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→Beliefs of the Quranic Mushrikeen: I have expanded the Judeo-Christian monotheism link with a summary of the high levels of penetration it had into Arabia by the time of Islam, which I think is an important point to highlight and explain here to show it's beyond dispute (which is why I've added it over the small allusions above), and the stories were likely well-known. Many reported settlements in Arabia are listed and the academic sources are cited (themselves taken from an academic book).
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(→Beliefs of the Quranic Mushrikeen: I have expanded the Judeo-Christian monotheism link with a summary of the high levels of penetration it had into Arabia by the time of Islam, which I think is an important point to highlight and explain here to show it's beyond dispute (which is why I've added it over the small allusions above), and the stories were likely well-known. Many reported settlements in Arabia are listed and the academic sources are cited (themselves taken from an academic book).) |
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===Beliefs of the Quranic Mushrikeen=== | ===Beliefs of the Quranic Mushrikeen=== | ||
Historian Patricia Crone in a detailed article on the Quranic mushrikeen pointed out that they believed in Allah as the Judeo-Christian creator god, but associated with him one or more lesser partners, usually described as gods but sometimes his offspring, and that he took female angels for himself. Sometimes these gods are named, most of which have also been found in rock inscriptions. The mushrikeen also believed in jinns and demons, and some worshipped heavenly bodies. Ahab Bdaiwi adds that only rarely is outright paganism found of the kind described in later sources (like Ibn al-Kalbi).<ref>Patricia Crone' [https://www.ias.edu/sites/default/files/hs/Crone_Articles/Crone_Quranic_Deities.pdf The Religion of the Quranic Pagans: God and the Lesser Deities], Arabica 57 (2010) 151-200</ref><ref>See Dr Ahab Bdaiwi's blog post summarizing his findings [https://drahabbdaiwi.com/2021/10/26/arabian-monotheism-before-islam-some-notes-on-the-mushrikun-of-the-qur%ca%bean/ Arabian Monotheism before Islam: Some Notes on the Mushrikūn of the Qurʾan] - 26 October 2021</ref><ref>See also this earlier [https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1293641557531414528 Twitter.com thread] by Dr Ahab Bdaiwi - 12 August 2020 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120902/https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1293641557531414528 archive]) [https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1397609517052006404 and this one] - 26 May 2021 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220814092519/https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1397609517052006404 archive])</ref> | Historian Patricia Crone in a detailed article on the Quranic mushrikeen pointed out that they believed in Allah as the Judeo-Christian creator god, but associated with him one or more lesser partners, usually described as gods but sometimes his offspring, and that he took female angels for himself. Sometimes these gods are named, most of which have also been found in rock inscriptions. The mushrikeen also believed in jinns and demons, and some worshipped heavenly bodies. Ahab Bdaiwi adds that only rarely is outright paganism found of the kind described in later sources (like Ibn al-Kalbi).<ref>Patricia Crone' [https://www.ias.edu/sites/default/files/hs/Crone_Articles/Crone_Quranic_Deities.pdf The Religion of the Quranic Pagans: God and the Lesser Deities], Arabica 57 (2010) 151-200</ref><ref>See Dr Ahab Bdaiwi's blog post summarizing his findings [https://drahabbdaiwi.com/2021/10/26/arabian-monotheism-before-islam-some-notes-on-the-mushrikun-of-the-qur%ca%bean/ Arabian Monotheism before Islam: Some Notes on the Mushrikūn of the Qurʾan] - 26 October 2021</ref><ref>See also this earlier [https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1293641557531414528 Twitter.com thread] by Dr Ahab Bdaiwi - 12 August 2020 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120902/https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1293641557531414528 archive]) [https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1397609517052006404 and this one] - 26 May 2021 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220814092519/https://twitter.com/abhistoria/status/1397609517052006404 archive])</ref> | ||
