rejuvenated Islam, due to which he is commonly called "Mujadid Alf Thani", meaning "reviver of the second millennium".
 
{{Quote||''Shariat can be fostered through the sword.<BR><BR>
''Kufr'' and Islam are opposed to each other. The progress of one is possible only at the expense of the other and co-existences between these two contradictory faiths in unthinkable.<BR><BR>
The honor of Islam lies in insulting ''kufr'' and ''kafirs''. One who respects ''kafirs'', dishonors the Muslims. To respect them does not merely mean honouring them and assigning them a seat of honor in any assembly, but it also implies keeping company with them or showing considerations to them. They should be kept at an arm's length like dogs. ... If some worldly business cannot be performed without them, in that case only a minimum of contact should be established with them but without taking them into confidence. The highest Islamic sentiment asserts that it is better to forego that worldly business and that no relationship should be established with the ''kafirs''.<BR><BR>
The real purpose in levying ''jizya'' on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that, on account of fear of ''jizya'', they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honor and might of Islam.<BR>. . .<BR>
Whenever a Jew is killed, it is for the benefit of Islam.<ref>Excerpted from Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, ''Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries'' (Agra, Lucknow: Agra University, Balkrishna Book Co., 1965), pp.247-50; and Yohanan Friedmann, ''Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity'' (Montreal, Quebec: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971), pp. 73-74.</ref>}}
 
For further information, see: [[Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Scholars_on_Jihad|Scholars on Jihad]]
 
===Hadith===
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|8|387}}, See also: {{Bukhari|1|2|24}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:
 
Allah's Apostle said, "I have been ordered to fight the people till they say: 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah.' And if they say so, pray like our prayers, face our Qibla and slaughter as we slaughter, '''then their blood and property will be sacred''' to us and we will not interfere with them except legally and their reckoning will be with Allah." Narrated Maimun ibn Siyah that he asked Anas bin Malik,
 
"O Abu Hamza! '''What makes the life and property of a person sacred?" He replied, "Whoever says, 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah'''', faces our Qibla during the prayers, prays like us and eats our slaughtered animal, then he is a Muslim, and has got the same rights and obligations as other Muslims have."}}
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|59|435}}|
On the day of Al-Ahzab (i.e. clans) the Prophet said, (After this battle) we will go to attack them (i.e. the infidels) and they will not come to attack us." [https://sunnah.com/bukhari/64/153, 5:59:435] }}
 
===Actions of the Khalifa===
 
'''Khalid ibn al Walid'''
 
The following letter was written by Khalid, from his head-quarters in Babylonia, to the Persian monarch before invading it.
 
{{Quote||Submit to Islam and be safe. Or agree to the payment of the Jizya, and you and your people will be under our protection, else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences, for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life.<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid Tabari and History of the World], Volume IV Book XII. The Mohammedan Ascendency, page 463, by John Clark Ridpath, LL.D. 1910.</ref>}}
 
'''Umar ibn Al Khattab'''
 
{{Quote|Umar ibn al-Khattab during the conquest of al-Basrah (636 CE)|Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.<ref>Al-Tabari, ''The History of al-Tabari (Ta'rikh al rusul wa'l-muluk)'', vol. 12: ''The Battle of Qadissiyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine,'' trans. Yohanan Friedman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 167.</ref>}}
 
'''Abu Bakr as Siddiqi'''
 
{{Quote|Tabari|You [Khosru and his people] should convert to Islam, and then you will be safe, for if you don't, you should know that I have come to you with an army of men that love death, as you love life.<ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/stalinsky200405240846.asp Dealing in Death] - Steven Stalinsky - National Review, May 24, 2004</ref>}}
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|9|84|59}}, See also: {{Bukhari|2|23|483}}|When the Prophet died and Abu Bakr became his successor and some of the Arabs reverted to disbelief, 'Umar said, "O Abu Bakr! How can you fight these people although Allah's Apostle said, 'I have been ordered to fight the people till they say: 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah, 'and whoever said, 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah', Allah will save his property and his life from me}}
 
For further information, see: [[Invitation to Islam Prior to Jihad]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jizyah]]
 
==Non-Combatants==
 
According to the hadith, Muhammad allowed the killing of women and children during nocturnal attacks (night raids). In the Seige of taif, Muhammad reportedly used Ballistics (catapults) against the enemy. When asked about the non-combatant woman and children being killed, he said:
 
{{Quote|{{Muslim|19|4321}}, See also: {{Bukhari|4|52|256}}|"It is reported on the authority of Sa'b b. Jaththama that the Prophet of Allah (may peace be upon him), when asked about the women and children of the polytheists being killed during the night raid, said: “They are from them”." }}
 
Sheikh Al Shuaybi says that Muhammad therefore (as is evident) acknowledged that non-combatants could be killed and allowed at least semi-indiscriminate killings.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WC_2AtmBOpEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Jihad in classical and Modern Islam, Rudolph Peters, Pg.179]</ref> Muslim cleric Omar Bakri Mohammed also referred to this hadith to justify why killing women and children is Islamic.<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5532956235787015675# Islam - A mufti explains, why Muhammad killed Women and Children]</ref>
 
It is true that in other hadith, Muhammad forbade intentionally targeting woman and children. However, some scholars have come to the conclusion that this was not because they were non-combatants, but because it is better to take them for slavery or exchange them for Muslim prisoners. As Muhammad took the Jewish woman and children of Banu Qurayza for slavery.
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming
the Ruler and his Flock’|Some [jurists] are of the opinion that all of them may be killed, on the mere ground that they are unbelievers, but they make an exception for women and children since they constitute "'''property for Muslims'''".<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah"></ref>}}
 
===Scholars===
 
<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali]</span> (1058-1111) was a Persian jurist who contributed significantly to the development of Sufism and is one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Islamic thought.
 
{{Quote|Al-Ghazali, Kitab al-Wagiz fi fiqh madhab al-imam al-Safi'i|...[O]ne must go on jihad (i.e. razzias or raids) at least once a year ... one may use a catapult against them when they are in a fortress, '''even if among them are women and children'''. One may set fire to them and/or drown them. ... If a person of the ''ahl al-kitab'' [i.e. People of the Book] is enslaved, his marriage is revoked. ... One may cut down their trees. ... One must destroy their useless books. Jihadists may take as booty whatever they decide ... they may steal as much food as they need...<BR><BR><ref name="Al-Ghazali">Excerpted form ''[http://www.irfi.org/articles3/articles_4701_4800/why%20christians%20accepted%20greek%20natural%20philosophy,%20but%20muslims%20did%20nothtml.htm Kitab al-Wagiz fi fiqh madhab al-imam al-Safi'i]'' (Beirut, 1979), pp. 186, 190-91, 199-200, 202-203. English translation by Dr. Michael Schub.</ref>}}
 
<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes Ibn Rushd (Averroes)]</span> (1126 - 1198) was a famous Andalusian-Arab master of Islamic law, philosopher, physician and mathematician.
 
{{Quote|Ibn Rushd, Bidayat al-Mudjtahid| As regards injury to the person, that is, the slaying of the enemy, '''the Moslems agree that in times of war, all adult, able bodied, unbelieving males may be slain'''. ...<BR> There is controversy about the question whether it is allowed to slay hermits who have retired from the world, the blind, the chronically ill and the insane, those who are old and unable to fight any longer, peasants, and <ref>Excerpted from ''Bidayat al-Mudjtahid'', in Rudolph Peters, ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam: The Chapters on Jihad from Averroes' Legal Handbook "Bidayat al-mudjtahid,''" trans. and annotated by Rudolph Peters (Leiden: Brill, 1977), pp. 9-25.</ref>}}
 
The following Q&A is taken from the Arabic section of Islam Online.
 
'''"Is it permissible to kill civilians in Israel through martyrdom operations which are carried out by Palestinians in defense of their land?"'''
 
{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-Arabic-Ask_Scholar/FatwaA/FatwaA&cid=1122528609048 Jews have killed civilians in the martyrdom operations in Palestine]<BR>Sheikh Faisal Mawlawi, Islam Online, January 23, 2002|2=
The Jews living inside the occupied territory and those who carry Israeli citizenship are all participants in the aggression against us, and it is our right to combat all of them."
 
Adding on "…the Prophet (PBUH) was killed by a Jewish woman from the Bani Qurayzah (a Jewish tribe from Medina). Since she was killed by a Muslim man, it became a rule that it was permissible to kill all the killers among the Jewish women in our country of Palestine, without hesitation."}}
 
Killing Muslim civilians (theory of tattarus) via the use of them as human shields.
 
{{Quote||The debate has been triggered by the killing of large numbers of Muslims, including women and children, by Islamist insurgents in Iraq. Are such acts permissible? Judging by fatwas (religious opinions) and articles by Muslim theologians and commentators, the Islamic ummah (community) is divided on the issue.
 
Those who believe that killing innocent people, including Muslims, is justified in certain cases, base their opinion on the principle of tattarrus. The word, which originally meant "dressing up," was first used as a religious term in the book "Al-Mustasfa" ("The Place of Purification") by Abu-Hamed al-Ghazali (d.1127), to mean "using ordinary Muslims as human shields for Islamic combatants against infidel fighters."<BR>. . .<BR>
Initially, al-Qaradawi had ruled that only three categories of unarmed individuals could be killed: apostates, who have turned their back to Islam; homosexuals, who "dirty" the pure society — and Israelis, including unborn children, who could grow up to join the Jewish army.
 
Now, however, al-Qaradawi has expanded his doctrine to '''allow for the killing of innocent Muslims in Iraq'''. His argument is stark: What matters is the broader interest of the Islamic ummah which could, under certain circumstances, necessitate operations in which Muslim civilians lose their lives.
 
 
'''That position is supported by several Saudi theologians''', including Hammoud al-Uqalla, Ali al-Khudhair, Nasser al-Fahd, Ahmad al-Khalidi and Safar al-Hawali. Their argument is that the broader interest of the ummah requires the expulsion of the U.S.-led forces from Iraq and that the killing of innocent Iraqis in whatever numbers is of no concern to the combatants, whose place in paradise is assured.
 
'''Other Saudi theologians, including Abu-Muhammad al-Maqdasi and Abu-Basir al-Tartussi, go further and apply tattarrus to situations where no "infidel" troops are present.''' Thus they justify the killing of innocent Muslim Saudis in Saudi Arabia because, they claim, such actions could lead to the establishment of a "truly Islamic regime."<ref>Robert Spencer - [http://www.jihadwatch.org/2005/06/sheikhs-debate-whether-killing-muslim-non-combatants-is-permissible.html Sheikhs debate whether killing Muslim non-combatants is permissible] - Jihad Watch, June 11, 2005</ref>}}
 
===Qur'an - Disbelief (al-Fitnah) is Worse Than Killing===
 
'''Verse 2:217'''
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|217}}|To turn men away from Allah, and to disbelieve in Him ...is a greater with Allah; for Al-Fitna/Disbelief/ Treason is worse than killing }}
 
'''Explanation of verse 2:217'''
 
{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5008 Shirk is worse than Killing]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Since Jihad involves killing and shedding the blood of men, Allah indicated that these men (the non muslims who are killed) are committing disbelief in Allah, associating with Him (in the worship) and hindering from His path, and this is a much greater evil and more disastrous than killing. Abu Malik commented about what Allah said:
 
(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) Meaning what you (disbelievers) are committing is much worse than killing.'' Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Sa`id bin Jubayr, `Ikrimah, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ad-Dahhak and Ar-Rabi` bin Anas said that what Allah said:
 
(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) "Shirk (polytheism) is worse than killing.}}
 
This verse was revealed when a non-Muslim non-combatant was killed in the events of the Nakhla Raid. It was revealed to justify the killing of the non combatant, because non-Muslims do Fitnah... this is a graver crime in the eyes of Allah...than killing the non-combatant disbelievers <ref>[http://mercytomankind.net/TheLifeOfMohamedDir/AbdullahIbnJahshRaid.html Abdullah ibn Jaish -  Life of Mohamed (Sirah), Non combatants]</ref> [[Osama bin Laden]] also used this in his interviews to justify killing non-combatants.<ref>[http://www.jihadunspun.com/intheatre_internal.php?article=109033&list=/home.php Sheikh Osama bin Laden’s speech to the people of Pakistan] - Translated From Urdu By Ahmed Al-Marid, September 26, 2007</ref>
==Offensive Jihad==
 
===Verse===
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|190}}|Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.}}
 
===Meaning===
 
This verse has been [[Abrogation|abrogated]] by verses from chapter nine.
 
{{Quote|[http://quran.com/2/190 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:190]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|this stipulation was abrogated by the verse of barā’a, ‘immunity’ [Q. 9:1], or by His saying [below]:}}
 
==The Greater Jihad==
{{Main|Lesser and Greater Jihad}}
===Background===
 
The idea that their is a greater and lesser jihad originated from the 11<sup>th</sup> century book, The History of Baghdad, by the Islamic scholar al-Khatib al-Baghdadiis, by way of Yahya ibn al 'Ala', who said,
 
{{Quote||We were told by Layth, on the authority of 'Ata', on the authority of Abu Rabah, on the authority of Jabir, who said, 'The Prophet (salallaahu 'alayhee wa sallam) returned from one of his battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad - the striving of a servant (of Allah) against his desires.'<ref>Fayd al-Qadir vol.4 pg. 511</ref>}}
 
This hadith does not appear in any of the famous hadith books (Sahih Bukhari, Muslim, Dawud, Tirmidhi), and is generally unaccepted by Islamic scholars as far as Islamic Law or belief is concerned (even though the use of weak and even fabricated hadiths is often allowed for the purposes of sermonizing and moral exhortation - [[List of Fabricated Hadith|a manner by which very many known fabrications are popularly thought to have scriptural basis]]).
 
