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{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}In Islamic terminology, a '''kāfir''' (كافر ; plural كفّار ''kuffār'') is a ''disbeliever'', or someone who rejects or does not believe in [[Allah]] as the one and only God and [[Muhammad]] as the final messenger of Allah.<ref>"...''Kafir: Literally means "a disbeliever". In Islam it refers to one who rejects Allah and who '''does not believe in Muhammad''' sallallahu alayhi wa sallam as the final messenger of Allah.''..." - [http://www.as-sidq.org/glossary.html Islamic Glossary]</ref><ref>"...''kafir noun (pl=kuffar) ''
{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}In Islamic terminology, a '''kāfir''' (كافر ; plural كفّار ''kuffār'') is a ''disbeliever'', or someone who rejects or does not believe in [[Allah]] as the one and only God and [[Muhammad]] as the final messenger of Allah.<ref>"...''Kafir: Literally means "a disbeliever". In Islam it refers to one who rejects Allah and who '''does not believe in Muhammad''' sallallahu alayhi wa sallam as the final messenger of Allah.''..." - [http://www.as-sidq.org/glossary.html Islamic Glossary]</ref><ref>"...''kafir noun (pl=kuffar) ''
1. (Islam) infidel, Infidel, pagan, non-believer; a non-Muslim aside from ahl al-kitab (Christians, Jews, etc.).
1. (Islam) infidel, Infidel, pagan, non-believer; a non-Muslim aside from ahl al-kitab (Christians, Jews, etc.).
2. (Islam) Infidel, pagan, non-believer;''' any non-Muslim'''. Ref: Shaykh Al-Islam ibn Taymiyyah (Rahimullah) v27 p264: "Whosoever does not forbid people from the deen of the Jews and Christians after the prophethood of the messenger Muhammad (saw) nor declares them kafir nor hates them, he is not a Muslim by the consensus of ALL Muslims, their scholars and the general public."''..."[http://www.allwords.com/word-kafir.html AllWords.com - kafir]''</ref> In the context of Islamic scriptures, "kafir" is the broadest, all encompassing category of non-Muslim, which includes all other sub-categories, such as ''mushriqun'', or polytheists (lit. "those who do ''shirk''", that is, attribute partners to God), ''dahriyah'', or those who deny the existence of any gods outright, as well as those who would today identify as agnostics, or suggest simply their ignorance of the existence of any gods.
2. (Islam) Infidel, pagan, non-believer;''' any non-Muslim'''. Ref: Shaykh Al-Islam ibn Taymiyyah (Rahimullah) v27 p264: "Whosoever does not forbid people from the deen of the Jews and Christians after the prophethood of the messenger Muhammad (saw) nor declares them kafir nor hates them, he is not a Muslim by the consensus of ALL Muslims, their scholars and the general public."''..."[http://www.allwords.com/word-kafir.html AllWords.com - kafir]''</ref> In the context of Islamic scriptures, "kafir" is the broadest, all encompassing category of non-Muslim, which includes all other sub-categories, such as ''mushrikun'', or polytheists (lit. "those who do ''shirk''", that is, attribute partners to God), ''dahriyah'', or those who deny the existence of any gods outright, as well as those who would today identify as agnostics, or suggest simply their ignorance of the existence of any gods.


Traditionally, a non-Muslim is called a ''Kafir''.
Traditionally, a non-Muslim is called a ''Kafir''.<ref name="Willis 2018">{{cite book |editor-last=Willis |editor-first=John Ralph |year=2018 |origyear=1979 |title=Studies in West African Islamic History, Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam |chapter=Glossary |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD0sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |pages=197 |isbn=9781138238534 |quote=''Kufr'': Unbelief; non-Muslim belief (''Kāfir'' = a non-Muslim, one who has received no Dispensation or Book; ''Kuffār'' plural of ''Kāfir'').}}</ref><ref name="Gerlach 2006">{{cite book | Hrsg=Gerlach J. | titel=Zwischen Pop und Dschihad: muslimische Jugendliche in Deutschland | Verlag=Ch. Links | Datum=2006 | isbn=978-3-86153-404-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdZH6jyBYuIC | language=de | access-date=2022-06-21 | Seiten=197}}</ref><ref name="Der Islam 2022">{{cite web | title=Das Urteil darüber, dass der Nichtmuslim (Kafir) den Mushaf berührt - Frage und Antwort | website=Der Islam | url=https://islamqa.info/ge/answers/100228/das-urteil-daruber-dass-der-nichtmuslim-kafir-den-mushaf-beruhrt | language=de | access-date=2022-06-21}}</ref><ref name="Islam Fatwa">{{cite web | title=Pflichten des Muslims gegenüber dem Kafir (Nichtmuslim) | website=Islam Fatwa | url=https://islamfatwa.de/soziale-angelegenheiten/150-muslime-in-nicht-muslimischen-laendern/1369-pflichten-des-muslims-gegenueber-dem-kafir-nichtmuslim | language=de | access-date=2022-06-21}}</ref>


