The Quran and Mountains: Difference between revisions

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===Alleged peg-like structure of mountains===
===Alleged peg-like structure of mountains===
[[File:Ch1-1-b-img2.jpg|alt=|border|thumb|425x425px|''Anatomy of the Earth'' by Cailleux (p. 220)|center]]
[[File:Ch1-1-b-img2.jpg|alt=|border|thumb|425x425px|''Anatomy of the Earth'' by Cailleux (p. 220)|left]][[File:Anatomy_of_the_Earth-_Cailleux-_p_220.jpg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Description of figure found on p. 220<ref>Click [[:File:Anatomy of the Earth- Cailleux- pp 220-221.jpg|here]] for a more complete view of the page scan.</ref>|right]]
The schematic diagram taken from page 220 of ''Anatomy of the Earth'' by the French geologist Cailleux is cited by various sources advocating the reality of the proposed miracle.<ref name="A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam">[http://www.islam-guide.com/frm-ch1-1-b.htm A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam/ B) The Quran on Mountains] - Islam-Guide.com, accessed October 1, 2011</ref> The basic underground protrusion of the crust beneath the mountainous region of the Alps, according to miracle advocates, appears as a sort of peg embedded in the lower layer of the Earth. This, the advocates suggest, coheres with {{Quran-range|78|6|7}} which reads, “Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?”[[File:Anatomy_of_the_Earth-_Cailleux-_p_220.jpg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Description of figure found on p. 220]]The geological phenomenon observed is known as isostasy. This term describes the dynamic by which thickening of the crust results in mountains rising above ground level, compensated for by an increase in the depth of the crust into the lower part of the lithosphere (upper mantle) in the same area, maintaining [[w:Isostasy|isostatic equilibrium]].
The schematic diagram taken from page 220 of ''Anatomy of the Earth'' by the French geologist Cailleux is cited by various sources advocating the reality of the proposed miracle.<ref name="A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam">[http://www.islam-guide.com/frm-ch1-1-b.htm A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam/ B) The Quran on Mountains] - Islam-Guide.com, accessed October 1, 2011</ref> The basic underground protrusion of the crust beneath the mountainous region of the Alps, according to miracle advocates, appears as a sort of peg embedded in the lower layer of the Earth. This, the advocates suggest, coheres with {{Quran-range|78|6|7}} which reads, “Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?” The geological phenomenon observed is known as isostasy. This term describes the dynamic by which thickening of the crust results in mountains rising above ground level, compensated for by an increase in the depth of the crust into the lower part of the lithosphere (upper mantle) in the same area, maintaining [[w:Isostasy|isostatic equilibrium]].


Thus, elevation above sea-level tends to correlate positively with the thickness of the Earth's crust at any given place. The reason why the crust tends to exist in this manner is compared to the same physics of floatation whereby the majority of an iceberg suspended in water extends below sea level and, at the same time, it is the case that the taller the portion of ice above sea level, the deeper the iceberg dips down below.
Thus, elevation above sea-level tends to correlate positively with the thickness of the Earth's crust at any given place. The reason why the crust tends to exist in this manner is compared to the same physics of floatation whereby the majority of an iceberg suspended in water extends below sea level and, at the same time, it is the case that the taller the portion of ice above sea level, the deeper the iceberg dips down below.
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Critics respond to this in a number of ways. Firstly, as noted above, the verse itself assumes that its 7th century listeners understand what is meant, so it can hardly be referring to advanced geological concepts: "Have We not made [...] the mountains as pegs?"
Critics respond to this in a number of ways. Firstly, as noted above, the verse itself assumes that its 7th century listeners understand what is meant, so it can hardly be referring to advanced geological concepts: "Have We not made [...] the mountains as pegs?"


Secondly, they note that the caption associated with the diagram found in Cailleux's book explicitly points out that the visual representation has had its 'vertical scale greatly exaggerated'.<ref>Click [[:File:Anatomy of the Earth- Cailleux- pp 220-221.jpg|here]] for a more complete view of the page scan.</ref> Other visual representations with less exaggerated and more accurate vertical scales, some of which are cited by the advocates themselves, do not depict mountains as in any way resembling pegs.<ref name="A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam"></ref>[[File:Ch1-1-b-img1.jpg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|A depiction of isostasy with a more accurate (though still exaggerated) vertical scale|center]]
Secondly, they note that the caption associated with the diagram found in Cailleux's book explicitly points out that the visual representation has had its 'vertical scale greatly exaggerated'. Other visual representations with less exaggerated and more accurate vertical scales, some of which are cited by the advocates themselves, do not depict mountains as in any way resembling pegs.<ref name="A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam" />