===Scholars===
 
'''Dr. Abdullah Yusuf Azzam'''
 
{{Quote|[http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_6_conclusion.htm Conclusion]<BR>Imam Abdullah Azzam, Join the Caravan|"is in fact a false, fabricated hadith which has no basis. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality....The word "jihad", when mentioned on its own, only means combat with weapons, as was mentioned by Ibn Rushd, and upon this the four Imams have agreed."}}
 
'''Ibn Taymiyahh''' (also known as Shaykh ul-Islam to Muslim clerics)
 
{{Quote||"There is a Hadith related by a group of people which states that the Prophet [peace be upon him] said after the battle of Tabuk: 'We have returned from Jihad Asghar [lesser jihad] to Jihad Akbar [greater jihad].' '''This hadith has no source, nobody whomsoever in the field of Islamic Knowledge has narrated it.''' Jihad against the disbelievers is the most noble of actions, and moreover it is the most important action for the sake of mankind."<ref>Ibn Taymiyahh, [http://www.peacewithrealism.org/jihad/jihad03.htm Al Furqan], Pg 44-45</ref>}}
 
'''Ibn Baaz'''
 
{{Quote|Shaykh `Abdul-`Azeez Bin Baz, Fatawa Islamiyah Vol:8 p. 24|''Question: Is Jihad in the way of Allah the same level regardless of whether it is with one's life, wealth , or supplication , even if somebody is cabable of the type that involves one's life?
Answer:''
 
There are different kinds of jihad - with one's self, wealth, supplication, teaching, giving guidance, or helping others in good in any form.The highest form of jihad, however, is with one's life (the intent here is not suicide, for that is forbidden in Islam), then comes Jihad with one's wealth and jihad with teaching and guidance, and in this way Da'wah is a form of jihad, but jihad with one's life is the highest form.}}
 
The Egyptian, '''Dr. Muhammad Amin''' says about those who believe this hadith:
 
{{Quote|Path of Islamic Propagation|“Such people find contentment and comfort in this way, while in reality they only deceive their weak souls, for the true values of the deeds are entirely the opposite.” }}
 
'''Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani'''
 
{{Quote|Hajar al Asqalani, Tasdid al-qaws, see also Kashf al-Khafaa’ (no.1362)| "This saying is widespread and it is a saying by Ibrahim ibn Ablah according to Nisa'i in al-Kuna. Ghazali mentions it in the Ihya' and al-`Iraqi said that Bayhaqi related it on the authority of Jabir and said: There is weakness in its chain of transmission."<ref>[http://www.sunnah.org/tasawwuf/jihad004.html Jihad Al Akbar] - As-Sunnah Foundation of America, from Shaykh Hisham Kabbani's "Islamic Beliefs and Doctrine According to Ahl al-Sunna: A Repudiation of "Salafi" Innovations"</ref>}}
 
'''Al Bayhaqi'''
 
{{Quote| Hajar ibn al Asqalani ’Kashf al-Khafaa’ (no.1362)|Its chain of narration is weak.  Ibn Hajr said that this was a saying of Ibraaheem bin Abee Ablah, a Taabi’ee, and not a Ahaadeeth of the Messenger (SAW). <ref>Dr. Suhaib Hassan - [http://www.thereligionislam.com/islamicideology/scienceofhadith.htm The Science of Hadith] - TheReligionIslam</ref><ref>[http://islam.worldofislam.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=729:qwe-have-returned-from-the-lesser-jihad-to-the-greater-jihad-jihad-un-nafs-jihad-ul-akbarq&catid=129&Itemid=63 Be Aware - Da'eef (weak), mawdoo’ (fabricated) hadeeth] - World of Islam Portal, May 10, 2008</ref>}}
 
'''Mufti Zar Wali Khan''' (who is given the title Sheikh ul hadith) mentioned in his [http://ahsanululoom.com/ Dora Tafsir] that this hadith was fabricated by Sufis.<ref>Wazir Allah Khan - [http://www.sunniforum.com/forum/showthread.php?51913-Hadith-authenticity-lesser-jihad-to-greater-jihad&daysprune=-1 Hadith authenticity - lesser jihad to greater jihad] - SunniForums</ref>
 
===Qur'an===
 
This fabricated hadith, goes against the Qur'an.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|95}}|"Those believers who sit back '''are not equal to those who perform Jihad''' in the Path of Allah with their wealth and their selves. Allah has favored those who perform Jihad with their wealth and their selves by degrees over those who sit back. To both (groups) has Allah promised good, but Allah has favored the mujahideen with a great reward, by ranks from Him, and with Forgiveness, over those who sit back. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most-Merciful." }}
 
===Hadith===
 
{{Quote|Saheeh Bukhari 4/45|"It was asked, 'Oh messenger of Allah!, which of makind is most excellent?'. He (Sallallahu alyhi wa salam) replied: "A believer who strives in the path of God with his self and his wealth.<ref name="Join the caravan">Referenced by Abdullah Yusuf Azzam in "[http://www.scribd.com/doc/23785709/Join-The-Caravan Join the caravan]" pg 4</ref>}}
 
{{Quote|Saheeh related by Ibn Ade and Ibn Asakir from Abu Hurayrah 4/6165. Sahih al Jaami as Sagheer no. 4305|Standing for an hour in the ranks of battle is better than standing in prayer for sixty years.<ref name="Join the caravan"></ref>}}
 
{{Quote|Saheeh al Bukhari 4/50 , agreed upon|"A morning or evening spent in the path of Allah is better than the world and all it contains".<ref name="Join the caravan"></ref> }}
 
{{Quote|{{Muwatta|21|21|1.4}}|"Shall I tell you who has the best degree among people? A man who takes the rein of his horse to do jihad in the way of Allah}}
==Jihad is not obligatory?==
{{Main|Jihad as Obligation (Fard)}}
 
'''Hanafi Fiqh'''
 
{{Quote||Ibn Aabidin said: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn if the enemy attacks one of the borders of the Muslims, and it becomes Fard Ayn upon those close by. For those who are far away, it is Fard Kifaya, if their assistance is not required. If they are needed, perhaps because those nearby the attack cannot resist the enemy, or are indolent and do not fight Jihad, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, like the obligation to pray and fast. There is no room for them to leave it. If they too are unable, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, and so on in the same manner until the jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon the whole Ummah of Islam from the East to the West".
And the following have like Fatawa: Al Kassani, Ibn Najim and Ibn Hammam.<ref name="Islamic Emirate">[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad] - Islamic Emirate Online, The Fiqh Department</ref>}}
 
'''Maliki Fiqh'''
 
{{Quote||In Hashiyat ad Dussuqi it is stated: Jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon a surprise attack by the enemy. Dussuqi said: "Wherever this happens, jihad immediately becomes Fard Ayn upon everybody, even women, slaves and children, and they march out even if their guardians, husbands and creditors forbid them to.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
 
'''Shafi'i Fiqh'''
 
{{Quote||In the Nihayat al Mahtaj by Ramli: "If they approach one of our lands and the distance between them and us becomes less than the distance permitting the shortening of prayers, then the people of that territory must defend it and it becomes Fard Ayn even upon the people for whom there is usually no jihad; the poor, the children, the slaves, the debtor and the women.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
 
'''Hanbali Fiqh'''
 
{{Quote||In Al Mughni by Ibn al Qadamah: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn in three situations:
1) If the two sides meet in battle and they approach each other.
 
2) If the Kuffar enter a land, jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon its people.
3) If the Imam calls a people to march forward it is obligatory upon them to march forward.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
 
==Favoring War==
 
===Verse===
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|61}}|But if the enemy incline towards peace, do thou (also) incline towards peace, and trust in Allah: for He is One that heareth and knoweth (all things).}}
 
===Meaning===
 
In both the Tafsir Ibn Abbas and Tafsir al-Jalalayn, it states that according to Ibn ‘Abbās (Muhammad's Cousin and a specialist of Quranic interpretation, as appointed by Muhammad) verse 8:61 has been replaced ([[Abrogation (Naskh)|abrogated]]) by another well known verse.
 
{{Quote|[http://quran.com/8/61 Surat Al-'Anfāl (The Spoils of War) 8:61]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|‘This has been abrogated by the “sword verse” [Q. 9:5]’}}
 
And here is that verse in full.
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5}}|But when the forbidden months are past, then '''fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, an seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war)'''; but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.}}
 
Notice that it says "if they '''repent, and establish regular prayers''' and practise regular charity, then open the way for them". The way in which a non-believer can repent and establish regular prayers, is by converting to Islam. Muhammad further said, fighting must go on even after fighting stops.
 
{{Quote|1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2035&Itemid=103 The Command to strike the Enemies' Necks]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=(Until the war lays down its burden.) Mujahid said:''' "Until `Isa bin Maryam (peace be upon him) descends. It seems as if he derived this opinion from the Prophet's saying, There will always be a group of my Ummah victorious upon the truth, until the last of them fight against Ad-Dajjal'''.) Imam Ahmad recorded from Jubayr bin Nufayr who reported from Salamah bin Nufayl that he went to the Messenger of Allah and said, "'''I have let my horse go, and thrown down my weapon, for the war has ended. There is no more fighting. Then the Prophet said to him, Now the time of fighting has come.''' There will always be a group of my Ummah dominant over others.''' Allah will turn the hearts of some people away (from the truth), so they (that group) will fight against them'''}}
 
===Scholars===
 
'''Abdullah Yusuf Azzam'''
 
{{Quote|[http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_1_foreword.htm  Join The Caravan, p.9]<BR>Imam Abdullah Azzam|"Jihad and the rifle alone. NO negotiations, NO conferences and NO dialogue."}}
 
{{Quote|[http://www.religioscope.com/info/doc/jihad/azzam_caravan_1_foreword.htm  Join The Caravan, p.20]<BR>Imam Abdullah Azzam|"So, if the fighting stops, the disbelievers will dominate, and fitnah, which is Shirk (polytheism), will spread."}}
 
'''Ibn Taymiyyah'''
 
{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming the Ruler and his Flock’|"It is the consensus of the scholars of this Ummah that if part of the religion is Allah's and other part is not, '''fighting must go on''' until the entire religion is Allah's".<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah"></ref>}}
==Suicide Bombing==
{{Main|Shaheed (Martyr)}}
 
While some are against it, many scholars such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi and Zakir Naik claim suicide bombing is permitted in Islam. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JtZxNqxpb8s Click here] to watch an explanation by Zakir Naik in one of his lectures.
 
Below is a fatwa issued by Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, discussing the reasons why it is permissible for women to participate in "Martyr Operations" (e.g. suicide bombings).
 
{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545134 Palestinian Women Carrying Out Martyr Operations]<BR>Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, IslamOnline, November 6, 2006 |2=Women’s participation in the martyr operations carried out in Palestine – given the status of the land as an occupied territory, in addition to a lot of sacrilegious acts perpetrated by the Jews against the sanctuaries – is one of the most praised acts of worship. Also, the act is a form of martyrdom in the Cause of Allah, and it entitles them, Insha’ Allah, to the same reward earned by their male counterparts who also die in the Cause of Allah.<BR>. . .<BR>
The martyr operations is the greatest of all sorts of Jihad in the Cause of Allah. A martyr operation is carried out by a person who sacrifices himself, deeming his life less value than striving in the Cause of Allah, in the cause of restoring the land and preserving the dignity. To such a valorous attitude applies the following Qur’anic verse: “And of mankind is he who would sell himself, seeking the pleasure of Allah; and Allah hath compassion on (His) bondmen.” (Al-Baqarah: 207)
 
But a clear distinction has to be made here between martyrdom and suicide. Suicide is an act or instance of killing oneself intentionally out of despair, and finding no outlet except putting an end to one’s life. On the other hand, martyrdom is a heroic act of choosing to suffer death in the Cause of Allah, and that’s why it’s considered by most Muslim scholars as one of the greatest forms of Jihad.<BR>. . .<BR>
In the same vein, the public welfare should be given priority to the personal one, in the sense that if there is a contradiction between the private right and the public one, the latter must be given first priority for it concerns the interest of the whole Ummah. Given all this, I believe a woman can participate in this form of Jihad according to her own means and condition. Also, the organizers of these martyr operations can benefit from some believing women as they may do, in some cases, what is impossible for men to do.}}
 
Below is an excerpt taken from a fatwa by Muslim scholar Sheikh al-Uyayri, explaining in depth why suicide bombings and killing of civilians (including Muslims) via the use of them as "human shields" is permissible in Islam. Due to space (the fatwa is fifteen pages in length) we cannot quote it here in its entirety, though the entire piece in its in-depth referencing of the Qur'an and Hadith is illuminating.
 
{{Quote|The Islamic Ruling on the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations<BR>Sheikh al-Uyayri|We have arrived at the conclusion that martyrdom operations are permissible, and in fact '''the Mujahid who is killed in them is better than one who is killed fighting in the ranks''', for there are gradations even among martyrs, corresponding to their role, action effort and risk undertaken. Then, we explained how martyrdom operations are the least costly to the Mujahideen and most detrimental to the enemy. We have heard, as you must have, that '''most scholars today permit such operations; at least 30 Fatawa have been issued to this effect'''. We explained how this issue is derived from the issue of plunging single-handedly into the enemy ranks; something which is praiseworthy by the agreement of jurists. We then further stated that we preferred the view that such an action is permissible even if martyrdom is the only goal, although it is certainly not the optimal practice. Martyrdom operations should not be carried out unless certain conditions are met:
 
1. One's intention is sincere and pure - to raise the Word of Allah. <BR>
2. One is reasonably sure that the desired effect cannot be achieved by any other means which would guarantee preservation of his life. <BR>
3. One is reasonably sure that loss will be inflicted on the enemy, or they will be frightened, or the Muslims will be emboldened. <BR>
4. One should consult with war strategy experts, and especially with the amber of war, for otherwise he may upset plan and alert the enemy to their presence.
 
If the first condition is absent, the deed is worthless, but if it is satisfied while some others are lacking, then it is not the best thing, but this does not necessarily mean the Mujahid is not shaheed.
 
'''We also explained how causing a death carries the same verdict as actual killing. Hence one who plunges without armour into the enemy ranks, being certain of death, just like one who engages in a martyrdom operation, is effectively causing his own death, but they are praiseworthy because of the circumstances and intention, and hence are not considered to have committed suicide.''' We also clarified that [according to the majority] the identity of the killer does not have an effect on whether the Mujahid will be considered shaheed. This dispels the wavering arising from the fact that the Mujahid is taking his own life. Thus, such operations could take on any of the five Shar`i verdicts depending on intention and circumstances. Finally, we clarified that taking one's own life is not always blameworthy; rather it is contingent on the motives behind it. So, we conclude that one who kills himself because of his strong faith and out of love for Allah and the Prophet, and in the interests of the religion, is praiseworthy.}}
==Terrorism==
 
===Qur'an===
   
   
'''Verse 8:12'''
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|190|194}}|190 Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress. Indeed. Allah does not like transgressors.<BR />
 
191 And kill them wherever you overtake them and expel them from wherever they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al- Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.<Br />
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|12}}|I am with you, therefore make firm those who believe. I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve. Therefore strike off their heads and strike off every fingertip of them.}}
192 And if they cease, then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.<BR />
 
193 Fight them until there is no [more] fitnah and [until] worship is [acknowledged to be] for Allah. But if they cease, then there is to be no aggression except against the oppressors.<BR />
'''Explanation of verse 8:12'''
194 [Fighting in] the sacred month is for [aggression committed in] the sacred month, and for [all] violations is legal retribution. So whoever has assaulted you, then assault him in the same way that he has assaulted you. And fear Allah and know that Allah is with those who fear Him.
 