==Theological struggles==
==Theological struggles==
Theologically implicating one to hell, the word "kafir" is highly charged and accusatory, no matter its use, but finds slight nuance in meaning depending on who it is used to describe as well as who is using it as a descriptor.
Theologically implicating one to hell, the word "kāfir" is highly charged and accusatory, no matter its use, but finds slight nuance in meaning depending on who it is used to describe as well as who is using it as a descriptor.


The word is also contrasted with the "''jahiliyyah''" or "ignorance" that is said to have existed prior to the advent of Islam. In this respect, contrasted with the period of ignorance, those around subsequent to the revelation of Islam cannot be considered to live in an age where Islam is unknown, hence making a justification of unbelief impossible.
The word is also contrasted with the "''jāhiliyyah''" or "ignorance" that is said to have existed prior to the advent of Islam. In this respect, contrasted with the period of ignorance, those around subsequent to the revelation of Islam cannot be considered to live in an age where Islam is unknown, hence making a justification of unbelief impossible.


It should be noted, however, that even while the pre-Islamic Arabs were admittedly "jahil" or "ignorant", they are still considered kuffar - even Muhammad's father, [[Abdullah]], and mother, Aminah, were described by Muhammad (as recorded in Sahih Muslim) as "burning in Hell". Ignorance, thus, it would appear does not absolve one of their ''kufr'' (that is, the act of disbelieving or being a kafir).  
It should be noted, however, that even while the pre-Islamic Arabs were admittedly "jāhil" or "ignorant", they are still considered ''kuffār'' - even Muhammad's father, [[Abdullah]], and mother, Aminah, were described by Muhammad (as recorded in Sahih Muslim) as "burning in Hell". Ignorance, thus, it would appear does not absolve one of their ''kufr'' (that is, the act of disbelieving or being a kāfir).  


Many Sunni theologians found the narration on the fate of Abdullah and Aminah troubling and ultimately decided to ignore the narration, overriding it on theological and moral principle. Indeed this was so troubling to the early Muslims that hadith were fabricated arguing that Abdullah and Aminah had been resurrected subsequent to Muhammad's declaration that they were burning in hell, in order to convert to Islam, die once more, and enter paradise. This hadith was later acknowledged, however, to be a fabrication. While theologians continue to have a hard time consigning the ignorant to hell under the label of "kuffar", Islamic scriptures are more clear.  
Many Sunni theologians found the narration on the fate of Abdullah and Aminah troubling and ultimately decided to ignore the narration, overriding it on theological and moral principle. Indeed this was so troubling to the early Muslims that hadith were fabricated arguing that Abdullah and Aminah had been resurrected subsequent to Muhammad's declaration that they were burning in hell, in order to convert to Islam, die once more, and enter paradise. This hadith was later acknowledged, however, to be a fabrication. While theologians continue to have a hard time consigning the ignorant to hell under the label of "''kuffār''", Islamic scriptures are more clear.


==Definitions==
==Definitions==


===In the case of non-Muslims===
===In the case of non-Muslims===
The root of the word "kafir" means "to conceal", and thus the word "kafir" literally means "one who conceals" and entails insincerity and even active deception on the part of the person being labeled a "kafir". That orthodox Islamic doctrine (following upon the Qur'an) categorically describes [[non-Muslims]] as ''kuffar'' can prove problematic in an an interfaith context, as it suggests that all non-Muslims are deliberately deceiving themselves and others by not embracing Islam which they, in fact, know to be true.
The root of the word "kafir" means "to conceal", and thus the word "kafir" implies or derives from the meaning of "one who conceals" and entails insincerity and even active deception on the part of the person being labeled a "kafir". That orthodox Islamic doctrine (following upon the Qur'an) categorically describes [[non-Muslims]] as ''kuffar'' can prove problematic in an an interfaith context, as it suggests that all disbelievers are deliberately deceiving themselves and others by not embracing Islam which they, in fact, know to be true.  