=== General Judeo-Christian Monotheism in Arabia === | |||
At the time of Muhammad, the two largest Near-East Empires at the time were the Byzantine (Roman) Empire, of which Christianity was the state religion,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/question/Did-the-Byzantine-Empire-practice-Christianity ''Did the Byzantine Empire practice Christianity?''] Byzantine Empire Article. Home. Geography & Travel Historical Places. Britannica Questions.</ref>and Judaism was still practised.<ref>[https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/judaism#:~:text=During%20the%20Byzantine%20period%2C%20Jewish,gathering%2C%20study%2C%20and%20prayer. ''Judaism During the Byzantine Period.''] Yitzchak Schwartz. 2012. .Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. The Met Museum.</ref> And the Sasanian (Persian) empire where the Nestorian/Church of the East, although not the state religion, was practiced,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorianism ''Nestorianism.''] Christian sect. History & Society. Religion Religious Movements & Organizations. Britannica Entry.</ref> as was Judaism.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia/The-Sasanian-period ''The Sasanian period.''] Mesopotamia from ''c.'' 320 BCE to ''c.'' 620 CE. Britannica Entry</ref>These had extensive contact with Arab tribes in the centuries leading up to Islam. | |||
{{Quote|Tribal Poetics in Early Arabic Culture: The Case of of Ashʿār al-Hudhaliyyīn. Nathan A Miller. 2016. pp. 52|There is certainly evidence of increasing use of probably nomadic Arabs in military units. During the fifth century, numerous Greek and Syriac sources testify to Rome and Persia subsidizing Arab tribal nomads along the | |||
frontier, probably for no other reason than because both empires’ financial resources were mostly diverted elsewhere and these nomads would otherwise raid sedentary areas. "Saracen” military units did, however, serve in other campaigns, and the ca. fourth century Roman administrative document Notitia Dignitatum mentions that they served in Egypt, Palestine and Phoenecia. After the battle of Adrianople in 378, Arab forces are reported to have played a role in repelling the Goths from Constantinople. Following the peace of 363, the maintenance of frontier forces was neglected, and it was not until the sixth century that Arab tribesmen would serve in the proxy wars between the Sasanians and Romans closer to home.}} | |||
This is particularly documented with the pro-Roman and Sasanian Arab factions led by two dynasties, the Jafnids or “Ghassānids,” and the Naṣrids or “Lakhmid”,<ref>Fisher, G. and Wood, P. (2016) ‘[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iranian-studies/article/abs/writing-the-history-of-the-persian-arabs-the-preislamic-perspective-on-the-nasrids-of-alhirah/02B7E13B668BEA420EF82FEF2A7775FC ''Writing the History of the “Persian Arabs”: The Pre-Islamic Perspective on the “Naṣrids” of al-Ḥīrah'']’, Iranian Studies, 49(2), pp. 247–290. doi:10.1080/00210862.2015.1129763.</ref> who are depicted in many other non-Arabic sources.<ref>''[https://www.academia.edu/29277725/Tribal_Poetics_in_Early_Arabic_Culture_The_Case_of_of_Ash%CA%BF%C4%81r_al_Hudhaliyy%C4%ABn Tribal Poetics in Early Arabic Culture: The Case of of Ashʿār al-Hudhaliyyīn.]'' Nathan A Miller. 2016. pp. 62 (Chapter 1.2 (pp 43-72) covers the relationships of Arab tribes with surrounding empires and kingdoms).</ref> | |||
And to the South lay the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom Himyarite Kingdom] (centred in modern day Yemen), in which Christianity and Judaism gained large footholds since the 4th century,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Himyar Himyar Britannica Entry]''. People. People's of Asia. Geography & Travel. Britannica. </ref> with rulers converting.<ref>Christian Julien Robin, "Arabia and Ethiopia," in Scott Johnson (ed.) ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA289&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity]'', Oxford University Press 2012 pp.247–333, p.279 | |||
Diversity and Rabbinization: Jewish Texts and Societies between 400 and 1000 CE. Gavin McDowell (editor) Ron Naiweld (editor) Daniel Stökl Ben Ezra (editor). 2021. ''See: [https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0219/ch7.xhtml Chapter 7. The Judaism of the Ancient Kingdom of Ḥimyar in Arabia: A Discreet Conversion.] pp.165–270. Christian Julien Robin (CNRS, Membre de l’Institut).''</ref> | |||
