Muhammad and illiteracy and Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ): Difference between pages

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(→‎Relevant Quotations: Have linked to a brilliant post on modern academics views against Muhammad being illiterate on the subreddit r/academicquran here, arguing against the traditional view.)
 
(→‎The Conception of Isa: Added a very small section on the name Isa, and noted it not matching Jesus's original/real name.)
 
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'''Muhammad's literacy''' is a commonly mentioned topic in regards to the historicity, revelation, and compiling of the Quran. Many Muslim scholars have argued that Muhammad's illiteracy is evidence that the Quran is a divine miracle. However, skeptics disagree that this is enough to constitute a miracle and challenge the claim altogether. Among modern academic scholars there is virtual unanimity that the Quran does not in fact describe Muhammad or his people as illiterate, and that this was a reinterpretation arising some time after his death. Indeed, there is now known to be abundant evidence of significant literacy among the pre-Islamic Arabs.
[[File:Ascension of Isa.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An old Turkish depiction of the ascension of the Islamic Isa.]]
In orthodox [[Islam]], '''Isa al-Masih''' (عيسى المسيح usually translated as ''Jesus Christ'') is believed to be a prophet, second in rank to [[Muhammad]], and not the son of God. Indeed, associating divinity with Jesus is decried as blasphemy in the Qur'an time and again. The [[Qur'an]], though, does have its own [[Qur'anic Christology|Christological vision]] of Jesus' mission on earth and his incarnation in the virgin Mary. Islamic holy literature including the Qur'an also carries over many fantastic tales of the doings of Jesus from [[Parallelism Between the Qur'an and Judeo-Christian Scriptures|apocryphal]] literature.  


==Transfer of Information==
==The Conception of Isa==
{{Main|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature}}
{{Main|Virgin Conception of Jesus in the Qur'an}}
Humans have many means by which information transfer is possible. Verbal communication, historically, was the main mode of information sharing. Many civilizations, their histories, mythologies, and stories have been kept alive as they are passed down orally from one generation to the next.


During Muhammad's time, his critics called him "an ear" (أذن, ''udhun''), which is confirmed in the Quran:
The Qur'anic verses 21:91 and 66:12 in conjunction with the tafsirs, tell us the angel [[Gabriel|Jibreel]] (جبريل ''Gabriel'') was sent to breathe [[Gabriel and the Holy Spirit|Allah's spirit]] into Maryam's (Mary's) vagina in order to conceive Jesus.
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|61}}|
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."}}


Julien Decharneux, an academic scholar who specialises in Syriac traditions and the Quran, proposes that the Quranic author(s) came into contact with East Syriac Christian preachers or missionaries rather than direct accessing Christian texts. In his book ''Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background'', he notes that the Christian lore in the Quran is "always periphrastic, never detailed, and often approximative". Decharneux further explains that the repetoire of texts that would have contributed to the thought of a "standard Christian preacher" at the turn of the 7th century would vary depending on church affiliation, "but it involves among other things the Bible, apocryphal texts, exegetical commentaries, and ascetic literature. These types of texts were not ''occasionally'' read. The sources attest that they were ''omnipresent'' in the Christian scholastic and monastic life from where a 'standard preacher' would have come". Indeed, he adds, "both Syriac ''and'' Greek exegetes were extremely popular".<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background", Berlin/Boston: DeGruyter, pp. 10-11</ref>
{{quote |1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=66&tid=54466 Tafsir 'ibn Kathir - Quran 66:12]|2=
[وَمَرْيَمَ ابْنَةَ عِمْرَانَ الَّتِى أَحْصَنَتْ '''فَرْجَهَا''']


Decharneux further writes regarding missionary activity in the vicinity of Arabia:
(And Maryam, the daughter of `Imran who guarded her chastity (private part).) meaning, who protected and purified her honor, by being chaste and free of immorality,


{{Quote|Julien Decharneux (2023) "Creation and Contemplation", p. 252|The Church of the East was particarly active from this point of view with far-reaching missionary activites in the south-eastern part of the Asian world. At the time of the emergence of the Qurʾān, both the Syro-Orthodox Church and the Church of the East were already exerting their influence on the south of the Arabian Peninsula, as the records show. Most importantly, the Church of the East was established on both sides of the Persian Gulf. From the end of the 4th century at least, Christian communities had settled in the region called Beth Qatraye, covering a large zone of the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Recent archaeology shows that several monasteries existed along the coast and in the islands of the Persian Gulf. We know that these communities were connected with the regions of Sinai and the Byzantine world particularly. Some of the writings emanating from these circles were also translated in Sogdian, Ethiopic, and Arabic from the 7th century onwards.}}
[فَنَفَخْنَا فِيهِ مِن رُّوحِنَا]