The other meaning implied in the root of the word "kafir" is "to be ungrateful", thus allowing the word "kafir" to be alternatively translated as "ingrate". This is likewise problematic in interfaith contexts as it entails the suggestion that all non-Muslims are somehow or the other ungrateful beings, in special distinction from Muslims, who are not so ungrateful.
The other meaning implied in the root of the word "kafir" is "to be ungrateful", thus allowing the word "kafir" to be alternatively translated as "ingrate". This is likewise problematic in interfaith contexts as it entails the suggestion that all disbelievers are somehow or the other ungrateful beings, in special distinction from Muslims, who are not so ungrateful. There is some disagreement on the extent to which the Quran applies the term kuffar towards the people of the book (see Abrahamic section below).


===In the case of Muslims===
===In the case of Muslims===
The word is also often used in the Qur'an as descriptive of Muslims who commit grave sins which offend Allah, though this meaning is more broadly understood to be metaphorical, as [[Sunni]] and [[Shi'ite]] theologians did not consider sins (other than polytheism) as causing one to constitute the act of [[apostasy]], as this would have severe [[Islamic Law|legal implications]].
The word is also often used in the Qur'an as descriptive of Muslims who commit grave sins which offend Allah, though this meaning is more broadly understood to be metaphorical, as [[Sunni]] and [[Shi'ism]] theologians did not consider sins (other than polytheism) as causing one to constitute the act of [[apostasy]], as this would have severe [[Islamic Law|legal implications]].


In this metaphorical sense, the word kafir can be understood to mean "ingrate", and is commonly used alongside and interchanged with such similarly insulting and accusative titles as ''faasiq'', meaning "sinner" or "corrupted person", and ''munafiq'', or "hypocrite". As a result, the word "kafir" finds frequent use in the Muslim world as an extreme form of insult or rebuke.
In this metaphorical sense, the word kafir can be understood to mean "ingrate", and is commonly used alongside and interchanged with such similarly insulting and accusative titles as ''faasiq'', meaning "sinner" or "corrupted person", and ''munafiq'', or "hypocrite". As a result, the word "kafir" finds frequent use in the Muslim world as an extreme form of insult or rebuke.
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This approach ultimately devolves to the practice of declaring that someone who describes themselves as Muslim is, in fact, a non-Muslim or, worse, and apostate. This is known as [[Takfeer|''takfeer'']], or excommunication. Many extremist and [[Jihad|jihadi]] [[Salafi|salafist]] Muslims today employ this practice to justify their attacks on other Muslim populations who disagree with, in practice ''or'' word, their interpretation of Islam.  
This approach ultimately devolves to the practice of declaring that someone who describes themselves as Muslim is, in fact, a non-Muslim or, worse, and apostate. This is known as [[Takfeer|''takfeer'']], or excommunication. Many extremist and [[Jihad|jihadi]] [[Salafi|salafist]] Muslims today employ this practice to justify their attacks on other Muslim populations who disagree with, in practice ''or'' word, their interpretation of Islam.  
==With relation to the people of other Abrahamic faiths==
==With relation to the people of other Abrahamic faiths==
Although Christians and Jews are called the [[Islam and the People of the Book|People of the Book]] (أهل الكتاب ''ahl al-kitab'', a special title given by the Qur'an), orthodox Islamic teachings qualify them as disbelievers<ref>""...''the permissive people, who do not believe in any command or prohibition at all and refer to the Divine will and decree as an excuse for their evil deeds, are worse off than the Jews, Christians and Arab mushrikeen, because even though '''the latter are kaafirs''', they still believe in some kind of command and prohibition''..." - [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/113901/atheist Atheism is a greater sin than shirk] - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 113901</ref><ref>"...''But it is not permissible to marry her, as she is still '''a Kafir (non-Muslim)''' and has not yet embraced Islam wholeheartedly without any doubt.''..." - [http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=88328 Thinking of marrying an atheist] - Dr. Abdullah Al-faqih, Islam Web, Fatwa No. 88328, July 21, 2004</ref><ref>"...''This is something that is well known among the Muslims, and '''they are unanimously agreed that the Christians are kaafirs''', and even that those who do not regard them as kaafirs are also kaafirs''..." - [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:People of the Book]]</ref>, and hence kuffar.  
Although Christians and Jews are called the [[People of the Book|People of the Book]] (أهل الكتاب ''ahl al-kitab'', a special title given by the Qur'an), orthodox Islamic teachings qualify them as disbelievers<ref>""...''the permissive people, who do not believe in any command or prohibition at all and refer to the Divine will and decree as an excuse for their evil deeds, are worse off than the Jews, Christians and Arab mushrikeen, because even though '''the latter are kaafirs''', they still believe in some kind of command and prohibition''..." - [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/113901/atheist Atheism is a greater sin than shirk] - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 113901</ref><ref>"...''But it is not permissible to marry her, as she is still '''a Kafir (non-Muslim)''' and has not yet embraced Islam wholeheartedly without any doubt.''..." - [http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=88328 Thinking of marrying an atheist] - Dr. Abdullah Al-faqih, Islam Web, Fatwa No. 88328, July 21, 2004</ref><ref>"...''This is something that is well known among the Muslims, and '''they are unanimously agreed that the Christians are kaafirs''', and even that those who do not regard them as kaafirs are also kaafirs''..." - [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:People of the Book]]</ref>, and hence ''kuffār''.
 