}}
{{Quote|1=[http://quran.com/8/12 Surat Al-'Anfāl (The Spoils of War) 8:12]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|2=When your Lord inspired the angels, with whom He reinforced the Muslims, [saying]: ‘I am with you, with assistance and victorious help, so make the believers stand firm, by helping [them] and giving [them] good tidings. I shall cast terror, fear, into the hearts of the disbelievers; so smite above the necks, that is, the heads, and smite of them every finger!’, that is, [smite] the extremities of their hands and feet: thus, when one of them went to strike an disbeliever’s head, it would roll off before his sword reached it."'}}
 
'''Verse 8:60'''
 
{{Quote|{{Quran|8|60}}|Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies}}
 
'''Explanation of verse 8:60'''
 
{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=8&tid=20453 Making Preparations for War to strike Fear in the Hearts of the Enemies of Allah]<BR>Tafsir ibn Kathir|2=(to threaten), or '''to strike fear''',
 
(the enemy of Allah and your enemy), the disbelievers,
 
(and others besides them), such as Bani Qurayzah, according to Mujahid, or persians, according to As-Suddi.}}


{{Quote|1=[http://quran.com/8/60 Surat Al-'Anfāl (The Spoils of War) 8:60]<BR>Tafsir al-Jalalayn|2=Make ready for them, for fighting them, whatever force you can, the Prophet (s) said that this refers to ‘archers’, as reported by Muslim, and of horses tethered (ribāt is a verbal noun, meaning, ‘restraining them [for use] in the way of God’) that thereby you may '''dismay, terrify, the enemy of God and your enemy'''}}
Mohammad Khalil in his academic book on Jihad describes the views of medieval commentators as well as modern interpretations of the key verses.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad, Radicalism and the New Atheism'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017</ref> Khalil notes that the conditional instruction to end hostilities when the enemies "cease" in Q 2:193 was reinterpreted by medieval exegetes to mean that they have ceased not only fighting but also their disbelief.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 12</ref>


===Hadith and Islamic Sources===
This was in line with their interpretation that fitna here means shirk, associating partners with Allah (or kufr, disbelief), based on narrations recorded by al-Tabari attributing this view to Ibn Abbas and several of the tabi'un (successor generation). Javad Hashmi, an Islamic modernist and academic, notes the defensive principles apparent in the passage, and argues that in this context fitna simply means religious persecution, pointing to the related verse {{Quran|2|217}} quoted above which seems to define fitna in terms of obstruction of worship (though it also says "and disbelief in Him"<ref>Hashmi awkwardly glosses this as [while] disbelieving in Him, but perhaps "and to disbelief in Him" is a more plausible alternative in keeping with his definition of fitna i.e. they turn people from the way of Allah and to disbelief.</ref>).<ref name="HashmiPart1-2hr12to22">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l_9WwaoDYQ Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 12 to 22 minutes)</ref> {{Quran-range|2|190|191}} in the above quote and {{Quran-range|8|34|39}} quoted below seem also to support the interpretation that fitna here refers to oppression.


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|52|220}}, See also: {{Muslim|4|1062}}, {{Muslim|4|1063}}, {{Muslim|4|1066}}, and {{Muslim|4|1067}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:
Medieval commentators interpreted fitna as shirk/kufr and the command to fight in Q 2:193 and Q 8:39 in terms of religious expansionism, supported by a famous hadith shown below. Some scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah interpreted that hadith narration in a more limited sense through the Quran, in terms of fighting those who are waging war but not if there is a peace treaty. Modernists typically question its authenticity altogether (in line with the modern academic view that hadiths in general cannot be relied upon at face value).


Allah's Apostle said, "I have been sent with the shortest expressions bearing the widest meanings, and I have been made victorious with terror (cast in the hearts of the enemy), and while I was sleeping, the keys of the treasures of the world were brought to me and put in my hand." Abu Huraira added: Allah's Apostle has left the world and now you, people, are bringing out those treasures (i.e. the Prophet did not benefit by them).}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim|1|30}}|It is reported on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah said:


{{Quote|Tabari VIII 129|After the Messenger had finished with the Khaybar Jews, '''Allah cast terror into the hearts of the Jews in Fadak''' when they received news of what Allah had brought upon Khaybar. Fadak became the exclusive property of Allah’s Messenger.}}
I have been commanded to fight against people so long as they do not declare that there is no god but Allah, and he who professed it was guaranteed the protection of his property and life on my behalf except for the right affairs rest with Allah.}}


{{Quote|Tabari IX 42|We have been dealt a situation from which there is no escape. You have seen what Muhammad has done. Arabs have submitted to him and we do not have the strength to fight. You know that no herd is safe from him. And '''no one even dares go outside for fear of being terrorized.'''}}
Hashmi argues that "the religion is for Allah" in 2:193 and "the religion, all of it (l-dīnu kulluhu), is for Allah" in Q 8:39 should be understood not in a religious hegemonic sense, but rather in terms of the oppressed believers (hence, "fitna") not being forced to commit shirk, to include pagan gods besides Allah in their religion. His interpretation is one also mentioned by al-Tabari and Ibn Ishaq. <ref name="HashmiPart1-2hr12to22" /> Looking at the preceding verses, Q 8:34-38 (shown in the quote below), a case can be made either way for this or for the traditional interpretation. In further support of his interpretation, Hashmi has also argued that wiping out pagan religion would not have been a viable goal at that early, post-migration time period. In support of the timing, it may also be worth noting that the first of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr's letters states that Q 8:39 was revealed before Muhammad called the remaining Muslims in Mecca to migrate. Later in the same surah, {{Quran|8|72}} has a command to help believers who did not migrate but who seek help in the religion (fī l-dīni) lest there be fitna. In the Quran, l-dīn, usually translated "the religion", probably refers to active rites of worship, especially at the sanctuary.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvNdiq_giew Mohsen Goudarzi: Din, Islam, and Hanif in the Qur’an] - youtube.com - 1 May 2023</ref>


===Scholars on Terrorism===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|8|34|39}}|34 But why should Allah not punish them while they obstruct [people] from al-Masjid al- Haram and they were not [fit to be] its guardians? Its [true] guardians are not but the righteous, but most of them do not know.<BR />
35 And their worship at the (holy) House is naught but whistling and hand-clapping. Therefore (it is said unto them): Taste of the doom because ye disbelieve.<BR />
36 Indeed, those who disbelieve spend their wealth to avert [people] from the way of Allah. So they will spend it; then it will be for them a [source of] regret; then they will be overcome. And those who have disbelieved - unto Hell they will be gathered.<BR />
37 [This is] so that Allah may distinguish the wicked from the good and place the wicked some of them upon others and heap them all together and put them into Hell. It is those who are the losers.<BR />
38 Say to those who have disbelieved [that] if they cease, what has previously occurred will be forgiven for them. But if they return [to hostility] - then the precedent of the former [rebellious] peoples has already taken place.<BR />
39 And fight them until there is no fitnah and [until] the religion, all of it, is for Allah. And if they cease - then indeed, Allah is Seeing of what they do.}}


'''Ziauddin Barani''' (1285 - 1357 AD)
====Non-aggression / defensive principle====
Khalil highlights Q 22:39-40 and Q 4:75 as early Medinan verses calling for fighting in self defence and the defence of others.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 9</ref> According to the traditional exegesis of the Qur'an in Sunni Islam (for example, Ibn Kathir), the first verse revealed to Muhammad about fighting was Q 22:39. In Q 22:40 even synagogues and churches are considered worthy of protection.


{{Quote|Ziauddin Barani - Fatawa-i Jahandari|Musalmans will be favored and honored; infidels and men of bad faith will be faced with destitution and disgrace; the orders of the unlawful fate and the opposed creeds will be erased; the laws of the shari'at will be enforced on the seventy-two communities; and the enemies of God and the Prophet, will be '''condemned, banished, repudiated, and terrorized'''}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|22|39|40}}|Permission [to fight] has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory.<BR />
[They are] those who have been evicted from their homes without right - only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.}}


'''Dr. Yusuf Azzam'''
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|75}}|And what is [the matter] with you that you fight not in the cause of Allah and [for] the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, "Our Lord, take us out of this city of oppressive people and appoint for us from Yourself a protector and appoint for us from Yourself a helper?"}}


{{Quote|[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html%20IslamicEmirate.com Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad]<BR>Sheikh Abdullah Azzam|2="Jihad Against the Kuffar is of two Types:  Offensive Jihad (where the enemy is attacked in his own territory) ... [and] Defensive Jihad. This is expelling the Kuffar from our land, and it is Fard Ayn [personal religious obligation on Muslim individuals], a compulsory duty upon all ...
In line with this general principle, a number of verses state that fighting must stop if the enemy does so. Such verses include those discussed in this article ({{Quran|2|193}}, {{Quran|4|90}}, {{Quran|8|39}}, {{Quran|9|3}}).  


...Where the Kuffar [infidels] are not gathering to fight the Muslims, the fighting becomes Fard Kifaya [religious obligation on Muslim society] with the minimum requirement of appointing believers to guard borders, and the sending of an army at least once a year to '''terrorise the enemies of Allah'''. <ref>Sheikh Abdullah Azzam (Shaheed) - Defence of the Muslim Lands: The First Obligation After Iman - Chapter 1</ref>}}
Perhaps in slight tension with the principle is {{Quran|47|35}}. Surah 47 dates to soon after the migration from Mecca (verse 13 refers to the believers being driven out) and the first fighting verses had already been revealed (alluded to in verses 20-21). Verse 35 says, "So do not weaken and call for peace while you are superior; and Allah is with you and will never deprive you of [the reward of] your deeds." The surrounding verses are concerned with those who have reverted to disbelief and those who do not want to spend in the cause of Allah. A noteworthy verse on the conduct of war occurs in the same surah, {{Quran|47|4}}, which states that captives should be freed or ransomed until the war lays down its burdens.


For further information, see: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad and Terrorism]] and [[If Anyone Slays a Person (Qur'an 5:32)|If Anyone Slew a Person (Qur'an 5:32)]]
====Proportionate retaliation principle====
==The Role of the Caliph==
Javad Hashmi, as well as noting the non-aggression principle apparent in many fighting verses such as those quoted above, proposes that another prevalant fighting principle in this context is that of qisas, or proportionate retaliation.


'''Shafi'i Fiqh'''
The basic proportionate retaliation principle in the context of killing is given in {{Quran-range|2|178|179}}. Patricia Crone similarly noted that retaliation generally must be proportionate in {{Quran|22|60}} and {{Quran-range|42|39|41}}.<ref name="CroneWarSummary" />


{{Quote|Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik|
Hashmi too notes that the latter passage brings in the equal retaliation principle, while also praising the alternative of forgiveness in verse 43. His thesis is that there is a concept of proportionality associated with fighting in the Quran. He notes that the principle is also apparent in verses such as Q 2:191 and Q 2:194 discussed above. Often a preference for forgiveness and patience is expressed alongside this principle.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l_9WwaoDYQ Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 1 hour 30 to 50 minutes)</ref>
o9.0 (O: Jihad means to war against non-Muslims, and is etymologically derived from the word mujahada, signifying warfare to establish the religion.<BR>o9.1 Jihad is a communal obligation (def: c3.2). When enough people perform it to successfully accomplish it, it is no longer obligatory upon others.<BR>o9.8 The caliph makes war upon Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians [kafirs] (N: provided he has first invited them to enter Islam in faith and practice, and if they will not, then invited them to enter the social order of Islam by paying the non-Muslim poll tax (jizya, def: o11.4) - which is the significance of their paying it, not the money itself-while remaining in their ancestral regions) (O: and the war continues) until they become Muslim or else pay the non-Muslim poll tax (O: in accordance with the word of Allah Most High.<BR>('''A: though if there is no caliph (def: o25), no permission is required''').<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>}}


'''Hanbali Fiqh'''
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|42|39|43}}|And those who, when tyranny strikes them, they defend themselves,<BR />
And the retribution for an evil act is an evil one like it, but whoever pardons and makes reconciliation - his reward is [due] from Allah. Indeed, He does not like wrongdoers.<BR />
And whoever avenges himself after having been wronged - those have not upon them any cause [for blame].<BR />
The cause is only against the ones who wrong the people and tyrannize upon the earth without right. Those will have a painful punishment.<BR />
And whoever is patient and forgives - indeed, that is of the matters [requiring] determination.}}


{{Quote||In Al Mughni by Ibn al Qadamah: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn in three situations:
====Surah 9 (at-Tawbah)====
Surah 9, al-Tawbah, was traditionally revealed the year after the conquest of Mecca, though Hashmi, crediting [[w:Cheragh Ali|Cheragh Ali]] (d. 1895), argues that the opening of the surah was more likely revealed soon after the treaty of Hudaybiyya was violated by the Meccans, but before what turned out to be a peaceful conquest of the city.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l_9WwaoDYQ Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 38 minutes)</ref> Hashmi argues that the principles discussed above are evident even in the opening verses of surah al-Tawbah.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l_9WwaoDYQ Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 42 minutes)</ref> Similarly, Khalil notes that the early part of the surah has various qualifiers congruous with the restraining principles of earlier passages.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 14</ref>


1) If the two sides meet in battle and they approach each other.<BR>
In this opening section, Q 9:5 became known as 'the verse of the sword' by some scholars and gives instructions against the mushrikeen who broke the treaty:
2) If the Kuffar enter a land, jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon its people.<BR>
3) If the Imam calls a people to march forward it is obligatory upon them to
march forward.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}


The first two points do not mention anything about an Imam or caliphate.
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5}}|And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.}}


For further information, see: [[Jihad as Obligation (Fard)]]
The same language (capture them and kill them wherever you find them) is directed at the hypocrites in {{Quran-range|4|88|90}}, with reprieve for those who do not want to fight the believers or who flee to a place where they are protected by treaty. Unlike in Q 9:5, they do not need to convert to Islam, which is a condition not present in earlier fighting verses. A similar phrase appears also in Q 2:191, in the passage discussed above where they need only cease fighting and oppression. In the early part of surah 9, patience has run out for those proven untrustworthy to abide by their treaties. They must repent and join the religion (or perhaps just observe prayer and zakat<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l_9WwaoDYQ Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 35 minutes)</ref>), individually seek protection, or die.
==Parental Permission and Jihad==


{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah|"If the enemy enters a Muslim land, there is no doubt that it is obligatory for the closest and then the next closest to repel him, because the Muslim lands are like one land. '''It is obligatory to march to the territory even without the permission of parents or creditor''', and narrations reported by Ahmad are clear on this." This situation is known as the General March.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
Khalil writes that Q 9:5 was interpreted by scholars in the Umayyad and Abbasid imperial centres as abrogating certain earlier verses and opening the door for expansionst warfare against pagans, not just the treaty breakers who are explicitly the target of the verse. In contrast, scholars who did not live near these centres or lived at later times did not hold such a view and had a far more conservative opinion on abrogation generally.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 13</ref> A minority extreme view was that ''all'' peaceful passages were abrogated.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 16</ref> See also the introductory discussion in [[List of Abrogations in the Qur'an]].