For further relevant verses and sources, see the introductory sections in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
(And We breathed into it (private part) through Our Ruh,) meaning, through the angel Jibril. Allah sent the angel Jibril to Maryam, and he came to her in the shape of a man in every respect. Allah commanded him to blow into a gap of her garment and that breath went into her womb through her private part; this is how `Isa was conceived.}}


==The myth of pre-Islamic Arab illiteracy==
=== The name ʿĪsā ===
Old Arabic (i.e. pre-Islamic) comprised a continuum of dialects over a large region, and is found enscribed on rocks and monuments in a variety of scripts such as Safaitic, and eventually in early Arabic scripts. Ahmad al-Jallad, a leading expert on the history of Arabic and its epigraphic evidence outlines how we now know that a sizable segment of South Arabian society was able to write even for informal purposes, and that North and West Arabia were literate societies, as traced in the extensive range of inscriptions, and even that a large number of desert nomads were able to read and write. He further writes, "Thus, the growing body of pre-Islamic evidence strongly indicates that the use of Arabic for administration in the early Islamic period does not reflect an ad hoc invention, but the continuation of an established tradition of administration in Arabic which must have its origins in North Arabian and Syrian scribal practices."<ref>Ahmad al-Jallad (2020) [https://www.academia.edu/43141064 Chapter 7: The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia - Context for the Qur’an] in Mustafa Shah (ed.), Muhammad Abdel Haleem (ed.), "The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies", Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 122</ref>
The name ʿĪsā does not appear to be the Arabised version of Jesus's (real) Hebrew name ''Yeshuaʿ'', Nickel (2017) notes ''The first thing the reader of the Qurʾān notices in reading the Arabic text of the Qurʾānic material about Jesus is that he is not called Yasūʿ, as one might expect from the Semitic milieu, but rather ʿĪsā. In terms of the Arabic root letters, the ʿayn and yāʾ seem to have switched positions.''<ref>Nickel, Gordon D. “''Jesus in the Qur'an.” pp. 289.'' The Wiley Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an, Second Edition, 2017, pp. 288–302.</ref>  


==Was Muhammad illiterate?==
== The Messiah (al-Masīḥ) ==
===The meaning of ''ummiy''===
The term "al-Masīḥ" in the Qurʾan, referring to ʿĪsā (Jesus), presents an intriguing case of linguistic and theological borrowing from the Biblical tradition into the Islamic text. As Durie 2018 shows, while '''al-Masīḥ''' as a phonological form has Biblical origins, its Qurʾanic usage does not carry the theological weight or implications it holds in the Biblical tradition. The incorporation of this term into the Qurʾan illustrates a borrowing process that involves the adaptation of a superficial feature stripping away its original theological significance from one religious tradition into another, serving a different theological function simply as a 'fossilized title' in its new context.<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 6.2 Christology (p. 315 - 325)''. Lexington Books. 2018.</ref>
The word is derived from the root أمم. There are 119 words in the Quran, derived from this root <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref>. Other words besides ''ummiy'' (أمي) from the same root are:


*''umm'' (أم) - mother
=== Messiah in the Bible and Biblical Theology ===
*''amam'' (امام) - in front of
In the Hebrew Bible, the term '''māshiaḥ''' (Greek: '''messías''' or '''christós''') carries rich narrative, ritual, and theological connotations. It means "anointed one" and is applied to kings of Israel, signifying their consecration and divine favor through anointing with oil. This practice is seen in the anointing of Saul (1 Samuel 10:1)<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2010&version=ESV ''1 Samuel 10.''] Saul Anointed King. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com</ref> and David (1 Samuel 16:13).<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2016%3A1-13&version=NIV ''1 Samuel 16:1-13.''] Samuel Anoints David. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com</ref> Anointing was not limited to kings but extended to priests<ref>''[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2028%3A41&version=NIV Exodus 28:41.]'' Other Priestly Garments. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com</ref> and sacred objects,<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2029%3A36&version=NIV ''Exodus 29:36.''] Other Priestly Garments. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com</ref> indicating dedication to God.
*''imam'' (إمام) - leader (because he is "in front of" others)
*''ummah'' (أمة) - the (Islamic) community/nation