This view is somewhat complicated by verses which promise paradise to Jews and Christians who believe in God and the last day and act righteously ({{Quran|2|62}}, {{Quran|5|69}}), and may be related to {{Quran-range|3|113|115}} which distinguishes some of those among the people of the book ("They are not all alike...").


==Relevant Quotations==
==Relevant Quotations==
 
{{See also|Qur'an}}
===Qur'an===
===Qur'an===


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{{Quote|{{Quran|98|6}}|Lo! those who disbelieve, among the People of the Scripture and the idolaters, will abide in fire of hell. They are the worst of created beings.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|98|6}}|Lo! those who disbelieve, among the People of the Scripture and the idolaters, will abide in fire of hell. They are the worst of created beings.}}


====Guidelines on how to deal with the ''Kāfir''====
====Guidelines on how to deal with disbelievers====
The Muslims must remain united in opposition to the disbelievers, and maintain faith, while refusing to take the disbelievers as friends. If the disbelievers acquiesce but then return "to enmity", they must be slayed, unless they have a treaty with the Muslims or seek refuge amongst them. Finally, if the disbelievers "incline to peace", so too should the Muslims.
The Muslims must remain united in opposition to the disbelievers, and maintain faith, while refusing to take the disbelievers as close allies. If the disbelievers acquiesce but then return "to enmity", they must be slayed, unless they have a treaty with the Muslims or seek refuge amongst them. Finally, if the disbelievers "incline to peace", so too should the Muslims.


{{Quote|{{Quran|4|88-90}}|88. What aileth you that ye are become two parties regarding the hypocrites, when Allah cast them back (to disbelief) because of what they earned? Seek ye to guide him whom Allah hath sent astray? He whom Allah sendeth astray, for him thou (O Muhammad) canst not find a road.<BR>
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|88-90}}|88. What aileth you that ye are become two parties regarding the hypocrites, when Allah cast them back (to disbelief) because of what they earned? Seek ye to guide him whom Allah hath sent astray? He whom Allah sendeth astray, for him thou (O Muhammad) canst not find a road.<BR>
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90. Except those who seek refuge with a people between whom and you there is a covenant, or (those who) come unto you because their hearts forbid them to make war on you or make war on their own folk. Had Allah willed He could have given them power over you so that assuredly they would have fought you. So, if they hold aloof from you and wage not war against you and offer you peace, Allah alloweth you no way against them.}}
90. Except those who seek refuge with a people between whom and you there is a covenant, or (those who) come unto you because their hearts forbid them to make war on you or make war on their own folk. Had Allah willed He could have given them power over you so that assuredly they would have fought you. So, if they hold aloof from you and wage not war against you and offer you peace, Allah alloweth you no way against them.}}