The Jihad which needs permission of parents is the offensive one where you invade non-Muslim land.
Here are some views on the verse in the classical commentaries of Ibn Kathir and al-Qurtubi:


{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503543898 Obtaining Parents' Permission to Participate in Jihad]<BR>Fatwa, Islam Online, April 8, 2003|2='''When Jihad is an individual obligation upon Muslims then parents permission is not required'''. As for non-obligatory Jihad in which one participates voluntarily, one has to seek the permission of his parents to it. Al-Bukhari reported on the authority of `Abdullah ibn `Amr: A man came to the Prophet asking his permission to take part in Jihad. The Prophet asked him, "Are your parents alive?" He replied in the affirmative. The Prophet said to him, "Then exert yourself in their service."}}
{{Quote|Tafsir ibn Kathir on surah 9:5| وَهَذِهِ الْآيَةُ الْكَرِيمَةُ هِيَ آيَةُ السَّيْفِ الَّتِي قَالَ فِيهَا الضَّحَّاكُ بْنُ مُزَاحِمٍ: إِنَّهَا نَسَخَتْ كُلَّ عَهْدٍ بَيْنَ النَّبِيِّ(٩) ﷺ وَبَيْنَ أَحَدٍ مِنَ الْمُشْرِكِينَ، وَكُلَّ عَهْدٍ، وَكُلَّ مُدَّةٍ.
==Cutting Down Trees During Jihad==
Muhammad once forbade his followers from cutting trees but later [[Abrogation (Naskh)|abrogated]], or overruled that commandment


===Qur'an===


{{Quote|{{Quran|59|5}}|What you O Muslims cut down of a palm tree of the enemy or you left it standing on its stem it was by the Leave of Allah, and in order that He might disgrace the Fasiqun(the rebellious, the disobent to Allah)' }}
This holy verse is the verse of the sword, which Dahaak bin Muzaahim said of it "Verily it has withdrawn every covenant/treaty between the prophet, Allah's prayer and peace be upon him, and between any mushrik (polytheist/non-muslim), every covenant and every bond of aide."}}


===Hadith===
Al-Qurtubi has this to say


{{Quote|{{Muslim|19|4324}}|It is narrated on the authority of 'Abdullah that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) ordered the date-palms of '''Banu Nadir to be burnt and cut'''. These palms were at Buwaira. Qutaibah and Ibn Rumh in their versions of the tradition have added: So Allah, the Glorious and Exalted, revealed the verse:" Whatever trees you have cut down or left standing on their trunks, it was with the permission of Allah so that He may disgrace the evil-doers" (lix. 5).}}
{{Quote|Tafsir of Al-Qurtubi on surah 9:5|
...فَاقْتُلُوا الْمُشْرِكِينَ﴾ عَامٌّ فِي كُلِّ مُشْرِكٍ، لَكِنَّ السُّنَّةَ خَصَّتْ مِنْهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ بَيَانُهُ فِي سُورَةِ "الْبَقَرَةِ"(٣) مِنَ امْرَأَةٍ وَرَاهِبٍ وَصَبِيٍّ وَغَيْرِهِمْ﴿
حَيْثُ وَجَدْتُمُوهُمْ﴾ عَامٌّ فِي كُلِّ مَوْضِعٍ﴿...


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|8|420}}, See also: {{Bukhari|5|58|269}}, and {{Muslim|4|1068}}|Narrated Anas: ... The Prophet ordered that the graves of the pagans be dug out and the unleveled land be level led and the '''date-palm trees be cut down''' . (So all that was done). They aligned these cut date-palm trees towards the Qibla of the mosque (as a wall) and they also built two stone side-walls (of the mosque).}}


{{Quote|{{Muslim|19|4326}}|'Abdullah b. Umar reported that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him)''' burnt the date-palms of Banu Nadir'''.}}
"Fight the unbelievers" meaning: a general decree concerning every mushrik (polytheist). But the Sunnah has narrowed its application in the declaration of surat-al-baqarah (surah 2) verse 3, excluding women, monks, children and other (non-combatants)......"Wherever you find them" meaning: a general decree for all places}}


===Scholars===
Another verse, Q 9:29, was associated with the expedition to face the Byzantines in northern Arabia at Tabuk in 630 CE.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad'' p. 64</ref> Tabuk is not mentioned in the letters of 'Urwa (discussed below), though later traditional sources claim there were rumours that the Romans (Byzantines) were going to invade. There are possibly some problems with the chronology of this expedition and the battle of Mu'tah in Jordan against their Ghassanid vassals in 629 CE.<ref>See the twitter discussions [https://twitter.com/ShahanSean/status/1388882455738920971 here] (2 May 2021) and [https://twitter.com/shahanSean/status/1600599613144240146 here] (7 December 2022) between historians Sean Anthony and Juan Cole</ref>


{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=59&tid=53126 The Prophet Cut down the Date Trees of the Jews by the Leave of Allah]<BR>Tafsir ibn Kathir|2=(What you cut down of the Linah, or you left them standing on their stems, it was by leave of Allah, and in order that He might disgrace the rebellious.) Linah is an especially good type of date tree. Abu `Ubaydah said that Linah is a different kind of dates than `Ajwah and Barni. Several others said that Linah refers to every type of date fruits, except for the `Ajwah (ripen dates), while Ibn Jarir said that it refers to all kinds of date trees. Ibn Jarir quoted Mujahid saying that it also includes the Buwayrah type. When the Messenger of Allah laid siege to Bani An-Nadir, to '''humiliate them and bring fear and terror to their hearts''', he ordered their date trees to be cut down. Muhammad bin Ishaq narrated that Yazid bin Ruman, Qatadah and Muqatil bin Hayyan said, "'''Bani An-Nadir sent a message to the Messenger , saying that he used to outlaw mischief in the earth''', so why did he order that their trees be cut down Allah sent down this honorable Ayah stating that whatever Linah was felled or left intact by the Muslims, has been done by His permission, will, leave and pleasure to humiliate and disgrace the enemy and degrade them.'' Mujahid said, "Some of the emigrants discouraged others from chopping down the date trees of Jews, saying that they were war spoils for Muslims. The Qur'an approved of the actions of those who discouraged and those who approved of cutting these trees, stating that those who cut them or did not, did so only by Allah's leave.'' There is also a Hadith narrated from the Prophet with this meaning. An-Nasa'i recorded that Ibn `Abbas said about Allah's statement,}}
This verse also became the basis of the [[Dhimma]] and the tax of the [[Jizyah]], the systems of financial and social apartheid to be instituted against Jews and Christians (and also Zoroastrians) in order to secure the supremacy of Islam in the [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar al-Harb]]


'''Al-Ghazali'''
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|29}}|Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.}}


{{Quote|Al-Ghazali, Kitab al-Wagiz fi fiqh madhab al-imam al-Safi'i|...[O]ne must go on jihad (i.e. razzias or raids) at least once a year ... one may use a catapult against them when they are in a fortress, even if among them are women and children. One may set fire to them and/or drown them. ... If a person of the ''ahl al-kitab'' [i.e. People of the Book] is enslaved, his marriage is revoked. ... '''One may cut down their trees.''' ... One must destroy their useless books. Jihadists may take as booty whatever they decide ... they may steal as much food as they need...<ref name="Al-Ghazali"></ref>}}
{{Quran-range|9|30|35}} continues the theme against the Jews and Christians in vitriolic fashion regarding their theology, and condemns the greed of their scholars and monks, though does not allege physical aggression from them (v. 32 states that "They want to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths [...]").
==Female Participation in Jihad==


'''Maliki Fiqh'''
{{Quran-range|9|36|37}} returns focus to fighting the mushrikeen treaty breakers. Modernists would observe here the defensive and equal retaliation principles.


{{Quote||In Hashiyat ad Dussuqi it is stated: Jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon a surprise attack by the enemy. Dussuqi said: "Wherever this happens, jihad immediately becomes Fard Ayn upon everybody, '''even women, slaves and children,''' and they march out even if their guardians, husbands and creditors forbid them to.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
According to Khalil, various Muslim scholars have related these and other verses in surah al-Tawbah each to either a perceived threat from the Byzantines (Q 9:29) or to nearby Arab enemies (9:36, 9:73, and 9:123), especially in light of Q 2:190 ("Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight you, but do not transgress"). In contrast, according to scholars of what Khalil calls the abrogationist-expansionist paradigm these verses in surah al-tawbah supported expansionist warfare.<ref>Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 15</ref> Such scholars devised a particularly convoluted abrogational scheme to deal with Q 2:190.


'''Shafi'i Fiqh'''
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|36}}|Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah [from] the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him].}}


{{Quote||In the Nihayat al Mahtaj by Ramli: "If they approach one of our lands and the distance between them and us becomes less than the distance permitting the shortening of prayers, then the people of that territory must defend it and it becomes Fard Ayn even upon the people for whom there is usually no jihad; the poor, the children, the slaves, the debtor '''and the women.'''<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|73|74}}|O Prophet, fight against the disbelievers and the hypocrites and be harsh upon them. And their refuge is Hell, and wretched is the destination.<BR />
They swear by Allah that they did not say [anything against the Prophet] while they had said the word of disbelief and disbelieved after their [pretense of] Islam and planned that which they were not to attain. And they were not resentful except [for the fact] that Allah and His Messenger had enriched them of His bounty. So if they repent, it is better for them; but if they turn away, Allah will punish them with a painful punishment in this world and the Hereafter. And there will not be for them on earth any protector or helper.
}}


'''Recent fatwas''''
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|123}}|O you who have believed, fight those adjacent to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness. And know that Allah is with the righteous.}}


{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=82641 Women fighting in Jihad]<BR>Islam Web, Fatwa No. 82641, February 27, 2001|2=There are two situations where women could participate in Jihad.
Surah 5, al Maidah, traditionally (and from internal evidence, according to Hashmi) was revealed after the conquest of Mecca. Hashmi points out that here we still see warnings to not aggress and to be just towards those who had previously driven the believers out ({{Quran|5|2}} and {{Quran|5|8}}).<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iqggj8zcips Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 2)] - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 14 minutes)</ref> The surah contains nothing about fighting, though generally is very critical of most Jews and Christians.
First, if the enemies invade Muslims in their homes, all Muslims who could carry weapons (women, men, and children) must participate in fighting to chase away the enemies and protect Muslim territorial integrity. In this situation, they should participate in any way they can.
Second, if the Muslims invade their enemies, in this case, the Muslim women can participate and go with the Muslim army if the latter is a strong and powerful army and if there is no fear that Muslim women would be taken prisoners. Ibn Abdel Bar [who was a famous Maliki Islamic Scholar] said: 'They (the women) can go with the army if the army is strong enough to take hold of the enemy's army'.
This is the opinion of all scholars and it is an imitation of a Sunnah that the Prophet did and his companions followed. In fact the Prophet took his wives and some of the wives of the Muslims in several Ghazawa (holy battles in the company of the Prophet) as narrated in a sound Hadith.  
But the role of women was limited mostly in looking after the wounded and providing food and drink to the men. However, whenever they are requested to carry weapons or fight they should do so, especially now when women can participate in war without having to travel. If she has to travel it should be within the limits of her nature.
Um Umara Nasiba Bint Kaab Al Ansaria fought in Uhud and also fought with the army that killed Musailimah, the liar. She was wounded in thirteen places that day and her hand was cut off.
Originally war was a male affair. But women can participate in it if there is dire need for it and provided that they would not be made prisoners.}}


{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545134 Palestinian Women Carrying Out Martyr Operations]<BR>Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Islam Online, November 6, 2006|2=Dear questioner, Muslim jurists unanimously agreed that, when the enemy attacks part of the Muslim territories Jihad become an Individual Duty on every one. This obligation reaches a certain extent that a woman should go out for Jihad even without the permission of her husband, and the son without the consent of his parents.<BR>. . .<BR>
====The spoils of war====
When Jihad becomes an Individual Duty, as when the enemy seizes the Muslim territory, a woman becomes entitled to take part in it alongside men. Jurists maintained that: When the enemy assaults a given Muslim territory, it becomes incumbent upon all its residents to fight against them to the extent that a woman should go out even without the consent of her husband, a son can go too without the permission of his parent, a slave without the approval of his master, and the employee without the leave of his employer. This is a case where obedience should not be given to anyone in something that involves disobedience to Allah, according to a famous juristic rule.<BR>. . .<BR>
{{Quran-range|33|26|27}} is traditonally about the battle of Khaybar in 628 CE. The believers are here said to inherit the land and homes of those who had supported "the companies" in the previous verses. {{Quran|33|50}} of the same surah makes intercourse lawful for Muhammad with "those your right hand possesses from what Allah has returned to you [of captives]".
As for the point that carrying out this operation may involve woman’s travel from place to another without a Mahram, we say that a woman can travel to perform Hajj in the company of other trustworthy women and without the presence of any Mahram as long as the road is safe and secured. Travel, nowadays, is no longer done through deserts or wilderness, instead, women can travel safely in trains or by air.


Concerning the point on Hijab, a woman can put on a hat or anything else to cover her hair. Even when necessary, she may take off her Hijab in order to carry out the operation, for she is going to die in the Cause of Allah and not to show off her beauty or uncover her hair. I don’t see any problem in her taking off Hijab in this case.}}
Surah 48, al Fath (the victory) celebrates the treaty of Hudaybiyah. In verses {{Quran-range|48|18|21}} many victories and much booty is promised now (following the victory over Khaybar) and in the future. Mecca was spared by the treaty, despite religious obstruction at the kaaba (verses 21-25). Verse 29 states that "Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah; and those with him are forceful against the disbelievers, merciful among themselves."
==Kidnapping and Killing Prisoners of War==


===Qur'an===
{{Quran-range|8|65|69}} occurs in surah al-anfal, which as mentioned below contains a number of fighting verses as well as appeals to the Meccans to cease fighting and oppression, traditionally following the battle of Badr. Verses 67 to 68 are noteworthy in this context for enjoining the believers to be patient and not yet take captives until their prophet "inflicts a massacre in the land", rebuking them for having taken some already. Verse 69 tells them instead to enjoy what they have lawfully taken as booty.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|8|67|end=69|style=ref}} |It is not for a Prophet that he should have prisoners of war (and free them with ransom) until he had made a great slaughter (among his enemies) in the land. You desire the good of this world (i.e. the money of ransom for freeing the captives), but Allah desires (for you) the Hereafter. And Allah is All-Mighty, All-Wise. Were it not a previous ordainment from Allah, a severe torment would have touched you for what you took. But (now) enjoy what ye took in war, lawful and good: but fear Allah: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.}}
====Terrorising the enemy in battle====
A few verses tend to draw attention in modern times due to the word l-ruʿ'ba, commonly translated as fear or terror. {{Quran|3|151}} states, "We will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve for what they have associated with Allah of which He had not sent down [any] authority. [...]"). Hashmi stresses that this surah mentions a post-Badr context and that the surrounding verses are intended to reassure the believers who are feeling weak and under threat.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zz8ebohksjo On The Origins of Jihad | Dr. Javad T. Hashmi] - Youtube.com, December 2022 (see 2 hours 4 to 8 minutes)</ref> Certainly these verses are intended to raise the confidence and steadfastness of dispirited believers, though at the same time, the verse in question condemns the enemy for their theological claims. This is a theme of Surah Imran more broadly, which extensively condemns most (though not all) of the people of the book for leading believers astray on religious matters.  