Thirdly, such images represent a cross section of a mountain range, not individual mountains. These crustal root structures (also called mountain roots) occur at the level of entire ranges which can be thousands of kilometres long and only a few tens of kilometers deep. The entire mountain range whose dominant feature is its length protrudes relatively slightly into the upper mantle, unlike a peg whose depth is greater than its width. Some images of actual crustal roots underlying famous mountain ranges are shown below.
Thirdly, such images represent a cross section of a mountain range, not individual mountains. These crustal root structures (also called mountain roots) occur at the level of entire ranges which can be thousands of kilometres long and only a few tens of kilometers deep. The entire mountain range whose dominant feature is its length protrudes relatively slightly into the upper mantle, unlike a peg whose depth is greater than its width. Some images of actual crustal roots underlying famous mountain ranges are shown below.
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In the below model of a section of the Ural mountains range based on gravity and seismic data, it can be seen (even despite the exaggerated vertical dimension) that there is nothing peg or stake-like about the crust layer in which isostasy occurs.
In the below model of a section of the Ural mountains range based on gravity and seismic data, it can be seen (even despite the exaggerated vertical dimension) that there is nothing peg or stake-like about the crust layer in which isostasy occurs.


[[File:Ural_gravity_model.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Gravity model of a cross section from part of the Ural mountain range (note the exaggerated vertical dimension) by Ognev et. al. "Satellite gravity gradient data was applied to determine the Moho depth for the area [i.e. the lower boundary of the crust] ... The Moho discontinuity obtained from the gravity inversion was consequently modified and complemented in order to define a complete 3D crustal model by adding information on the sedimentary cover, upper crust, lower crust, and lithospheric mantle layers in the process of forward gravity modelling, where both seismic and gravity constraints were respected."<ref>Ognev, I., Ebbing, J., and Haas, P.: [https://se.copernicus.org/articles/13/431/2022/ Crustal structure of the Volgo–Uralian subcraton revealed by inverse and forward gravity modelling], Solid Earth, 13, 431–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-431-2022, 2022. (Open access)</ref>|center]]
[[File:Ural_gravity_model.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Gravity model of a cross section from part of the Ural mountain range (note the exaggerated vertical dimension) by Ognev et. al. (2022). They explain: "Satellite gravity gradient data was applied to determine the Moho depth for the area [i.e. the lower boundary of the crust] ... The Moho discontinuity obtained from the gravity inversion was consequently modified and complemented in order to define a complete 3D crustal model by adding information on the sedimentary cover, upper crust, lower crust, and lithospheric mantle layers in the process of forward gravity modelling, where both seismic and gravity constraints were respected."<ref>Ognev, I., Ebbing, J., and Haas, P.: [https://se.copernicus.org/articles/13/431/2022/ Crustal structure of the Volgo–Uralian subcraton revealed by inverse and forward gravity modelling], Solid Earth, 13, 431–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-431-2022, 2022. (Open access)</ref>|center]]


The below crustal cross section of the Alps shows a type of mountain range root formation resulting from subduction during continental crust collision. The present height of the mountains are shown in the solid line slightly above sea level. It is important to note that this is a cross section and continues all along the length of the plate boundary. Hence even with the most generous imagination, this process does not resemble a peg or stake.
The below crustal cross sections of the Alps show a type of mountain range root formation resulting from subduction during continental crust collision. The present height of the mountains are shown in the solid line slightly above sea level. It is important to note that these are cross sections of a formation which continues all along the length of that part of the plate boundary. Hence even with the most generous imagination, this process does not resemble a peg or stake.
[[File:Alps_crustal_cross_section.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Cross section illustrating part of the Alps by Moores et al.<ref>Moores, Eldridge & Yıkılmaz, M. & Kellogg, Louise. (2013). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284224939_Tectonics_50_Years_after_the_Revolution Tectonics: 50 Years after the Revolution] 10.1130/2013.2500(10). pp. 347-8</ref>|center]]
[[File:Alps_crustal_cross_section.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Two cross sections illustrating part of the Alps by Moores et al. (2013)<ref>Moores, Eldridge & Yıkılmaz, M. & Kellogg, Louise. (2013). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284224939_Tectonics_50_Years_after_the_Revolution Tectonics: 50 Years after the Revolution] 10.1130/2013.2500(10). pp. 347-8</ref>|center]]
 
The two cross-sections shown below are across the Apennine mountain range of Italy. Notice the non-peg-like structure of the mountains which protrude slightly above the surface in these images, which have comparable vertical and horizontal scales.
[[File:ApenninesCrossSection.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Cross section of the Apennine mountain range based on Seismic data (Y. Kelemework et. al (2021) <ref>Fig. 9 in Kelemework, Y., Milano, M., La Manna, M. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-93945-8#citeas Crustal structure in the Campanian region (Southern Apennines, Italy) from potential field modelling] Sci Rep 11, 14510 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-93945-8</ref>)|center]]
 
The below three-dimensional model of the Calabro-Ionian subduction zone near Sicily has a cutaway illustrating the nature of the lithospheric slab containing a mountainous landscape.
 