As alluded to, regardless of tracing exact terms, academic scholarship has long recognised the penetration of Judeo-Christian Monotheism into the Arabian peninsula and among Arab tribes long before Islam. These would have provided both the stories and general concepts to the Hijaz, whether through Christian and Jewish tribes living side-by-side with the Quran's initial community, or simply through travellers telling stories and/or proselytizing, the movement of slaves who knew them, trade and commerce, pilgrimage etc. | |||
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. (PhD). The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (p. 29). Lexington Books.|The religious milieu of the Ḥijāz, in which the Qurʾan reportedly arose, was well aware of both Judaism and Christianity and the same was also true of other regions frequented by Arabic speakers. Finster (2011, 70–74) has provided a detailed overview of the reported presence of Christianity among the Arab tribes. By the end of the sixth century CE substantial numbers of Arabs in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia had converted to Christianity: Najrān, an important Arab city 1,000 kilometers to the southeast of Mecca, was predominately Christian by the time Islam arose; the kingdom of Ḥimyar in the south had been under Christian rule for fifty years during the sixth century (Robin 2012); the region of Bet Qaṭraye off the East Arabian coast in the Persian gulf had a Christian presence from the fourth to the ninth century (Witztum 2011, 259); and Petra, the former Nabataean capital, and later southern capital of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Tertia, whose influence spread south into Arabia (Nehmé 2017, 149) and north into the Levant, included a Christian community from at least the third century CE: Asterius, Bishop of Petra, was reported to have attended the Council of Alexandria in 363 CE (Wace and Piercy 1999, 123). | |||
The datable Jewish presence in the Arabian Peninsula goes back at least to the first century BCE, both in the Ḥijāz in the north and Ḥimyar in the southwest (Hirschberg 2007, 294; Hoyland 2011, 110). Muslim Arab historians mention around 20 Jewish tribes dwelling among the Arabs (Hirschberg 2007, 294). In the south the Jewish presence had risen to prominence from at least the end of the fourth century CE (Rippin 2005, 14). The Ḥimyarite kingdom had exerted influence into the Ḥijāz for several centuries before Islam arose, and a Jewish monarchy ruled the Ḥimyarites during the fifth century CE. Ibn Isḥāq attributed the adoption of Judaism by the Ḥimyarite king Asʿad Abu Karib in the first half of the fifth century to the influence of two Jewish rabbis from Yathrib (Medina) (Guillaume 1955, 7–11; see also Smith 1954, 462). He also reports extensive contacts between Muḥammad and the Jews of Medina.}} | |||
There was also reports of sectarian violence between competing monotheist groups in Arabia. | |||
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. (PhD). The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (p. 29-30). Lexington Books.|A massacre of Najrān Christians had been conducted by Dhu Nawās, the Jewish king of the Ḥimyarites, in 523 CE, reportedly in an attempt to compel them to convert to Judaism. Ibn Isḥāq gives an account of a massacre by fire and the sword of some 20,000 Christians, associating it with Q85:4–8 (Guillaume 1955, 17). This massacre was also referred to in contemporary Christian sources. In retaliation, the Christian Ethiopians destroyed the Ḥimyarite kingdom in 525 CE (Smith 1954, 431), ending six centuries of Yemeni dominance in the region.}} | |||
==== In Islamic tradition ==== | |||
It is also worth noting that even in the traditional account, while doubted by modern academics (as mentioned above), there are both Jews and Christians who appear. | |||