===Hadith===
Surah al-Anfal, {{Quran-range|8|12|13}} says, "[...] I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieved, so strike [them] upon the necks and strike from them every fingertip. That is because they opposed Allah and His Messenger [...]" ({{Quran-range|59|2|4}} is a similar passage, traditionally about the expulsion of Banū al-Nadīr from Medina). {{Quran|8|60}} in the same surah states, "And prepare against them whatever you are able of power and of steeds of war by which you may terrify the enemy of Allah and your enemy and others besides them whom you do not know [but] whom Allah knows. [...]". However, the next verse adds, "And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon Allah". Similar appeals to the Meccans to cease fighting or oppression occur in {{Quran|8|19}} and {{Quran|8|39}} of that surah.


'''The killing of all males who've reached puberty'''
====Other Quranic themes on fighting and jihad====
{{Quran|61|4}} states that Allah loves those who fight in his cause, while {{Quran-range|61|10|11}} says that those who "strive in the cause of Allah with their wealth and lives" will be saved from a painful punishment. Complaining about the dubious faith of the Bedouins, {{Quran|49|15}} says, "The believers are only the ones who have believed in Allah and His Messenger and then doubt not but strive with their properties and their lives in the cause of Allah. It is those who are the truthful."


{{Quote|{{Abudawud|38|4390}}|Narrated Atiyyah al-Qurazi: I was among the captives of Banu Qurayza. They (the Companions) examined us, and those who had begun to grow hair (pubes) were killed, and those who had not were not killed. I was among those who had not grown hair. }}
{{Quran|4|95}} declares a great reward and Allah's preference for the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Mujahids|mujahideen]] compared to believers who stay behind. Similar sentiments are expressed in {{Quran|3|157|158}} and {{Quran|9|20|21}}, for example. Those who are left alive after others die in combat with the unbelievers should not mourn them, for they are yet alive with Allah in paradise enjoying pleasures beyond human comprehension ({{Quran|3|169|172}}).
{{Quote|{{bukhari|4|52|280}}, See also: {{bukhari|5|58|148}}, {{Bukhari|8|74|278}}, {{muslim|19|4368}}, and {{muslim|19|4369}}|Narrated Abu-Sa'id al-Khudri: When the tribe of Banu Qurayza was ready to accept Sad's judgment, Allah's Apostle sent for Sad who was near to him. Sad came, riding a donkey and when he came near, Allah's Apostle said (to the Ansar), "Stand up for your leader." Then Sad came and sat beside Allah's Apostle who said to him. "These people are ready to accept your judgment." Sad said, "I give the judgment that their warriors should be killed and their children and women should be taken as prisoners." The Prophet then remarked, "O Sad! You have judged amongst them with (or similar to) the judgment of the King Allah." }}


For further information, see: [[The Genocide of Banu Qurayza]]
There are verses dealing with the exemptions of various types of people to jihad (e.g. {{Quran|9|91}}, {{Quran|48|17}}), fighting during the holy months ({{Quran|2|217}}), fighting in the territory of Mecca ({{Quran|2|191}}), prisoners of war ({{Quran|47|4}}), safe conduct ({{Quran|9|6}}), and truces with the enemy ({{Quran|8|61}}).


'''The killing of a woman'''
====Compared with the sῑra-maghāzī literature====
The Islamic sῑra-maghāzī literature (biographical/expedition narratives) present a picture of forceful conquest or aggressive expeditions towards the end of Muhammad's career or after his death. External sources on early Islam suggest a traumatic experience - in particular Shophronius (d. 639 CE) wrote in 636/637 disparingly of Saracen raids bringing death, plunder, and the destruction of fields, villages and churches, while Thomas the Presbyter (fl. 640 CE) wrote of the "Arabs of Muhammad" defeating the Romans in 632 CE, killing 4000 Palestinian villagers and ravaging the whole region.<ref>Robert Hoyland, '' Seeing Islam As Others Saw It'', Princeton: The Darwin Press, pp. 72-73, 120</ref> It is also worth noting that according to others, archaelogical evidence suggests a less destructive picture.


{{Quote|{{Abudawud|14|2665}}|Narrated Aisha: No woman of Banu Qurayza was killed except one. She was with me, talking and laughing on her back and belly (extremely), while the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was killing her people with the swords. Suddenly a man called her name: Where is so-and-so? She said: I I asked: What is the matter with you? She said: I did a new act. She said: The man took her and beheaded her. She said: I will not forget that she was laughing extremely although she knew that she would be killed. }}
In his book ''Muhammad and the Empires of faith'' Sean Anthony argues that while the Quran is the primary source, approached cautiously, there is also some value for the study of early Islamic history in the sῑra-maghāzī material. He argues that the initial, formative compilation of this material took impulse from the late Umayyad court (late 7th/early 8th century CE). The corpus of traditions existed independently of the court, but their formation into sῑra-maghāzī works was a product of political intervention. Anthony contends that "the rhetoric of empire in Late Antiquity profoundly shaped this corpus".<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 175-6</ref>


===Scholars===
The hadith and sῑra-maghāzī literature speak frequently of the dominion (mulk) of the prophet and his community (ummah). This triumphalist view of the emergence of the early Islamic community "served to sustain and legitimize that community's hegemony, the supremacy of its ruling elite, and the expansionist policy of the burgeoning polity."<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'', p. 177</ref>


{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=8&tid=20537 Encouraging Believers to fight in Jihad; the Good News that a Few Muslims can overcome a Superior Enemy Force]<BR>Tafsir ibn Kathir|2=The matter of prisoners of war is up to the Imam. If he decides, he can have them killed, such as in the case of Banu Qurayzah. If he decides, he can accept a ransom for them, as in the case of the prisoners of Badr, or exchange them for Muslim prisoners" }}
The concept of the Prophet's dominion became important to the early Caliphates. Quranic verses such as {{Quran|24|55}} (quoted below) were interpreted from at least Umayyad times and by later scholars such as al-Tabari in terms of this triumphalist vision, along with verses such as {{Quran|4|54}} which refers to the kingdom (mulk) bestowed upon the family of Abraham, {{Quran|22|78}} which tells the believers that they were chosen to follow the faith (millah) of their father Abraham, and {{Quran-range|2|124|130}} where Abraham is told that his covenant does not include wrongdoers among his descendants. Abraham and Ishmael then pray for a nation of submitters among their descendants with their own messenger (a few verses later, the believers are told to say that they follow the faith (millah) of Abraham, who was neither a Jew nor a Christian {{Quran|2|135}}).


{{Quote|Ibn Taymiyyah, ‘Governance According to Allaah’s Law in Reforming the Ruler and his Flock’|"The Shari'ah enjoins fighting the unbelievers, but not the killing of those who have been captured.  If a male unbeliever is taken captive during warfare or otherwise, e.g. as a result of a shipwreck, or because he lost his way, or as a result of a ruse, then the head of state (imam) may do whatever he deems appropriate: killing him, enslaving him, releasing him or setting him free for a ransom consisting in either property or people."<ref name="ibn Taymiyyah"></ref>}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|55}}|Allah has promised those who have believed among you and done righteous deeds that He will surely grant them succession [to authority] upon the earth just as He granted it to those before them and that He will surely establish for them [therein] their religion which He has preferred for them [...]"}}


<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Qudamah Ibn Qudamah]</span> (1147-1223) was a noted Islamic scholar who was born in Jerusalem and died in Damascus.
Anthony writes, "Citations of this qur'anic theme of the righteous inheriting the lands of Abraham and, therefore, the lands and wealth of the sinful nations do not only appear in the sῑra-maghāzī literature; they are nearly ubiquitous in the narratives of the early conquests as well." Some of the Quraysh now ruled as the Umayyad caliphate, so the framing of Muhammad's kin as the righteous inheritors of Abraham served their political hegemony.<ref>Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'', pp. 179-80</ref>


{{Quote|Le precis de droit d'Ibn Qudama, jurisconsulte musulman d'ecole hanbalite ne a Jerusalem en 541/1146|The chief of state decides on the fate of the men who are taken prisoners; he can have them put to death, reduce them to slavery, free them in return for a ransom or grant them their freedom as a gift.<ref>Excerpted from Henri Laoust, trans., ''Le precis de droit d'Ibn Qudama, jurisconsulte musulman d'ecole hanbalite ne a Jerusalem en 541/1146, mort a Damas en 620/1123'', Livre 20, "La Guerre Legale" (Beirut, 1950), pp. 273-76, 281. English translation by Michael J. Miller.</ref>}}
For this and other reasons, Islamic modernist scholars urge intense skepticism of the aggressive / expansionist expeditions attributed to Muhammad and his companions in this literature (though it may be questionable to what extent this stretches credulity too far the other way). Preference is given to the letters of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (Aisha's nephew), which were in answer to historical queries from the Umayyad court.
==Raping Female Prisoners of War==


:''Main Articles: [[Rape in Islamic Law]] and [[Al-'Azl]]''
The letters of 'Urwa are free from miraculous or other embellishments seen in later sources, and are taken to be an important early source on Muhammad by academic scholars like Sean Anthony, who translates them in full in ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith''. The letters broadly come in two recensions (preserved in the work of al-Tabari and some narratives also in other sources). Goerke, Motzki, and Schoeler have robustly defended the authenticity of the letters of 'Urwa as probably in some way originating from him, arguing that several traditions can convincingly be traced back to 'Urwa.<ref>See in particular pp. 16-21 of Goerke, A, Motzki, H & Schoeler, G (2012) [https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/12692843/First_Century_Sources_for_the_Life_of_Muhammad_a_debate.pdf First-Century Sources for the Life of Muhammad? A Debate], Der Islam, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 2-59. https://doi.org/10.1515/islam-2012-0002</ref>


===Qur'an===
'Urwa's first letter describes the persecution of Muhammad and his early followers, forcing some of them to flee to Abyssinia and later to Medina. The second letter concerns Muhammad's marriage to Aisha. His third letter concerns the battle of Badr. Before getting to that event he mentions a raid conducted on a Quraysh caravan at Nakhla by a small party, some of whom were companions sent by Muhammad (later biographies portray Muhammad as just sending them on an observational mission, but that the companions decided to raid the caravan in controversial circumstances). One man was killed and some captives were taken from the caravan. According to the letter, "It was this event that provoked the war between the Messenger of God and the Quraysh, and the first conflict in which they inflicted casualties on one another." The letter recounts that Muhammad later decided to raid Abu Sufyan and a small number of Quraysh on their return from a trading expedition in Syria. The latter were able to call reinforcements by the time they encountered Muhammad and his forces at Badr, but were nevertheless defeated. Badr was the first of nine major battles or seiges fought by Muhammad based on other early sources.


{{Quote|{{Quran|4|24}}|Also (forbidden are) women already married, '''except those whom your right hands possess'''. Thus has Allah ordained for you. All others are lawful, provided you seek them from your property, desiring chastity, not fornication. So with those among them whom you have enjoyed, give them their required due, but if you agree mutually after the requirement (has been determined), there is no sin on you. Surely, Allah is Ever All-Knowing, All-Wise.}}
The fourth letter details the treaty of Hudaybiya between the Medinans and Meccans in 928 CE, the topic of {{Quran-range|60|10|12}}. The fifth letter details the fairly bloodless conquest of Mecca enabled by a Meccan violation of the treaty after they had sent arms to an allied clan who were fighting another clan allied to Muhammad. It also describes a battle at Hunayn in 630 CE, briefly mentioned as one of many victorious battles in {{Quran-range|9|25|26}}. This battle was against two Arab clans, Hawazin and Thaqif, who had camped at Hunayn in preparation to attack the believers in Mecca, having previously thought that Muhammad was coming for them when he left Medina on his way there. The tribes were defeated and their women, children and cattle taken as booty. Muhammad led his troops straight on to al-Ta'if where he beseiged the Thaqif stronghold for two weeks. Afterwards, he freed the captives from the battle at Hunayn as they had accepted Islam. Delegates from Thaqif gave their allegiance and secured a treaty with Muhammad when he had returned to Medina. The remaining letters concern a range of topics not relevant to this article.<ref>'Urwa's letters are translated in full in chapter 4 of ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' by Sean Anthony</ref>


===Hadith===
Islamic Modernists tend to count all of the battles as defensive, especially in the overarching context of the danger from the Meccans. Khalil cites modern academic scholar Ahmed al Dawoody (who also taught at the famous al-Azhar University in Cairo) for arguing in his book, ''The Islamic Law of War'', that all Muhammad's major battles and sieges were defensive in nature (Dawoody defines these as Badr, Uhud, the Ditch, Khaybar, Hunayn and Ta'if). Such a view is, of course, contested. Khalil quotes Reuven Firestone as an example of a contrasting view who maintains that "it was Muhammad and not the Meccan Quraysh who initiated the battles" between them.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad'' p. 110 cited in Mohammad Hassan Khalil, ''Jihad'' p. 15</ref>


{{Quote|{{Muslim|8|3432}}|Abu Sa'id al-Khudri reported that at the Battle of Hunain Allah's Messenger sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:" And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (Quran 4:. 24)" (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda period came to an end).}}
According to the sῑra-maghāzī literature, near the end of his life Muhammad also launched expeditions to the north in an attempt to fight the Byzantines at Tabuk, and, following the killing of his emissary bearing [[Invitation_to_Islam_Prior_to_Jihad|an ultimatum letter to Harith ibn Abi Shamir, King of Damascus]], also against their Ghassanid vassals, resulting in the battle of Mu'tah, and to the south to destroy the idol of Dhu'l Khalasa. As discussed above, there are difficulties with the details of some of these accounts causing doubt and uncertainty among historians. The northern expeditions seem consistent with the ideology that the Ishmaelites were the righteous inheritors of the lands of Abraham, which they interpreted from certain verses of the Quran as mentioned above, and is seen in the ultimatum reportedly sent [[Invitation_to_Islam_Prior_to_Jihad|from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius]], recorded by a Christian historian writing in the 660s CE. The northern expedition stories could be a back-projection of this ideology, though both are reported as failures rather than triumphs (the Byzantines were nowhere to be seen at Tabuk, and the Ghassanids won at Mu'tah).