Lane's Lexicon of classical Arabic says this about ''ummiy'' specifically:
The term '''māshiaḥ''' thus encompasses themes of kingship, divine favor, protection, and covenant, especially highlighted in God's promise to David of an eternal dynasty (2 Samuel 7:12-16).<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Samuel%207%3A12-16&version=NIV ''2 Samuel 7:12-16.''] Samuel Anoints David. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com</ref> In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, '''māshiaḥ''' is translated as '''christós'''. In the New Testament, '''christós''' (or '''messías''') is used as a title for Jesus, central to the proclamation of his identity and role as the fulfillment of Messianic prophecies, thus embedding Jesus deeply in the Messianic traditions of Israel.
{{Quote|Lane's lexicon on أُمِّىٌّ|


أُمِّىٌّ
The borrowing is more likely from Syriac '''məšîḥ''', a regular passive participle of the root '''m-š-ḥ''' ("anoint"), used in Syriac Christian texts not only for Jesus but for other anointed Biblical figures as well.<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 6.2 Christology (p. 321)''. Lexington Books. 2018.</ref>
(T, M, Mgh, Mṣb, Ḳ) and ↓أُمَّانٌ (Ḳ) [the former a rel. n. from أُمَّةٌ, and thus '''properly meaning Gentile''': whence, in a secondary, or tropical, sense,(assumed tropical:) '''a heathen''';] (assumed tropical:) '''one not having a revealed scripture'''; (Bḍ in iii. 19 and 69;) so applied by those having a revealed scripture: (Bḍ in iii.69:) '''[and particularly] an Arab''': (Jel in iii. 69, and Bḍ and Jel in lxii. 2:) [or] in the proper language [of the Arabs], of, '''or belonging to, or relating to, the nation (أُمَّة) of the Arabs, who did not write nor read''': and therefore '''metaphorically applied to (tropical:) any one not knowing the art of writing nor that of reading''': (Mgh:) or (assumed tropical:) '''one who does not write; (T, M, Ḳ;) because the art of writing is acquired; as though he were thus called in relation to the condition in which his mother (أُمَّهُ) brought him forth''': (T:) or (assumed tropical:) one who is in the natural condition of the nation (الأُمَّة) to which he belongs, (Zj, * T, M, * Ḳ, *) in respect of not writing, (T,) or not having learned writing; thus remaining in his natural state: (M, Ḳ:) or (assumed tropical:) one who does not write well; said to be a rel. n. from أمٌّ; because the art of writing is acquired, and such a person is as his mother brought him forth, in respect of ignorance of that art; or, as some say, from أُمَّةُ العَرَبِ; because most of the Arabs were of this description: (Mṣb:) the art of writing was known among the Arabs [in the time of Moḥammad] by the people of Et-Táïf, who learned it from a man of the people of El-Heereh, and these had it from the people of El-Ambár. (T.) أُمِّيُّون لَا يَعْلَمُونَ, الكِتَابَ, in the Ḳur ii. 73, means Vulgar persons, [or heathen,] who know not the Book of the Law revealed to Moses: (Jel:) or ignorant persons, who know not writing, so that they may read that book; or, who know not the Book of the Law revealed to Moses. (Bḍ.) '''Moḥammad was termed أُمِّىّ [meaning A Gentile, as distinguished from an Israelite: or, accord. to most of his followers, meaning illiterate;] because the nation (أُمَّة) of the Arabs did not write, nor read writing; and [they say that] God sent him as an apostle when he did not write, nor read from a book; and this natural condition of his was one of his miraculous signs, to which reference is made in the Ḳur [xxix. 47], where it is said, “thou didst not read, before it, from a book, nor didst thou write it with thy right hand:” (T, TA:) but accord. to the more correct opinion, he was not well acquainted with written characters nor with poetry, but he discriminated between good and bad poetry: or, as some assert, he became acquainted with writing after he had been unacquainted therewith, on account of the expression “ before it ”''' in the verse of the Ḳur mentioned above: or, as some say, this may mean that he wrote though ignorant of the art of writing, like as some of the kings, being أُمِّيُّون, write their signs, or marks: (TA:) or, accord. to Jaạfar Es-Sádik, he used to read from the book, or scripture, if he did not write. (Kull p. 73.) [Some judicious observations on this word are comprised in Dr. Sprenger's Life of Moḥammad (pp. 101-2); a work which, in the portion already published (Part I.), contains much very valuable information.]
―
Also, (Ḳ,) or [only] أُمِّىٌّ, (AZ, T, M,) applied to a man, (AZ, T,) Impotent in speech, (عَيِىّ, in the Ḳ incorrectly written غَبِىّ, TA,) of few words, and rude, churlish, uncivil, or surly. (AZ, T, M, Ḳ.)}}