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. (PhD). The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 30-31). Lexington Books.|Within the ḥadīth and sīrah there are references to Christians who were known to Muḥammad, endorsed him, and could have influenced him. One was Muḥammad’s wet nurse, Umm Aymān, an Ethiopian (Shahīd 2006, 15). Another was the cousin of his wife Khadījah, Waraqah ibn. Nawfāl, who Ibn Isḥāq described as “a Christian who had studied the scriptures and was a scholar” (Guillaume 1955, 83, 99, 107). Another was the monk Baḥīra, who was “well versed in the knowledge of Christians” (Guillaume 1955, 79–81). Mention is also made of a Christian slave named Jabr, of whom critics of Muḥammad had said “The one who teaches Muḥammad most of what he brings is Jabr the Christian” (Guillaume 1955, 180). There is also a reference in a ḥadīth to a nameless Christian and one-time scribe for Muḥammad, who had converted to Islam but then returned to Christianity, and claimed to have been the source of much of Muḥammad’s knowledge.9 Indeed this idea, that Muḥammad was receiving help from others, goes back to the Qurʾan itself (Q25:4–5). The ḥadīths also refer to some Jews who, like Waraqa and Baḥīra, endorsed Muḥammad (Guillaume 1955, 79, 90, 93).}} | |||
==Worship at the Ka’bah== | ==Worship at the Ka’bah== | ||
The Quran frequently mentions a secure sanctuary or house where rituals take place, which it names "the Ka'bah, the sacred house" in {{Quran-range|5|95|97}}. Traditionally, this is identified with the "foundations of the house" raised by [[Ibrahim (Abraham)|Abraham]] and [[Isma'il|Ishmael]] in {{Quran|2|127}}, which is probably the intended implication. See also {{Quran|3|96|97}} which says the first house for mankind where Abraham used to pray was built at Bakkah, generally understood to mean Mecca, and {{Quran-range|14|35|41}} where the sacred house built by Abraham is described in the same terms as the Ka'bah in other verses. Even more | The Quran frequently mentions a secure sanctuary or house where rituals take place, which it names "the Ka'bah, the sacred house" in {{Quran-range|5|95|97}}. Traditionally, this is identified with the "foundations of the house" raised by [[Ibrahim (Abraham)|Abraham]] and [[Isma'il|Ishmael]] in {{Quran|2|127}}, which is probably the intended implication. See also {{Quran|3|96|97}} which says the first house for mankind where Abraham used to pray was built at Bakkah, generally understood to mean Mecca, and {{Quran-range|14|35|41}} where the sacred house built by Abraham is described in the same terms as the Ka'bah in other verses. Even more explicit is {{Quran-range|22|26|29}} where the site of the house of Abraham is identified with the "ancient house" which it permits pilgrims to circumambulate. There is, however, little to no direct evidence on the pre-Islamic history of the Ka'bah in Mecca. In contrast, there is some significant indirect evidence bearing on the question and it does not favour the traditional understanding. | ||
In his paper ''Foundations of the house'', Joseph Witztum discusses this verse ({{Quran|2|127}}). He argues that the Quranic scene reflects a number of post-Biblical traditions building on [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2022&version=NIV Genesis 22] where Abraham goes to sacrifice Isaac (in the Quran, instead it is Ishmael). In later exegetical traditions, Abraham builds an altar for the sacrifice and Isaac willingly offers himself for slaughter. By the time of Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews'' 1:227 (1st century CE), Isaac even helps in its construction. In the 4th to 5th centuries several (mostly Syriac) Christian homilies take up this motif. Then a 6th century CE Syriac homily by Jacob of Serugh on Genesis 22 describes them as building not just an altar but a "house" (Syriac: bayta), like in the Quran (Arabic: bayt). Witztum argues that the Quran transfers this imagery associated with Jerusalem to Mecca.<ref>Joseph Witztum, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378843 The Foundations of the House (Q 2: 127)], Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 72, no. 1, 2009, pp. 25–40 ]<BR />In the Book of Jubilees (2nd century BCE), an altar built by Abraham in Hebron is mentioned. Abraham's house is also mentioned many times but only in the sense of his actual home or household, not a sanctuary).