{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2155|darussalam}}| Abu Said al-Khudri said: "The apostle of Allah sent a military expedition to Awtas on the occasion of the battle of Hunain. They met their enemy and fought with them. They defeated them and took them captives. '''Some of the Companions of the apostle of Allah were reluctant to have intercourse with the female captives because of their pagan husbands.''' So Allah, the Exalted, sent down the Quranic verse, "And all married women (are forbidden) unto you save those (captives) whom your right hands possess". That is to say, they are lawful for them when they complete their waiting period." [The Quran verse is 4:24]}}
===Jihad in the Hadith===
{{Main‎|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jihad_(Miscellaneous_Texts)}}
Academic scholarship is generally quite skeptical as to the reliability of hadiths, though in some cases modern methods are able to verify the transmitter by whom a narration was first widely circulated, or in other ways assess the plausibility of a narration. An enormous amount of hadith material exists concerning topics relating to Jihad. A famous example places Jihad in the way of Allah as the best deed after the confession of faith.


===Scholars===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|25}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle was asked, "What is the best deed?" He replied, "To believe in Allah and His Apostle (Muhammad). The questioner then asked, "What is the next (in goodness)? He replied, "To participate in Jihad (religious fighting) in Allah's Cause." The questioner again asked, "What is the next (in goodness)?" He replied, "To perform Hajj (Pilgrim age to Mecca) 'Mubrur, (which is accepted by Allah and is performed with the intention of seeking Allah's pleasure only and not to show off and without committing a sin and in accordance with the traditions of the Prophet)."}}


{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=4&tid=10803 Forbidding Women Already Married, Except for Female Slaves]<BR>Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=The Ayah (verses) means Also (forbidden are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess.), you are prohibited from marrying women who are already married, except those whom your right hands possess) except those whom you acquire through war, for you are allowed such women after making sure they are not pregnant. Imam Ahmad recorded that Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri said, "We captured some women from the area of Awtas who were already married, and we disliked having sexual relations with them because they already had husbands. So, we asked the Prophet about this matter, and this Ayah (verse) was revealed, Also (forbidden are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess). Accordingly, we had sexual relations with these women." (Alternate translation can be: as a result of these verses, their (Infidels) wives have become lawful for us) This is the wording collected by At-Tirmidhi An-Nasa'i, Ibn Jarir and Muslim in his Sahih.}}
==Jihad in Early Islam==
==Enslaving Prisoners of War==
{{Main|List of expeditions of Muhammad‎|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad and War}}
As discussed above, the sῑra-maghāzī literature contains an enormous amount of narrations on expeditions said to have been carried out by Muhammad and his companions. Historians increasingly filter this material through the lens of the Quran as the primary source for this period, and employ modern historical methods to assess its reliability in general and in specific cases, bearing in mind the political context in which they were compiled. A highly regarded compilation of evidence external to the Islamic tradition itself on the early Islamic conquests is Robert Hoyland's book ''Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam''.<ref>Robert Holand (1997) ''Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam'', Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-125-8</ref>


:''Main Article: [[Islamic_law#Slavery|Islamic Law - Slavery]]''
==Jihad in Classic Islamic Law==
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jihad|Jihad as Obligation (Fard)‎}}
Islamic scholars had a lot to say about topics relating to Jihad, writing about how, when, where, why, and in what fashion Jihad may be undertaken.


===Hadith===
===Offensive Jihad===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Offensive Jihad}}
Offensive jihad, known in Arabic as جهاد الطلب "jihad at-talab" ("the jihad of request", referring to the invitation to Islam which must be sent to the opposing infidels before hostilities may commence), was a concept developed by medieval exegetes and is understood in the classical sources as an offensive, expansionist struggle. According to Muslim scholar Dr. Hawarey, 80% of the battles Muhammad participated in were offensive.<ref>[http://military.hawarey.org/military_english.htm Military Operations in the Era of Prophet Mohammed (SAW)] - military.hawarey.org</ref>
Modernist Islamic scholars consider the concept to be very much mistaken and linked to the imperial ideology of the early Caliphates.


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|8|367}}|Narrated 'Abdul 'Aziz: Anas said, 'When Allah's Apostle invaded Khaibar, we offered the Fajr prayer there yearly in the morning) when it was still dark. The Prophet rode and Abu Talha rode too and I was riding behind Abu Talha. The Prophet passed through the lane of Khaibar quickly and my knee was touching the thigh of the Prophet . He uncovered his thigh and I saw the whiteness of the thigh of the Prophet. When he entered the town, he said, 'Allahu Akbar! Khaibar is ruined. Whenever we approach near a (hostile) nation (to fight) then evil will be the morning of those who have been warned.' He repeated this thrice. The people came out for their jobs and some of them said, 'Muhammad (has come).' (Some of our companions added, "With his army.") We conquered Khaibar, '''took the captives''', and the booty was collected. Dihya came and said, ''''O Allah's Prophet! Give me a slave girl from the captives.' The Prophet said, 'Go and take any slave girl.'''' He took Safiya bint Huyai. A man came to the Prophet and said, 'O Allah's Apostles! You gave Safiya bint Huyai to Dihya and she is the chief mistress of the tribes of Quraiza and An-Nadir and she befits none but you.' So the Prophet said, 'Bring him along with her.' So Dihya came with her and when the Prophet saw her, he said to Dihya, ''''Take any slave girl other than her from the captives.'''' Anas added: The Prophet then manumitted her and married her..."}}
===Defensive Jihad===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Defensive Jihad}}
Medieval Islamic scholars also considered jihad integral to the defensive needs of the Muslim lands. To modernist scholars and some academic scholars, military jihad is on a Quranic basis always a defense against oppression and aggression.


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|53|373}}|Narrated 'Amr bin Taghlib: Allah's Apostle gave (gifts) to some people to the exclusion of some others. The latter seemed to be displeased by that. '''The Prophet said, "I give to some people, lest they should deviate from True Faith''' or lose patience, while I refer other people to the goodness and contentment which Allah has put in their hearts, and 'Amr bin Taghlib is amongst them." 'Amr bin Taghlib said, "The statement of Allah's Apostle is dearer to me than red camels."<BR>
==Jihad in Modern Islam==
Narrated Al-Hasan: 'Amr bin Taghlib told us that Allah's Apostle got some property or '''some war prisoners and he distributed them in the above way''' (i.e. giving to some people to the exclusion of others) .}}
In classical [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia''), the term refers to armed struggle against any [[Kafir (Infidel)]],<ref name="OEIP">{{cite web|first1=Rudolph|last1=Peters|first2=David|last2=Cook|title=Jihād|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2014|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0057|isbn=9780199739356|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123114402/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001/acref-9780199739356-e-0263|archive-date=23 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="EI2">{{cite web |author-last=Tyan |author-first=E. |year=1965 |title=D̲j̲ihād |editor1-last=Bosworth |editor1-first=C. E. |editor1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor2-last=van Donzel |editor2-first=E. J. |editor2-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor3-last=Heinrichs |editor3-first=W. P. |editor3-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |editor4-last=Lewis |editor4-first=B. |editor5-last=Pellat |editor5-first=Ch. |editor5-link=Charles Pellat |editor6-last=Schacht |editor6-first=J. |editor6-link=Joseph Schacht |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=2 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref> while [[w:Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] generally equate military ''jihad'' with defensive warfare.<ref name="hallaq334">{{cite book|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|author=Wael B. Hallaq|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2009|pages=334–38}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Rudolph|last=Peters|year=2015|title=Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|via=[[De Gruyter]]|url-access=subscription|page=124|isbn=9783110824858|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025124838/https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|archive-date=25 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[w:Sufi|Sufi]] and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of ''greater jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018"/><ref name=ER>{{cite web|author=Rudolph Peters|title=Jihad|editor=Lindsay Jones|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion|edition=2nd|publisher=MacMillan Reference|year=2005|volume=7|page=4917}}</ref><ref name=EI2/> The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various [[w:insurgent|insurgent]] [[w:Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], [[w:militant|militant]] [[w:Islamism|Islamist]], and [[w:Islamic terrorism|terrorist]] individuals and organizations whose ideology is based on the Islamic notion of ''jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018">{{cite web |author-last=DeLong-Bas |author-first=Natana J. |author-link=Natana J. DeLong-Bas |date=22 February 2018 |origyear=10 May 2017 |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0045.xml |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629215212/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0045.xml |archive-date=29 June 2016 |access-date=25 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Badara 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Badara |first1=Mohamed |last2=Nagata |first2=Masaki |date=November 2017 |title=Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective |journal=[[Arab Law Quarterly]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=31 |issue=4 |doi=10.1163/15730255-12314024 |doi-access=free |issn=1573-0255 |pages=305–335}}</ref><ref name="Cook 2015">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=93–127 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref><ref name="Jalal 2009">{{cite book |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=2009 |chapter=Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism |title=Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=239–240 |isbn=9780674039070 |s2cid=152941120}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

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Jihad جهاد in Arabic literally means "struggle" coming from the Arabic verb جاهد jaahada meaning to "strive." Jihad fi sabil Allah جهاد في سبيل الله is thus literally "struggle/striving on the path of god." Historically, the use of the word jihad has been very wide semantically, with applications from war to spiritual discipline to reform and many, many things in between. Despite these wide and varied applications, though, the main meaning of jihad in Islamic law from the origins of the religion to the classic period to the present day continues to be armed struggle. To scholars, this was either to expand the realm of Islamic political dominance or to defend Islamic lands from infidels, with the expansion of Islamic political dominance being part-and-parcel to a social and political system which advances the interest of the Muslim religion and induces the peoples conquered in this warfare to convert to Islam. This socio-political system, that of the dhimma, is intimately connected to the institution of "jihad at-talab" جهاد الطلب the "jihad of request" involving the three-option offer that an Islamic force must make before commencing hostilities against an infidel enemy: 1. Conversion to Islam. 2. Payment of the jizyah and subjection to Islamic political dominion and the strictures of the dhimma. 3. Fighting until death.

Jews and Christians were required to pay the jizyah while pagans were required to either accept Islam or die.[1] Upon payment of the tax (jizya), the dhimmi would receive a receipt of payment, either in the form of a piece of paper or parchment or as a seal humiliatingly placed upon their neck, and was thereafter compelled to carry this receipt wherever he went within the realms of Islam - failure to produce an up-to-date jizya receipt on the request of a Muslim could result in death or forced conversion to Islam of the dhimmi in question[2].

Scholars from as early as the Umayyad period interpreted the Quran as legitimising expansionist warfare. Modernist scholars emphasise the hostile environment in which the verses were revealed and dispute the traditonal interpretations, including their extensive use of the doctine of abrogation.

Jihad in the Qur'an and Sunnah

Jihad in the Qur'an

The words "jihad" and "fighting" (قتال--Qitaal) appear frequently in the Medinan surahs of the Qur'an. In his academic book on this topic, Reuven Firestone documents in detail the traditional interpretations of such verses. Regarding the key fighting verses in general, Firestone notes the lack of consistent tradition in commentaries on how to interpret them, while the legal literature fits the verses into an evolutionary schema of increasing permission to fight, from defensive purposes all the way to aggressive warfare. Firestone himself considers the verses to be inconsistent and to reflect different factions of believers who sought to influence Muhammad with their views on fighting, noting the abundant evidence in the Quran itself that there were groups strongly disinclined to fight. Disregarding the traditional chronology of verses, which is inextricably tied to the evolutionary model of later interpretation, he groups verses according to these factions.[3]

Many modern academic scholars are influenced by the traditional evolutionary model regarding permission to fight, though other academics, as well as modernist Muslim scholars (from as early as the 19th century) and increasingly, Muslims scholars more widely are emphasising the Quran as the primary historical source for this period, which later historical material should be interpreted in light of rather than the other way around.

According to Patricia Crone, modernist muslim scholars cast the conflicts fought by Muhammad as "defensive or pre-emptive", as did some earlier scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah.[4] These modernist Muslim scholars do not regard the Quran as anywhere giving a general dispensation for expansive warfare, which like some academic scholars, they argue was a later reinterpretation to legitimise the emerging Arab empire.

In her article "War" for the Encyclopedia of the Quran, Crone says fighting is legitimised in the Quran for self defence, including pre-emptively (Quran 9:8 and Quran 60:2), as well as for the defence of others (Quran 4:75) and against treaty breakers (Quran 9:13-14). She says that throughout the Quran it is stressed that fighting must stop when the enemy does so and the language of forgiveness is reiterated amidst the often militant language. To Crone, the only verse which seems to endorse aggressive warfare is Quran 9:29, though this perhaps can be read as a continuation of Quran 9:1-23 concerning the treaty breakers.[5]

Modernists stress the oppressive environment and danger faced by the early community, pointing out that the Quran itself mentions a number of times that the believers were forced to migrate to Medina. According to the first letter of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (d. 713 CE), the believers first migrated to Abyssinia before returning to Mecca, and later migrated to Medina due to what he calls al-fitnah al-ūlā and al-fitnah al-ākhira (the first and final trials of persecution), respectively. Similar terminology was used at a later time in reference to the Islamic civil wars in the early decades after Muhammad's death.

In the sections below, important Quranic themes and verses are examined, along with their interpretations by traditional Muslim scholars, Islamic modernists and modern academic scholars. Early Islamic historical literature is also discussed in relation to the interpretations of the verses.

Early fighting verses

There was a consensus among commentators that Quran 2:217 was revealed following a caravan raid which was controversial in terms of whether or not the sacred months in which fighting was prohibited had finished.[6] This raid was the first expedition mentioned by 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr in his letters about the early history of Islam. These letters are regarded as an important early source and the relevant letters are summarised in a later section in this article. In that verse, the Quran justifies killing in the sacred months in the context of the "fitna" (trial of oppression) and forced migration of the believers to Medina.

There was considerable discussion about the scope of the obligation to fight mentioned in the previous verse, Q 2:216, especially on whether it was a collective obligation (fard kifiya) that could be met by just a group of believers without involving everyone. In this regard, Quran 9:122 was also a key verse ("And the believers should not all go out to fight [...]").[7]

216 Fighting has been enjoined upon you while it is hateful to you. But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah Knows, while you know not.
217 They ask you about the sacred month - about fighting therein. Say, "Fighting therein is great [sin], but averting [people] from the way of Allah and disbelief in Him and [preventing access to] al-Masjid al-Haram and the expulsion of its people therefrom are greater [evil] in the sight of Allah. And fitnah is greater than killing." And they will continue to fight you until they turn you back from your religion if they are able. And whoever of you reverts from his religion [to disbelief] and dies while he is a disbeliever - for those, their deeds have become worthless in this world and the Hereafter, and those are the companions of the Fire, they will abide therein eternally.

"Fight them until persecution is no more, and the religion is for Allah"

Q 2:190-94 is regarded as a particularly important passage in terms of the principles for fighting.

190 Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress. Indeed. Allah does not like transgressors.