[[File:Calabro-IonianSubductionZone.jpg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|Model sketch showing the subduction zone near Sicily based on seismic tomography data by L. Scarfi et. al. (2018)<ref>Fig. 7 in Scarfì, L., Barberi, G., Barreca, G. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-23543-8 Slab narrowing in the Central Mediterranean: the Calabro-Ionian subduction zone as imaged by high resolution seismic tomography] Sci Rep 8, 5178 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23543-8</ref>)|center]]


===Types of mountain without crustal roots===
===Types of mountain without crustal roots===
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[[File:Tibetan-plateau.jpeg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Delamination underneath part of the Tibetan Plateau. Notice also the wedge-shaped and not at all peg-like crust in the northward cross-section of the plateau.<ref>Fig. 5 in Jikun Feng, Huajian Yao, Ling Chen, Weitao Wang, [https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/9/4/nwab174/6369358 Massive lithospheric delamination in southeastern Tibet facilitating continental extrusion], National Science Review, Volume 9, Issue 4, April 2022, nwab174, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab174</ref>]].  
[[File:Tibetan-plateau.jpeg|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Delamination underneath part of the Tibetan Plateau. Notice also the wedge-shaped and not at all peg-like crust in the northward cross-section of the plateau.<ref>Fig. 5 in Jikun Feng, Huajian Yao, Ling Chen, Weitao Wang, [https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/9/4/nwab174/6369358 Massive lithospheric delamination in southeastern Tibet facilitating continental extrusion], National Science Review, Volume 9, Issue 4, April 2022, nwab174, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab174</ref>]].  


It could be added that far more significant downwards protrusions into the molten athenosphere are craton keels. [[w:Craton|Cratons]] are stable regions of the earth's crust that are no longer subject to mountain building processes. These craton roots or keels form through the depletion of basaltic elements into the asthenosphere, leading to less dense material that sinks deeper into the mantle due to the lower buoyancy (i.e. the isostasy of the crust, that is, rather than of the mountains).<ref>Sankaran, A.V. - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov102001/1158.pdf|2=2011-10-02}} CURRENT SCIENCE] - VOL. 81, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2001 pp. 1158-1160</ref> Craton keels are deep extensions of cratons into the mantle which extend any where from 60-300km below the surface. These keels extend far deeper than crustal (mountain) roots. The formation of these craton roots, or keels, is, however, unrelated to mountains or their formation.<ref name="Perchuk2021">Perchuk, A.L., Gerya, T.V., Zakharov, V.S. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2806-7 Building cratonic keels in Precambrian plate tectonics] Nature 586, 395–401 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2806-7</ref>
It could be added that far more significant downwards protrusions into the molten athenosphere are the subducted slabs of lithosphere which descend into the molten mantle at plate boundaries, and are sometimes in a state of partial detachment. Another example of downward protruding material which is far more substantial than crustal roots are craton keels. [[w:Craton|Cratons]] are stable regions of the earth's crust that are no longer subject to mountain building processes. These craton roots or keels form through the depletion of basaltic elements into the asthenosphere, leading to less dense material that sinks deeper into the mantle due to the lower buoyancy (i.e. the isostasy of the crust, that is, rather than of the mountains).<ref>Sankaran, A.V. - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov102001/1158.pdf|2=2011-10-02}} CURRENT SCIENCE] - VOL. 81, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2001 pp. 1158-1160</ref> Craton keels are deep extensions of cratons into the mantle which extend any where from 60-300km below the surface. These keels extend far deeper than crustal (mountain) roots. The formation of these craton roots, or keels, is, however, unrelated to mountains or their formation.<ref name="Perchuk2021">Perchuk, A.L., Gerya, T.V., Zakharov, V.S. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2806-7 Building cratonic keels in Precambrian plate tectonics] Nature 586, 395–401 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2806-7</ref>
 
<BR />
[[File:Craton-keel.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Dynamic model of craton keel formation (fig. 5 in Perchuk et al. (2020) ''Building cratonic keels in Precambrian plate tectonics''<ref name="Perchuk2021"/>]]
[[File:TectonicSlabs.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Three-dimensional cross section beneath the European Alps showing attached and detached parts of a lithosphere slab based on tomographic profiles by M. R. Handy et. al. (2021)<ref>Fig. 11 in Handy, M. R., Schmid, S. M., Paffrath, M., Friederich, W., and the AlpArray Working Group: [https://se.copernicus.org/articles/12/2633/2021/ Orogenic lithosphere and slabs in the greater Alpine area – interpretations based on teleseismic P-wave tomography], Solid Earth, 12, 2633–2669, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2633-2021, 2021</ref><BR />Subducted slabs are far more significant downward protrusions than the crustal thickening which occurs beneath some mountain ranges.]]
[[File:Craton-keel.png|alt=|thumb|425x425px|center|Dynamic model of craton keel formation (fig. 5 in Perchuk et al. (2020) ''Building cratonic keels in Precambrian plate tectonics''<ref name="Perchuk2021"/><BR />These too are much larger downward protrusions than the crustal thickening which occurs from most mountain formation.]]
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==Mountains prevent the Earth from moving / convulsing / inclining==
==Mountains prevent the Earth from moving / convulsing / inclining==
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