The "sword verse", or ''ayat as-sayf'', in Arabic. The subsequent verse appears to present a conditional reprieve:
The [[Quran]] instructs its listeners to [[Slavery_in_Islamic_Law|take captives]] from the disbelievers after killing and subduing them when they meet in battle, releasing or ransoming them when the war is over ({{Quran|47|4}}; see also {{Quran|8|67}} and {{Quran|33|50}} which gave the prophet specifically a right to take captives and women for himself from the spoils of war). Jurists in a later period, employing the doctrine of [[Naskh_(Abrogation)|abrogation]], determined that all disbelievers from what they defined as [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar al Harb]] could potentially be captured as slaves.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|page=25–28|publisher=Oxford University Press|ISBN=978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> A surah from the final stages of Muhammad's career commanded that the mushrikeen with whom the believers no longer had a treaty be killed unless they accept Islam or seek protection, and that Jews and Christians were required to pay the [[jizyah]]. Verses {{Quran-range|9|5|6}} and / or {{Quran|9|29}} of this surah became known as the "sword verse", or ''ayat as-sayf'', in Arabic, and were considered by many scholars in the classical period to support expansive warfare and to abrogate a large number of earlier verses which were more explicitly defensive in nature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |location=New York |date=17 August 2021|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5-6}}|5. But when the forbidden 4 months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers (to Allah) and practise regular charity (according to Islam), then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.<br>
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|5-6}}|5. But when the forbidden 4 months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular [[Salah|prayers]] and practise regular [[Zakat|charity]], then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.<br>
6. If one amongst the Pagans ask thee for asylum, grant it to him, so that he may hear the word of Allah; and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge.}}
6. If one amongst the Pagans ask thee for asylum, grant it to him, so that he may hear the word of Allah; and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge.}}
According to several mainstream Islamic scholars, the sword verse relates to a specific event in Islamic history &mdash; namely that Arabian pagans made and broke a covenant with Arabic Muslims. They claim the verses immediately preceding and following 9:5, 9:4 and 9:6, and emphasize: Only those pagans who broke the covenant were subject to violent repercussions so that any pagans who honored the covenant to profess Islam (convert to Islam), offer prayers, and pay the zakāt (compulsory donation to the poor) or repented their betrayal were to be spared.
{{Quote|1=
{{cite web quotebox|url= http://islamqa.info/en/10382|title= Ruling on having intercourse with a slave woman when one has a wife|publisher= Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 10382|author= |date= November  24, 2005|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/10382&date=2012-01-17|deadurl=no}}|2=Islam allows a man to have intercourse with his slave woman, whether he has a wife or wives or he is not married...Whoever regards that as haraam is a sinner who is going against the consensus of the scholars. }}
==See Also==
{{Core POTB}}{{Translation-links-english|[[Kafir-fr|French]]}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://wikiquote.org/wiki/Kafir See wikiquote's direct quotations about the Kafir from the Quran]


[[Category:Terms and Definitions]]
[[Category:Kafir (infidel)]]
[[Category:Kafir (infidel)]]
[[ru:Кафир]]
[[ru:Кафир]]
[[bg:Кафир]]
[[bg:Кафир]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]
[[Category:Apostasy]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Paganism]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]

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In Islamic terminology, a kāfir (كافر ; plural كفّار kuffār) is a disbeliever, or someone who rejects or does not believe in Allah as the one and only God and Muhammad as the final messenger of Allah.[1][2] In the context of Islamic scriptures, "kafir" is the broadest, all encompassing category of non-Muslim, which includes all other sub-categories, such as mushrikun, or polytheists (lit. "those who do shirk", that is, attribute partners to God), dahriyah, or those who deny the existence of any gods outright, as well as those who would today identify as agnostics, or suggest simply their ignorance of the existence of any gods.

Traditionally, a non-Muslim is called a Kafir.[3][4][5][6]

Theological struggles

Theologically implicating one to hell, the word "kāfir" is highly charged and accusatory, no matter its use, but finds slight nuance in meaning depending on who it is used to describe as well as who is using it as a descriptor.