191 And kill them wherever you overtake them and expel them from wherever they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al- Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.
192 And if they cease, then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.
193 Fight them until there is no [more] fitnah and [until] worship is [acknowledged to be] for Allah. But if they cease, then there is to be no aggression except against the oppressors.
194 [Fighting in] the sacred month is for [aggression committed in] the sacred month, and for [all] violations is legal retribution. So whoever has assaulted you, then assault him in the same way that he has assaulted you. And fear Allah and know that Allah is with those who fear Him.


Mohammad Khalil in his academic book on Jihad describes the views of medieval commentators as well as modern interpretations of the key verses.[8] Khalil notes that the conditional instruction to end hostilities when the enemies "cease" in Q 2:193 was reinterpreted by medieval exegetes to mean that they have ceased not only fighting but also their disbelief.[9]

This was in line with their interpretation that fitna here means shirk, associating partners with Allah (or kufr, disbelief), based on narrations recorded by al-Tabari attributing this view to Ibn Abbas and several of the tabi'un (successor generation). Javad Hashmi, an Islamic modernist and academic, notes the defensive principles apparent in the passage, and argues that in this context fitna simply means religious persecution, pointing to the related verse Quran 2:217 quoted above which seems to define fitna in terms of obstruction of worship (though it also says "and disbelief in Him"[10]).[11] Quran 2:190-191 in the above quote and Quran 8:34-39 quoted below seem also to support the interpretation that fitna here refers to oppression.

Medieval commentators interpreted fitna as shirk/kufr and the command to fight in Q 2:193 and Q 8:39 in terms of religious expansionism, supported by a famous hadith shown below. Some scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah interpreted that hadith narration in a more limited sense through the Quran, in terms of fighting those who are waging war but not if there is a peace treaty. Modernists typically question its authenticity altogether (in line with the modern academic view that hadiths in general cannot be relied upon at face value).

It is reported on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah said: I have been commanded to fight against people so long as they do not declare that there is no god but Allah, and he who professed it was guaranteed the protection of his property and life on my behalf except for the right affairs rest with Allah.

Hashmi argues that "the religion is for Allah" in 2:193 and "the religion, all of it (l-dīnu kulluhu), is for Allah" in Q 8:39 should be understood not in a religious hegemonic sense, but rather in terms of the oppressed believers (hence, "fitna") not being forced to commit shirk, to include pagan gods besides Allah in their religion. His interpretation is one also mentioned by al-Tabari and Ibn Ishaq. [11] Looking at the preceding verses, Q 8:34-38 (shown in the quote below), a case can be made either way for this or for the traditional interpretation. In further support of his interpretation, Hashmi has also argued that wiping out pagan religion would not have been a viable goal at that early, post-migration time period. In support of the timing, it may also be worth noting that the first of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr's letters states that Q 8:39 was revealed before Muhammad called the remaining Muslims in Mecca to migrate. Later in the same surah, Quran 8:72 has a command to help believers who did not migrate but who seek help in the religion (fī l-dīni) lest there be fitna. In the Quran, l-dīn, usually translated "the religion", probably refers to active rites of worship, especially at the sanctuary.[12]

34 But why should Allah not punish them while they obstruct [people] from al-Masjid al- Haram and they were not [fit to be] its guardians? Its [true] guardians are not but the righteous, but most of them do not know.

35 And their worship at the (holy) House is naught but whistling and hand-clapping. Therefore (it is said unto them): Taste of the doom because ye disbelieve.
36 Indeed, those who disbelieve spend their wealth to avert [people] from the way of Allah. So they will spend it; then it will be for them a [source of] regret; then they will be overcome. And those who have disbelieved - unto Hell they will be gathered.
37 [This is] so that Allah may distinguish the wicked from the good and place the wicked some of them upon others and heap them all together and put them into Hell. It is those who are the losers.
38 Say to those who have disbelieved [that] if they cease, what has previously occurred will be forgiven for them. But if they return [to hostility] - then the precedent of the former [rebellious] peoples has already taken place.

39 And fight them until there is no fitnah and [until] the religion, all of it, is for Allah. And if they cease - then indeed, Allah is Seeing of what they do.

Non-aggression / defensive principle

Khalil highlights Q 22:39-40 and Q 4:75 as early Medinan verses calling for fighting in self defence and the defence of others.[13] According to the traditional exegesis of the Qur'an in Sunni Islam (for example, Ibn Kathir), the first verse revealed to Muhammad about fighting was Q 22:39. In Q 22:40 even synagogues and churches are considered worthy of protection.

Permission [to fight] has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory.
[They are] those who have been evicted from their homes without right - only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.
And what is [the matter] with you that you fight not in the cause of Allah and [for] the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, "Our Lord, take us out of this city of oppressive people and appoint for us from Yourself a protector and appoint for us from Yourself a helper?"

In line with this general principle, a number of verses state that fighting must stop if the enemy does so. Such verses include those discussed in this article (Quran 2:193, Quran 4:90, Quran 8:39, Quran 9:3).

Perhaps in slight tension with the principle is Quran 47:35. Surah 47 dates to soon after the migration from Mecca (verse 13 refers to the believers being driven out) and the first fighting verses had already been revealed (alluded to in verses 20-21). Verse 35 says, "So do not weaken and call for peace while you are superior; and Allah is with you and will never deprive you of [the reward of] your deeds." The surrounding verses are concerned with those who have reverted to disbelief and those who do not want to spend in the cause of Allah. A noteworthy verse on the conduct of war occurs in the same surah, Quran 47:4, which states that captives should be freed or ransomed until the war lays down its burdens.

Proportionate retaliation principle

Javad Hashmi, as well as noting the non-aggression principle apparent in many fighting verses such as those quoted above, proposes that another prevalant fighting principle in this context is that of qisas, or proportionate retaliation.

The basic proportionate retaliation principle in the context of killing is given in Quran 2:178-179. Patricia Crone similarly noted that retaliation generally must be proportionate in Quran 22:60 and Quran 42:39-41.[5]

Hashmi too notes that the latter passage brings in the equal retaliation principle, while also praising the alternative of forgiveness in verse 43. His thesis is that there is a concept of proportionality associated with fighting in the Quran. He notes that the principle is also apparent in verses such as Q 2:191 and Q 2:194 discussed above. Often a preference for forgiveness and patience is expressed alongside this principle.[14]

And those who, when tyranny strikes them, they defend themselves,

And the retribution for an evil act is an evil one like it, but whoever pardons and makes reconciliation - his reward is [due] from Allah. Indeed, He does not like wrongdoers.
And whoever avenges himself after having been wronged - those have not upon them any cause [for blame].
The cause is only against the ones who wrong the people and tyrannize upon the earth without right. Those will have a painful punishment.

And whoever is patient and forgives - indeed, that is of the matters [requiring] determination.

Surah 9 (at-Tawbah)

Surah 9, al-Tawbah, was traditionally revealed the year after the conquest of Mecca, though Hashmi, crediting Cheragh Ali (d. 1895), argues that the opening of the surah was more likely revealed soon after the treaty of Hudaybiyya was violated by the Meccans, but before what turned out to be a peaceful conquest of the city.[15] Hashmi argues that the principles discussed above are evident even in the opening verses of surah al-Tawbah.[16] Similarly, Khalil notes that the early part of the surah has various qualifiers congruous with the restraining principles of earlier passages.[17]

In this opening section, Q 9:5 became known as 'the verse of the sword' by some scholars and gives instructions against the mushrikeen who broke the treaty:

And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.

The same language (capture them and kill them wherever you find them) is directed at the hypocrites in Quran 4:88-90, with reprieve for those who do not want to fight the believers or who flee to a place where they are protected by treaty. Unlike in Q 9:5, they do not need to convert to Islam, which is a condition not present in earlier fighting verses. A similar phrase appears also in Q 2:191, in the passage discussed above where they need only cease fighting and oppression. In the early part of surah 9, patience has run out for those proven untrustworthy to abide by their treaties. They must repent and join the religion (or perhaps just observe prayer and zakat[18]), individually seek protection, or die.

Khalil writes that Q 9:5 was interpreted by scholars in the Umayyad and Abbasid imperial centres as abrogating certain earlier verses and opening the door for expansionst warfare against pagans, not just the treaty breakers who are explicitly the target of the verse. In contrast, scholars who did not live near these centres or lived at later times did not hold such a view and had a far more conservative opinion on abrogation generally.[19] A minority extreme view was that all peaceful passages were abrogated.[20] See also the introductory discussion in List of Abrogations in the Qur'an.

Here are some views on the verse in the classical commentaries of Ibn Kathir and al-Qurtubi:

وَهَذِهِ الْآيَةُ الْكَرِيمَةُ هِيَ آيَةُ السَّيْفِ الَّتِي قَالَ فِيهَا الضَّحَّاكُ بْنُ مُزَاحِمٍ: إِنَّهَا نَسَخَتْ كُلَّ عَهْدٍ بَيْنَ النَّبِيِّ(٩) ﷺ وَبَيْنَ أَحَدٍ مِنَ الْمُشْرِكِينَ، وَكُلَّ عَهْدٍ، وَكُلَّ مُدَّةٍ.


This holy verse is the verse of the sword, which Dahaak bin Muzaahim said of it "Verily it has withdrawn every covenant/treaty between the prophet, Allah's prayer and peace be upon him, and between any mushrik (polytheist/non-muslim), every covenant and every bond of aide."
Tafsir ibn Kathir on surah 9:5

Al-Qurtubi has this to say

...فَاقْتُلُوا الْمُشْرِكِينَ﴾ عَامٌّ فِي كُلِّ مُشْرِكٍ، لَكِنَّ السُّنَّةَ خَصَّتْ مِنْهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ بَيَانُهُ فِي سُورَةِ "الْبَقَرَةِ"(٣) مِنَ امْرَأَةٍ وَرَاهِبٍ وَصَبِيٍّ وَغَيْرِهِمْ﴿ حَيْثُ وَجَدْتُمُوهُمْ﴾ عَامٌّ فِي كُلِّ مَوْضِعٍ﴿...


"Fight the unbelievers" meaning: a general decree concerning every mushrik (polytheist). But the Sunnah has narrowed its application in the declaration of surat-al-baqarah (surah 2) verse 3, excluding women, monks, children and other (non-combatants)......"Wherever you find them" meaning: a general decree for all places
Tafsir of Al-Qurtubi on surah 9:5

Another verse, Q 9:29, was associated with the expedition to face the Byzantines in northern Arabia at Tabuk in 630 CE.[21] Tabuk is not mentioned in the letters of 'Urwa (discussed below), though later traditional sources claim there were rumours that the Romans (Byzantines) were going to invade. There are possibly some problems with the chronology of this expedition and the battle of Mu'tah in Jordan against their Ghassanid vassals in 629 CE.[22]

This verse also became the basis of the Dhimma and the tax of the Jizyah, the systems of financial and social apartheid to be instituted against Jews and Christians (and also Zoroastrians) in order to secure the supremacy of Islam in the Dar al-Harb

Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.

Quran 9:30-35 continues the theme against the Jews and Christians in vitriolic fashion regarding their theology, and condemns the greed of their scholars and monks, though does not allege physical aggression from them (v. 32 states that "They want to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths [...]").

Quran 9:36-37 returns focus to fighting the mushrikeen treaty breakers. Modernists would observe here the defensive and equal retaliation principles.

According to Khalil, various Muslim scholars have related these and other verses in surah al-Tawbah each to either a perceived threat from the Byzantines (Q 9:29) or to nearby Arab enemies (9:36, 9:73, and 9:123), especially in light of Q 2:190 ("Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight you, but do not transgress"). In contrast, according to scholars of what Khalil calls the abrogationist-expansionist paradigm these verses in surah al-tawbah supported expansionist warfare.[23] Such scholars devised a particularly convoluted abrogational scheme to deal with Q 2:190.

Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah [from] the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four are sacred. That is the correct religion, so do not wrong yourselves during them. And fight against the disbelievers collectively as they fight against you collectively. And know that Allah is with the righteous [who fear Him].
O Prophet, fight against the disbelievers and the hypocrites and be harsh upon them. And their refuge is Hell, and wretched is the destination.

They swear by Allah that they did not say [anything against the Prophet] while they had said the word of disbelief and disbelieved after their [pretense of] Islam and planned that which they were not to attain. And they were not resentful except [for the fact] that Allah and His Messenger had enriched them of His bounty. So if they repent, it is better for them; but if they turn away, Allah will punish them with a painful punishment in this world and the Hereafter. And there will not be for them on earth any protector or helper.


O you who have believed, fight those adjacent to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness. And know that Allah is with the righteous.

Surah 5, al Maidah, traditionally (and from internal evidence, according to Hashmi) was revealed after the conquest of Mecca. Hashmi points out that here we still see warnings to not aggress and to be just towards those who had previously driven the believers out (Quran 5:2 and Quran 5:8).[24] The surah contains nothing about fighting, though generally is very critical of most Jews and Christians.

The spoils of war

Quran 33:26-27 is traditonally about the battle of Khaybar in 628 CE. The believers are here said to inherit the land and homes of those who had supported "the companies" in the previous verses. Quran 33:50 of the same surah makes intercourse lawful for Muhammad with "those your right hand possesses from what Allah has returned to you [of captives]".

Surah 48, al Fath (the victory) celebrates the treaty of Hudaybiyah. In verses Quran 48:18-21 many victories and much booty is promised now (following the victory over Khaybar) and in the future. Mecca was spared by the treaty, despite religious obstruction at the kaaba (verses 21-25). Verse 29 states that "Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah; and those with him are forceful against the disbelievers, merciful among themselves."

Quran 8:65-69 occurs in surah al-anfal, which as mentioned below contains a number of fighting verses as well as appeals to the Meccans to cease fighting and oppression, traditionally following the battle of Badr. Verses 67 to 68 are noteworthy in this context for enjoining the believers to be patient and not yet take captives until their prophet "inflicts a massacre in the land", rebuking them for having taken some already. Verse 69 tells them instead to enjoy what they have lawfully taken as booty.

Terrorising the enemy in battle

A few verses tend to draw attention in modern times due to the word l-ruʿ'ba, commonly translated as fear or terror. Quran 3:151 states, "We will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve for what they have associated with Allah of which He had not sent down [any] authority. [...]"). Hashmi stresses that this surah mentions a post-Badr context and that the surrounding verses are intended to reassure the believers who are feeling weak and under threat.[25] Certainly these verses are intended to raise the confidence and steadfastness of dispirited believers, though at the same time, the verse in question condemns the enemy for their theological claims. This is a theme of Surah Imran more broadly, which extensively condemns most (though not all) of the people of the book for leading believers astray on religious matters.