</ref> The clearly late development of the idea that Abraham build a sacred house in which to sacrifice his son undermines the idea that there is any history to the story, let alone that the Ka'bah in Mecca is the location where it happened. For many more examples of Syriac Christian narrative elements in the Quran, see the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]] | In his paper ''Foundations of the house'', Joseph Witztum discusses this verse ({{Quran|2|127}}). He argues that the Quranic scene reflects a number of post-Biblical traditions building on [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2022&version=NIV Genesis 22] where Abraham goes to sacrifice Isaac (in the Quran, instead it is Ishmael). In later exegetical traditions, Abraham builds an altar for the sacrifice and Isaac willingly offers himself for slaughter. By the time of Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews'' 1:227 (1st century CE), Isaac even helps in its construction. In the 4th to 5th centuries several (mostly Syriac) Christian homilies take up this motif. Then a 6th century CE Syriac homily by Jacob of Serugh on Genesis 22 describes them as building not just an altar but a "house" (Syriac: bayta), like in the Quran (Arabic: bayt). Witztum argues that the Quran transfers this imagery associated with Jerusalem to Mecca.<ref>Joseph Witztum, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378843 The Foundations of the House (Q 2: 127)], Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 72, no. 1, 2009, pp. 25–40 ]<BR />In the Book of Jubilees (2nd century BCE), an altar built by Abraham in Hebron is mentioned. Abraham's house is also mentioned many times but only in the sense of his actual home or household, not a sanctuary).</ref> The clearly late development of the idea that Abraham build a sacred house in which to sacrifice his son undermines the idea that there is any history to the story, let alone that the Ka'bah in Mecca is the location where it happened. For many more examples of Syriac Christian narrative elements in the Quran, see the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]] | ||
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''Main article: [[Shooting Stars in the Quran]]'' | ''Main article: [[Shooting Stars in the Quran]]'' | ||
The idea of shooting stars chasing away | The idea of shooting stars chasing away eavesdropping devils has Zoroastrian, Jewish, and probably Arabian roots. This was noted by Patricia Crone in the commentary published following the 2012-13 Qur'an Seminar (a series of academic conferences).<ref>Patricia Crone's comments in [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110445909/html?lang=en The Qur’an Seminar Commentary: A Collaborative Study of 50 Qur’anic Passages] De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 305-312</ref> She argues that though the Zoroastrian sources were written after the Quran, their contents date to the Sassanian period, before the rise of Islam. Here the fixed stars and constellations are warriors led by the sun and moon to repel demons represented by moving bodies (planets and comets) from passing to the upper heaven. It is in the Jewish ''Testament of Solomon'' (1st to 3rd century CE) where the demons who fly up among the stars are not warriors but rather try to listen into God's decisions about men. Here, people see shooting stars as the exhausted demons falling back to earth. Eavesdropping demons also feature in the Babylonian Talmud. | ||
==Common Erroneous Attributions== | ==Common Erroneous Attributions== | ||
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===Crescent Moon symbol and Hubal=== | ===Crescent Moon symbol and Hubal=== | ||
Another popular internet claim is that the Islamic crescent moon symbol derives from the hadith reports that an Arabian moon god, Hubal was worshipped at the Ka'bah. In fact, the star and crescent moon symbol was actually adopted by coins of the early Islamic empire in continuity with those of the Sasanian empire which it had conquered, but only became a symbol of Islam some centuries later when it was used as a flag symbol by the Ottomans. Originally it has an origin on | Another popular internet claim is that the Islamic crescent moon symbol derives from the hadith reports that an Arabian moon god, Hubal was worshipped at the Ka'bah. In fact, the star and crescent moon symbol was actually adopted by coins of the early Islamic empire in continuity with those of the Sasanian empire which it had conquered, but only became a symbol of Islam some centuries later when it was used as a flag symbol by the Ottomans. Originally it has an origin on Greco-Roman coins in a pagan context, some argue with Summerian lineage, and was also present on Byzantine Christian coins as a simple iconographic motif. See the [[Crescent Moon]] article for more detail. | ||
According to Ibn Hisham, Muhammad's pagan grandfather Abd al-Muttalib almost slaughtered Muhammad's father Abdallah at the Ka’aba, to Hubal: | According to Ibn Hisham, Muhammad's pagan grandfather Abd al-Muttalib almost slaughtered Muhammad's father Abdallah at the Ka’aba, to Hubal: | ||