The word is also contrasted with the "jāhiliyyah" or "ignorance" that is said to have existed prior to the advent of Islam. In this respect, contrasted with the period of ignorance, those around subsequent to the revelation of Islam cannot be considered to live in an age where Islam is unknown, hence making a justification of unbelief impossible.

It should be noted, however, that even while the pre-Islamic Arabs were admittedly "jāhil" or "ignorant", they are still considered kuffār - even Muhammad's father, Abdullah, and mother, Aminah, were described by Muhammad (as recorded in Sahih Muslim) as "burning in Hell". Ignorance, thus, it would appear does not absolve one of their kufr (that is, the act of disbelieving or being a kāfir).

Many Sunni theologians found the narration on the fate of Abdullah and Aminah troubling and ultimately decided to ignore the narration, overriding it on theological and moral principle. Indeed this was so troubling to the early Muslims that hadith were fabricated arguing that Abdullah and Aminah had been resurrected subsequent to Muhammad's declaration that they were burning in hell, in order to convert to Islam, die once more, and enter paradise. This hadith was later acknowledged, however, to be a fabrication. While theologians continue to have a hard time consigning the ignorant to hell under the label of "kuffār", Islamic scriptures are more clear.

Definitions

In the case of non-Muslims

The root of the word "kafir" means "to conceal", and thus the word "kafir" implies or derives from the meaning of "one who conceals" and entails insincerity and even active deception on the part of the person being labeled a "kafir". That orthodox Islamic doctrine (following upon the Qur'an) categorically describes non-Muslims as kuffar can prove problematic in an an interfaith context, as it suggests that all disbelievers are deliberately deceiving themselves and others by not embracing Islam which they, in fact, know to be true.

The other meaning implied in the root of the word "kafir" is "to be ungrateful", thus allowing the word "kafir" to be alternatively translated as "ingrate". This is likewise problematic in interfaith contexts as it entails the suggestion that all disbelievers are somehow or the other ungrateful beings, in special distinction from Muslims, who are not so ungrateful. There is some disagreement on the extent to which the Quran applies the term kuffar towards the people of the book (see Abrahamic section below).

In the case of Muslims

The word is also often used in the Qur'an as descriptive of Muslims who commit grave sins which offend Allah, though this meaning is more broadly understood to be metaphorical, as Sunni and Shi'ism theologians did not consider sins (other than polytheism) as causing one to constitute the act of apostasy, as this would have severe legal implications.

In this metaphorical sense, the word kafir can be understood to mean "ingrate", and is commonly used alongside and interchanged with such similarly insulting and accusative titles as faasiq, meaning "sinner" or "corrupted person", and munafiq, or "hypocrite". As a result, the word "kafir" finds frequent use in the Muslim world as an extreme form of insult or rebuke.

Kharijite, literalist interpretations

One of the first heretical sects in Islamic history were the Kharijites who defected from the party of Ali (shi'at Ali - these were the proto-Shi'ites) during the first civil war (fitnah) of Caliphal succession. This group distinguished themselves from other Muslims by their literal interpretation of scriptures which describe sinful Muslims as non-believers. On this interpretation, any Muslim who committed a sin or, in their assessment, failed to judge "by what Allah has revealed" (that is, in this particular case, those who did not follow Islamic political injunctions) was a disbeliever and, consequently, an apostate deserving nothing short of war and death.

This approach ultimately devolves to the practice of declaring that someone who describes themselves as Muslim is, in fact, a non-Muslim or, worse, and apostate. This is known as takfeer, or excommunication. Many extremist and jihadi salafist Muslims today employ this practice to justify their attacks on other Muslim populations who disagree with, in practice or word, their interpretation of Islam.

With relation to the people of other Abrahamic faiths

Although Christians and Jews are called the People of the Book (أهل الكتاب ahl al-kitab, a special title given by the Qur'an), orthodox Islamic teachings qualify them as disbelievers[7][8][9], and hence kuffār.

This view is somewhat complicated by verses which promise paradise to Jews and Christians who believe in God and the last day and act righteously (Quran 2:62, Quran 5:69), and may be related to Quran 3:113-115 which distinguishes some of those among the people of the book ("They are not all alike...").

Relevant Quotations

See also: Qur'an

Qur'an

Acts described in the Qur'an as constituting kufr, or unbelief.

Calling on anyone other than Allah (i.e. for intercession).