Surah al-Anfal, Quran 8:12-13 says, "[...] I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieved, so strike [them] upon the necks and strike from them every fingertip. That is because they opposed Allah and His Messenger [...]" (Quran 59:2-4 is a similar passage, traditionally about the expulsion of Banū al-Nadīr from Medina). Quran 8:60 in the same surah states, "And prepare against them whatever you are able of power and of steeds of war by which you may terrify the enemy of Allah and your enemy and others besides them whom you do not know [but] whom Allah knows. [...]". However, the next verse adds, "And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon Allah". Similar appeals to the Meccans to cease fighting or oppression occur in Quran 8:19 and Quran 8:39 of that surah.

Other Quranic themes on fighting and jihad

Quran 61:4 states that Allah loves those who fight in his cause, while Quran 61:10-11 says that those who "strive in the cause of Allah with their wealth and lives" will be saved from a painful punishment. Complaining about the dubious faith of the Bedouins, Quran 49:15 says, "The believers are only the ones who have believed in Allah and His Messenger and then doubt not but strive with their properties and their lives in the cause of Allah. It is those who are the truthful."

Quran 4:95 declares a great reward and Allah's preference for the mujahideen compared to believers who stay behind. Similar sentiments are expressed in Quran 3:157 and Quran 9:20, for example. Those who are left alive after others die in combat with the unbelievers should not mourn them, for they are yet alive with Allah in paradise enjoying pleasures beyond human comprehension (Quran 3:169).

There are verses dealing with the exemptions of various types of people to jihad (e.g. Quran 9:91, Quran 48:17), fighting during the holy months (Quran 2:217), fighting in the territory of Mecca (Quran 2:191), prisoners of war (Quran 47:4), safe conduct (Quran 9:6), and truces with the enemy (Quran 8:61).

Compared with the sῑra-maghāzī literature

The Islamic sῑra-maghāzī literature (biographical/expedition narratives) present a picture of forceful conquest or aggressive expeditions towards the end of Muhammad's career or after his death. External sources on early Islam suggest a traumatic experience - in particular Shophronius (d. 639 CE) wrote in 636/637 disparingly of Saracen raids bringing death, plunder, and the destruction of fields, villages and churches, while Thomas the Presbyter (fl. 640 CE) wrote of the "Arabs of Muhammad" defeating the Romans in 632 CE, killing 4000 Palestinian villagers and ravaging the whole region.[26] It is also worth noting that according to others, archaelogical evidence suggests a less destructive picture.

In his book Muhammad and the Empires of faith Sean Anthony argues that while the Quran is the primary source, approached cautiously, there is also some value for the study of early Islamic history in the sῑra-maghāzī material. He argues that the initial, formative compilation of this material took impulse from the late Umayyad court (late 7th/early 8th century CE). The corpus of traditions existed independently of the court, but their formation into sῑra-maghāzī works was a product of political intervention. Anthony contends that "the rhetoric of empire in Late Antiquity profoundly shaped this corpus".[27]

The hadith and sῑra-maghāzī literature speak frequently of the dominion (mulk) of the prophet and his community (ummah). This triumphalist view of the emergence of the early Islamic community "served to sustain and legitimize that community's hegemony, the supremacy of its ruling elite, and the expansionist policy of the burgeoning polity."[28]

The concept of the Prophet's dominion became important to the early Caliphates. Quranic verses such as Quran 24:55 (quoted below) were interpreted from at least Umayyad times and by later scholars such as al-Tabari in terms of this triumphalist vision, along with verses such as Quran 4:54 which refers to the kingdom (mulk) bestowed upon the family of Abraham, Quran 22:78 which tells the believers that they were chosen to follow the faith (millah) of their father Abraham, and Quran 2:124-130 where Abraham is told that his covenant does not include wrongdoers among his descendants. Abraham and Ishmael then pray for a nation of submitters among their descendants with their own messenger (a few verses later, the believers are told to say that they follow the faith (millah) of Abraham, who was neither a Jew nor a Christian Quran 2:135).

Allah has promised those who have believed among you and done righteous deeds that He will surely grant them succession [to authority] upon the earth just as He granted it to those before them and that He will surely establish for them [therein] their religion which He has preferred for them [...]"

Anthony writes, "Citations of this qur'anic theme of the righteous inheriting the lands of Abraham and, therefore, the lands and wealth of the sinful nations do not only appear in the sῑra-maghāzī literature; they are nearly ubiquitous in the narratives of the early conquests as well." Some of the Quraysh now ruled as the Umayyad caliphate, so the framing of Muhammad's kin as the righteous inheritors of Abraham served their political hegemony.[29]

For this and other reasons, Islamic modernist scholars urge intense skepticism of the aggressive / expansionist expeditions attributed to Muhammad and his companions in this literature (though it may be questionable to what extent this stretches credulity too far the other way). Preference is given to the letters of 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (Aisha's nephew), which were in answer to historical queries from the Umayyad court.

The letters of 'Urwa are free from miraculous or other embellishments seen in later sources, and are taken to be an important early source on Muhammad by academic scholars like Sean Anthony, who translates them in full in Muhammad and the Empires of Faith. The letters broadly come in two recensions (preserved in the work of al-Tabari and some narratives also in other sources). Goerke, Motzki, and Schoeler have robustly defended the authenticity of the letters of 'Urwa as probably in some way originating from him, arguing that several traditions can convincingly be traced back to 'Urwa.[30]

'Urwa's first letter describes the persecution of Muhammad and his early followers, forcing some of them to flee to Abyssinia and later to Medina. The second letter concerns Muhammad's marriage to Aisha. His third letter concerns the battle of Badr. Before getting to that event he mentions a raid conducted on a Quraysh caravan at Nakhla by a small party, some of whom were companions sent by Muhammad (later biographies portray Muhammad as just sending them on an observational mission, but that the companions decided to raid the caravan in controversial circumstances). One man was killed and some captives were taken from the caravan. According to the letter, "It was this event that provoked the war between the Messenger of God and the Quraysh, and the first conflict in which they inflicted casualties on one another." The letter recounts that Muhammad later decided to raid Abu Sufyan and a small number of Quraysh on their return from a trading expedition in Syria. The latter were able to call reinforcements by the time they encountered Muhammad and his forces at Badr, but were nevertheless defeated. Badr was the first of nine major battles or seiges fought by Muhammad based on other early sources.

The fourth letter details the treaty of Hudaybiya between the Medinans and Meccans in 928 CE, the topic of Quran 60:10-12. The fifth letter details the fairly bloodless conquest of Mecca enabled by a Meccan violation of the treaty after they had sent arms to an allied clan who were fighting another clan allied to Muhammad. It also describes a battle at Hunayn in 630 CE, briefly mentioned as one of many victorious battles in Quran 9:25-26. This battle was against two Arab clans, Hawazin and Thaqif, who had camped at Hunayn in preparation to attack the believers in Mecca, having previously thought that Muhammad was coming for them when he left Medina on his way there. The tribes were defeated and their women, children and cattle taken as booty. Muhammad led his troops straight on to al-Ta'if where he beseiged the Thaqif stronghold for two weeks. Afterwards, he freed the captives from the battle at Hunayn as they had accepted Islam. Delegates from Thaqif gave their allegiance and secured a treaty with Muhammad when he had returned to Medina. The remaining letters concern a range of topics not relevant to this article.[31]

Islamic Modernists tend to count all of the battles as defensive, especially in the overarching context of the danger from the Meccans. Khalil cites modern academic scholar Ahmed al Dawoody (who also taught at the famous al-Azhar University in Cairo) for arguing in his book, The Islamic Law of War, that all Muhammad's major battles and sieges were defensive in nature (Dawoody defines these as Badr, Uhud, the Ditch, Khaybar, Hunayn and Ta'if). Such a view is, of course, contested. Khalil quotes Reuven Firestone as an example of a contrasting view who maintains that "it was Muhammad and not the Meccan Quraysh who initiated the battles" between them.[32]

According to the sῑra-maghāzī literature, near the end of his life Muhammad also launched expeditions to the north in an attempt to fight the Byzantines at Tabuk, and, following the killing of his emissary bearing an ultimatum letter to Harith ibn Abi Shamir, King of Damascus, also against their Ghassanid vassals, resulting in the battle of Mu'tah, and to the south to destroy the idol of Dhu'l Khalasa. As discussed above, there are difficulties with the details of some of these accounts causing doubt and uncertainty among historians. The northern expeditions seem consistent with the ideology that the Ishmaelites were the righteous inheritors of the lands of Abraham, which they interpreted from certain verses of the Quran as mentioned above, and is seen in the ultimatum reportedly sent from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius, recorded by a Christian historian writing in the 660s CE. The northern expedition stories could be a back-projection of this ideology, though both are reported as failures rather than triumphs (the Byzantines were nowhere to be seen at Tabuk, and the Ghassanids won at Mu'tah).

Jihad in the Hadith

Academic scholarship is generally quite skeptical as to the reliability of hadiths, though in some cases modern methods are able to verify the transmitter by whom a narration was first widely circulated, or in other ways assess the plausibility of a narration. An enormous amount of hadith material exists concerning topics relating to Jihad. A famous example places Jihad in the way of Allah as the best deed after the confession of faith.

Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle was asked, "What is the best deed?" He replied, "To believe in Allah and His Apostle (Muhammad). The questioner then asked, "What is the next (in goodness)? He replied, "To participate in Jihad (religious fighting) in Allah's Cause." The questioner again asked, "What is the next (in goodness)?" He replied, "To perform Hajj (Pilgrim age to Mecca) 'Mubrur, (which is accepted by Allah and is performed with the intention of seeking Allah's pleasure only and not to show off and without committing a sin and in accordance with the traditions of the Prophet)."

Jihad in Early Islam

As discussed above, the sῑra-maghāzī literature contains an enormous amount of narrations on expeditions said to have been carried out by Muhammad and his companions. Historians increasingly filter this material through the lens of the Quran as the primary source for this period, and employ modern historical methods to assess its reliability in general and in specific cases, bearing in mind the political context in which they were compiled. A highly regarded compilation of evidence external to the Islamic tradition itself on the early Islamic conquests is Robert Hoyland's book Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam.[33]

Jihad in Classic Islamic Law

Islamic scholars had a lot to say about topics relating to Jihad, writing about how, when, where, why, and in what fashion Jihad may be undertaken.

Offensive Jihad

Offensive jihad, known in Arabic as جهاد الطلب "jihad at-talab" ("the jihad of request", referring to the invitation to Islam which must be sent to the opposing infidels before hostilities may commence), was a concept developed by medieval exegetes and is understood in the classical sources as an offensive, expansionist struggle. According to Muslim scholar Dr. Hawarey, 80% of the battles Muhammad participated in were offensive.[34] Modernist Islamic scholars consider the concept to be very much mistaken and linked to the imperial ideology of the early Caliphates.

Defensive Jihad

Medieval Islamic scholars also considered jihad integral to the defensive needs of the Muslim lands. To modernist scholars and some academic scholars, military jihad is on a Quranic basis always a defense against oppression and aggression.

Jihad in Modern Islam

In classical Islamic law (sharia), the term refers to armed struggle against any Kafir (Infidel),[35][36] while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare.[37][38] In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad.[39][40][36] The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist, militant Islamist, and terrorist individuals and organizations whose ideology is based on the Islamic notion of jihad.[39][41][42][43]

References

  1. "Islam", Encyclopedia Britannica, New York, 17 August 2021, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam. 
  2. Yeʼor, B. The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 79, 2011. 
  3. Reuven Firestone, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 64-69
  4. See page 159 in Patricia Crone, No Compulsion in Religion: Q 2:256 in Mediaeval and Modern Interpretation In Le Shi’isme Imamite Quarante ans apres: Hommage ‘a Etan Kohlberg. Edited by Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher and Simon Hopkins. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2009, pp. 131–78
  5. 5.0 5.1 A brief summary of Crone's Encyclopedia of the Quran article can be seenhere
  6. Reuven Firestone, Jihad p. 57
  7. Reuven Firestone, Jihad pp. 60-61
  8. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad, Radicalism and the New Atheism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017
  9. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 12
  10. Hashmi awkwardly glosses this as [while] disbelieving in Him, but perhaps "and to disbelief in Him" is a more plausible alternative in keeping with his definition of fitna i.e. they turn people from the way of Allah and to disbelief.
  11. 11.0 11.1 Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 12 to 22 minutes)
  12. Mohsen Goudarzi: Din, Islam, and Hanif in the Qur’an - youtube.com - 1 May 2023
  13. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 9
  14. Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 1 hour 30 to 50 minutes)
  15. Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 38 minutes)
  16. Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 42 minutes)
  17. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 14
  18. Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 1) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 35 minutes)
  19. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 13
  20. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 16
  21. Reuven Firestone, Jihad p. 64
  22. See the twitter discussions here (2 May 2021) and here (7 December 2022) between historians Sean Anthony and Juan Cole
  23. Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 15
  24. Jihad, War and Peace in Islam by Dr. Javad Hashmi (Part 2) - Youtube.com, April 2020 (see 2 hours 14 minutes)
  25. On The Origins of Jihad | Dr. Javad T. Hashmi - Youtube.com, December 2022 (see 2 hours 4 to 8 minutes)
  26. Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It, Princeton: The Darwin Press, pp. 72-73, 120
  27. Sean Anthony, Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam, Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 175-6
  28. Sean Anthony, Muhammad and the Empires of Faith, p. 177
  29. Sean Anthony, Muhammad and the Empires of Faith, pp. 179-80
  30. See in particular pp. 16-21 of Goerke, A, Motzki, H & Schoeler, G (2012) First-Century Sources for the Life of Muhammad? A Debate, Der Islam, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 2-59. https://doi.org/10.1515/islam-2012-0002
  31. 'Urwa's letters are translated in full in chapter 4 of Muhammad and the Empires of Faith by Sean Anthony
  32. Reuven Firestone, Jihad p. 110 cited in Mohammad Hassan Khalil, Jihad p. 15
  33. Robert Holand (1997) Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-125-8
  34. Military Operations in the Era of Prophet Mohammed (SAW) - military.hawarey.org
  35. Peters, Rudolph; Cook, David, "Jihād", Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780199739356, 2014, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0057. 
  36. 36.0 36.1 Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. et al., eds, (1965), "D̲j̲ihād", Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4, 1965. 
  37. Wael B. Hallaq. Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). pp. 334–38, 2009. 
  38. Peters, Rudolph. Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 124. ISBN 9783110824858, 2015. https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260. 
  39. 39.0 39.1 "Jihad", Oxford: Oxford University Press, 22 February 2018 [10 May 2017], http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0045.xml. 
  40. Rudolph Peters, "Jihad", In Lindsay Jones, MacMillan Reference, p. 4917, 2005. 
  41. "Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective" (November 2017). Arab Law Quarterly 31 (4): 305–335. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/15730255-12314024. ISSN 1573-0255. 
  42. Cook, David. "Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory". Understanding Jihad (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 93–127. ISBN 9780520287327. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10. LCCN 2015010201, 2015 [2005]. https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93. 
  43. Jalal, Ayesha. "Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism". Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 239–240. ISBN 9780674039070, 2009.