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==FGM as an Initiation Rite==
==FGM as an Initiation Rite==
Islamic FGM is functional (as a chastity assurance measure) rather than an initiation rite, having a symbolic nature. The FGM practiced where Islamic influence is weakest (e.g. coastal West Africa) often takes on aspects of initiation ritual. The Islamic anxieties around 'purity' are, for example, entirely absent from the the FGM practiced by the Liberian Sandé.  
Islamic FGM is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a 'rite of passage' . But Islamic FGM is functional (as a chastity assurance measure) rather than an initiation rite, having a symbolic nature. The FGM practiced where Islamic influence is weakest (e.g. coastal West Africa) often takes on aspects of initiation ritual. The Islamic anxieties around 'purity' are, for example, entirely absent from the the FGM practiced by the Liberian Sandé.  


The table below compares and contrasts the characteristics of Rites of Passage and Islamic FGM.  
The table below compares and contrasts the characteristics of Rites of Passage and Islamic FGM.  
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!Islamic FGM
!Islamic FGM
!
!
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| colspan="3" |'''Initiation Rites are marked by three stages: Severance, Transition and Incorporation'''<ref>[https://www.liquisearch.com/liminality/rites_of_passage/arnold_van_gennep Liminality - Rites of Passage - Arnold Van Gennep]</ref>'''<ref>[http://archive.today/2021.04.26-041314/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/rite-of-passage/ Rite of Passage]</ref>'''
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|'''Severance''' - the initiand lbreaks with previous people, practices and routines
|Occurs at home or hospital<ref>'[http://archive.today/2021.04.26-080016/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation' by Abigail Haworth, The Guardian (2012)]</ref>. Family members generally present and may participate<ref>[http://archive.today/2021.04.26-080404/https://www.nowtolove.com.au/health/diet-nutrition/the-final-cut-can-we-end-female-genital-mutilation-12912 I was 7 when I was mutilated while my aunt held me down]</ref>.
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|'''Transition''' - the creation of a ''tabula rasa'' through the removal of previously taken-for-granted forms and limits. The rite follows a strictly prescribed sequence, under the authority of a master of ceremonies. The destructive nature of this rite allows for considerable changes to be made to the identity of the initiand.
|FGM shares a 'destructive nature' with Rites of Passage.
There is generally no 'prescribed sequence' with FGM beyond, not even prayers.
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|'''incorporation''' - the initiand is re-incorporated into society with a new identity, as a “new” being with a higher social status.
|status before and after FGM largely the same
|with both ritual and Islamic FGM 'uncut' girls are frequently bullied, shunned and stigmatized by their peers<ref>[https://archive.ph/2021.04.26-080534/https://plan-international.org/case-studies/uncut-girls-club#50% THE UNCUT GIRLS’ CLUB]</ref>. This stigmatization stops when the girl has undergone FGM - this represents the
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|other characteristics
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|rituals have symbolic function
|rituals have symbolic function
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|-
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|occur at transitional life events (such as puberty)
|occur at transitional life events (such as puberty)
|can occur any time between birth and puberty<sup>[a]</sup>
|can occur any time between birth and puberty
|<sup>[a]</sup> when a girl mutilated may depend on quite practical factors: families and isolated villages, rather than having to pay for a ‘cutter’ to visit as each daughter reaches a certain age, will have ''all'' their daughters cut during a single visit of the ‘cutter’, girls from a wide range of ages therefore being cut at the same time.
|with Islamic FGM, when a girl mutilated may depend on quite practical factors: families and isolated villages, rather than having to pay for a ‘cutter’ to visit as each daughter reaches a certain age, will have ''all'' their daughters cut during a single visit of the ‘cutter’, girls from a wide range of ages therefore being cut at the same time.
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|-
| colspan="2" |'''Initiation Rites are marked by three stages: Severance, Threshold and Incorporation<ref>[http://archive.today/2021.04.26-041314/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/rite-of-passage/ Rite of Passage]</ref>'''
|involve transition from membership of a lower status group to a higher status group
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|severance -
|FGM generally performed with family members present and participation, or in hospital
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|threshold -
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|incorporation -
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|involve transition from membership of a lower status group to a higher status group
|status before and after FGM largely the same<sup>[b]</sup>
|<sup>[b]</sup> a transitional element with Islamic FGM is that 'uncut' girls are frequently bullied, shunned and stigmatized by their peers. This stigmatization stops when the girl has undergone FGM.
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|-
|involve some form of deliberate ordeal
|involve some form of deliberate ordeal
|involves a deliberate ordeal<sup>[c]</sup>
|involves a deliberate ordeal
|<sup>[c]</sup> anaesthetics are generally not used, even when available
|anaesthetics are generally not used, even when available, with either Ritual or Islamic FGM
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|often involve some permanent physical or psychological change
|often involve some permanent physical or psychological change
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[[File:Indonesia - susanfemalecircumcision-1.jpg|thumb|Medicalised FGM in Indonesia ]]
[[File:Indonesia - susanfemalecircumcision-1.jpg|thumb|Medicalised FGM in Indonesia - note the apparent lack of anaesthesia (see also [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation] The Guardian 2012) |alt=]]
<br />
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[[File:Fgm-in-the-middle-east.jpg|thumb|Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009]]
[[File:Fgm-in-the-middle-east.jpg|thumb|Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009]]
[[File:Endfgm-campaign-video-016.jpg|thumb|TUZ KHURMATU, IRAQ - AUGUST 25: In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions.  A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq. (Photo by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images)<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref>]]
[[File:Endfgm-campaign-video-016.jpg|thumb|TUZ KHURMATU, IRAQ - AUGUST 25: In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions.  A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq. (Photo by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images)<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref>]]
As the above table shows, FGM shares with Rites of passage the element of ordeal and physical change - the eschewal of anaesthetics (either general or local), even when available is a near-universal characteristic of FGM.
As the above table shows, FGM shares with Rites of passage the element of ordeal and physical change - it is common for anaesthetics (either general or local) not to be used, even when they are available.
 
{{Quote|[http://archive.today/2021.04.26-081530/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/health/female-genital-mutilation-no-anaesthetic-before-she-cut-me-1.2093014 Mehret Yemane describing how, as a nine or 10-year-old in Sudan, she underwent FGM for the fourth time in her short life. Irish Times (2015)]|“My brothers held my legs, the elder held the blade. There was no anaesthetic before she cut me.”}}




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lack of anaesthetics
lack of anaesthetics
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https://answersafrica.com/top-10-reasons-why-female-genital-mutilation-in-africa-is-evil.html
https://answersafrica.com/top-10-reasons-why-female-genital-mutilation-in-africa-is-evil.html
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