And cry not, beside Allah, unto that which cannot profit thee nor hurt thee, for if thou didst so then wert thou of the wrong-doers.

Disliking Allah.

And when Allah alone is mentioned, the hearts of those who believe not in the Hereafter are repelled, and when those (whom they worship) beside Him are mentioned, behold! they are glad.

Sacrificing to anyone other than Allah.

So pray unto thy Lord, and sacrifice.

Disliking Islam or anything Islamic.

That is because they are averse to that which Allah hath revealed, therefor maketh He their actions fruitless.

Joking about Islam or anything Islamic.

65. And if thou ask them (O Muhammad) they will say: We did but talk and jest. Say: Was it at Allah and His revelations and His messenger that ye did scoff?
66. Make no excuse. Ye have disbelieved after your (confession of) belief. If We forgive a party of you, a party of you We shall punish because they have been guilty.

Disbelieving in any of the Messengers.

The messenger believeth in that which hath been revealed unto him from his Lord and (so do) believers. Each one believeth in Allah and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers - We make no distinction between any of His messengers - and they say: We hear, and we obey. (Grant us) Thy forgiveness, our Lord. Unto Thee is the journeying.

Judging by any other law aside from Islamic law.

Lo! We did reveal the Torah, wherein is guidance and a light, by which the prophets who surrendered (unto Allah) judged the Jews, and the rabbis and the priests (judged) by such of Allah's Scripture as they were bidden to observe, and thereunto were they witnesses. So fear not mankind, but fear Me. And barter not My revelations for a little gain. Whoso judgeth not by that which Allah hath revealed: such are disbelievers.

Forbidding what Allah has made lawful, or make lawful what Allah has forbidden.

Those who swallow usury cannot rise up save as he ariseth whom the devil hath prostrated by (his) touch. That is because they say: Trade is just like usury; whereas Allah permitteth trading and forbiddeth usury. He unto whom an admonition from his Lord cometh, and (he) refraineth (in obedience thereto), he shall keep (the profits of) that which is past, and his affair (henceforth) is with Allah. As for him who returneth (to usury) - Such are rightful owners of the Fire. They will abide therein.

Believing in any other religion.

And whoso seeketh as religion other than the Surrender (to Allah) it will not be accepted from him, and he will be a loser in the Hereafter.

Leaving Islam.

They question thee (O Muhammad) with regard to warfare in the sacred month. Say: Warfare therein is a great (transgression), but to turn (men) from the way of Allah, and to disbelieve in Him and in the Inviolable Place of Worship, and to expel His people thence, is a greater with Allah; for persecution is worse than killing. And they will not cease from fighting against you till they have made you renegades from your religion, if they can. And whoso becometh a renegade and dieth in his disbelief: such are they whose works have fallen both in the world and the Hereafter. Such are rightful owners of the Fire: they will abide therein.

Giving assistance to disbelievers against Muslims.

Let not the believers take disbelievers for their friends in preference to believers. Whoso doeth that hath no connection with Allah unless (it be) that ye but guard yourselves against them, taking (as it were) security. Allah biddeth you beware (only) of Himself. Unto Allah is the journeying.

Disbelieving in Muhammad.

Lo! those who disbelieve, among the People of the Scripture and the idolaters, will abide in fire of hell. They are the worst of created beings.

Guidelines on how to deal with disbelievers

The Muslims must remain united in opposition to the disbelievers, and maintain faith, while refusing to take the disbelievers as close allies. If the disbelievers acquiesce but then return "to enmity", they must be slayed, unless they have a treaty with the Muslims or seek refuge amongst them. Finally, if the disbelievers "incline to peace", so too should the Muslims.

88. What aileth you that ye are become two parties regarding the hypocrites, when Allah cast them back (to disbelief) because of what they earned? Seek ye to guide him whom Allah hath sent astray? He whom Allah sendeth astray, for him thou (O Muhammad) canst not find a road.

89. They long that ye should disbelieve even as they disbelieve, that ye may be upon a level (with them). So choose not friends from them till they forsake their homes in the way of Allah; if they turn back (to enmity) then take them and kill them wherever ye find them, and choose no friend nor helper from among them,

90. Except those who seek refuge with a people between whom and you there is a covenant, or (those who) come unto you because their hearts forbid them to make war on you or make war on their own folk. Had Allah willed He could have given them power over you so that assuredly they would have fought you. So, if they hold aloof from you and wage not war against you and offer you peace, Allah alloweth you no way against them.

The Quran instructs its listeners to take captives from the disbelievers after killing and subduing them when they meet in battle, releasing or ransoming them when the war is over (Quran 47:4; see also Quran 8:67 and Quran 33:50 which gave the prophet specifically a right to take captives and women for himself from the spoils of war). Jurists in a later period, employing the doctrine of abrogation, determined that all disbelievers from what they defined as Dar al Harb could potentially be captured as slaves.[10] A surah from the final stages of Muhammad's career commanded that the mushrikeen with whom the believers no longer had a treaty be killed unless they accept Islam or seek protection, and that Jews and Christians were required to pay the jizyah. Verses Quran 9:5-6 and / or Quran 9:29 of this surah became known as the "sword verse", or ayat as-sayf, in Arabic, and were considered by many scholars in the classical period to support expansive warfare and to abrogate a large number of earlier verses which were more explicitly defensive in nature.[11]

5. But when the forbidden 4 months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.
6. If one amongst the Pagans ask thee for asylum, grant it to him, so that he may hear the word of Allah; and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge.

References

  1. "...Kafir: Literally means "a disbeliever". In Islam it refers to one who rejects Allah and who does not believe in Muhammad sallallahu alayhi wa sallam as the final messenger of Allah...." - Islamic Glossary
  2. "...kafir noun (pl=kuffar) 1. (Islam) infidel, Infidel, pagan, non-believer; a non-Muslim aside from ahl al-kitab (Christians, Jews, etc.). 2. (Islam) Infidel, pagan, non-believer; any non-Muslim. Ref: Shaykh Al-Islam ibn Taymiyyah (Rahimullah) v27 p264: "Whosoever does not forbid people from the deen of the Jews and Christians after the prophethood of the messenger Muhammad (saw) nor declares them kafir nor hates them, he is not a Muslim by the consensus of ALL Muslims, their scholars and the general public."..."AllWords.com - kafir
  3. "Kufr: Unbelief; non-Muslim belief (Kāfir = a non-Muslim, one who has received no Dispensation or Book; Kuffār plural of Kāfir).". Willis, John Ralph, ed, (2018) [1979]. "Glossary". Studies in West African Islamic History, Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 197. ISBN 9781138238534, 2018 [1979]. https://books.google.com/books?id=rD0sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 
  4. (in de). ISBN 978-3-86153-404-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=jdZH6jyBYuIC. 
  5. "Das Urteil darüber, dass der Nichtmuslim (Kafir) den Mushaf berührt - Frage und Antwort" (in de), https://islamqa.info/ge/answers/100228/das-urteil-daruber-dass-der-nichtmuslim-kafir-den-mushaf-beruhrt. 
  6. "Pflichten des Muslims gegenüber dem Kafir (Nichtmuslim)" (in de), https://islamfatwa.de/soziale-angelegenheiten/150-muslime-in-nicht-muslimischen-laendern/1369-pflichten-des-muslims-gegenueber-dem-kafir-nichtmuslim. 
  7. ""...the permissive people, who do not believe in any command or prohibition at all and refer to the Divine will and decree as an excuse for their evil deeds, are worse off than the Jews, Christians and Arab mushrikeen, because even though the latter are kaafirs, they still believe in some kind of command and prohibition..." - Atheism is a greater sin than shirk - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 113901
  8. "...But it is not permissible to marry her, as she is still a Kafir (non-Muslim) and has not yet embraced Islam wholeheartedly without any doubt...." - Thinking of marrying an atheist - Dr. Abdullah Al-faqih, Islam Web, Fatwa No. 88328, July 21, 2004
  9. "...This is something that is well known among the Muslims, and they are unanimously agreed that the Christians are kaafirs, and even that those who do not regard them as kaafirs are also kaafirs..." - Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:People of the Book
  10. William Gervase Clarence-Smith, Islam and the Abolition of Slavery, Oxford University Press, p. 25–28, ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0, 2006, https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar 
  11. "Islam", Encyclopedia Britannica, New York, 17 August 2021, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam. 

External links