===The word ''ummiy'' in the Quran===
=== Masīḥ in the Qurʾan ===
The word ''ummiy'' (أمي) appears 6 times in the Quran. Two times in the singular in relation to Muhammad himself (verses 7:157-158) and four times in the plural form (verses 2:78, 3:20, 3:75 and 62:2). <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amm</ref> From these verses quoted below we will see that the word doesn't have to necessarily mean "illiterate", but can also mean "ignorant" or "not given a scripture".
The Qurʾan refers to ʿĪsā as '''al-Masīḥ''' in six passages (Q3:45; Q4:157, 171–172; Q5:17, 72, 75; Q9:30-31). In these instances, '''al-Masīḥ''' is presented as part of Jesus' full name without any explicit theological or narrative context that would link it to its Biblical meanings. The term appears in the structure: laqab (descriptive epithet) + ism (personal name) + nasab (ancestry): al-Masīḥ ʿĪsā ibn Maryam.<ref>Ibid. pp 320.</ref>


Mehdy Shaddel says that modern academic scholars "virtually unanimously" agree that the Arabic word ummi did not mean that the Prophet is illiterate, contrary to the Islamic tradition. In at least three of the six verses where the word appears such an interpretation does not fit. This is also true of its usage in many cases in the hadith tradition. It is less easy to positively determine exactly what it did mean, though in general it is now believed to mean gentile or pagan i.e. coming from an unscriptured people.<ref>Mehdy Shaddel, [https://www.academia.edu/8811286 Qurʾānic ummī: Genealogy, Ethnicity, and the Foundation of a New Community] (Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 43, 2016, pp. 1-60)</ref>
The Qurʾan does not provide any context that would suggest a meaning for '''al-Masīḥ''' beyond it being a title for ʿĪsā. There are no implications of kingship or divine favor, nor is there any association with the rich Messianic traditions found in the Bible. This absence of context suggests that the term was borrowed as a phonological form—a title stripped of its original Biblical meanings.


In his commentary on the Quran, Gabriel Said Reynolds (a modern academic scholar) points to verse 3:20 as evidence that the word refers to those who do not know the word of God (similarly verses 3:75 and 62:2).<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p.54 (commentary on Q. 2:78-9)</ref> Thus, Muhammad is described as an ummi prophet in verses 7:157-158 because he came from a people to whom God had not yet sent down revelation, not because he was illiterate. As Reynolds further points out (crediting Holger Zelletin), verses 29:47-48, which are commonly cited to interpret the other verses on this topic, deny that Muhammad wrote the Quran himself, yet this does not imply that he could not read:
This has led to various speculative interpretations by Muslim exegetes, often attempting to connect the term to Arabic roots in creative ways. However, these interpretations do not align with the original Biblical meanings.<ref>Ibid. pp 321-322.</ref>  


{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|47|48}}|And thus We have sent down to you the Qur'an. And those to whom We [previously] gave the Scripture believe in it. And among these [people of Makkah] are those who believe in it. And none reject Our verses except the disbelievers. And you did not recite before it any scripture, nor did you inscribe one with your right hand. Otherwise the falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt.}}
Nicolai Sinai similarly notes:
{{Quote|<i>al-masīḥ Entry {{!}} Christ Further vocabulary discussed: masaḥa intr. bi- {{!}} to wipe s.th. </i>
Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 621-622). 2023. Princeton University Press.|Al-masīḥ is a conventional Qur’anic epithet for Jesus, whose full Qur’anic name three verses give as al-masīḥu ʿīsā bnu maryama, “al-masīḥ Jesus, the son of Mary” (Q 3:45, 4:157.171), but who is also referred to simply as al-masīḥ, as in Q 4:172 or 9:30.6 Al-masīḥ obviously reflects the Syriac title mshīḥā, “the Messiah, the anointed one,” which renders Greek christos (CQ 24–25; FVQ 265–266). Within the morphological structure of Arabic, masīḥ is formed like a regular passive verbal adjective, such as qatīl, “killed,” with the corresponding first-form verb presumably being masaḥa bi-, “to wipe s.th.” (Q 4:43, 5:6, 38:33).<sup>7</sup>


====Chapter 2 Verse 78====
Despite its potential semantic analysability, however, the expression al-masīḥ appears to be little more than a fossilised title in the Qur’an that does not convey any properly messianic expectations of the sort that imbue the New Testament title christos (Robinson 2003b, 12–13; Durie 2018, 157–164; see also QP 310–311). The fact that al-masīḥ can be followed by the matronymic “son of Mary” without an intervening “Jesus” (see Q 5:17.72.75) further heightens the impression that it behaves largely like an alternative proper name for Jesus; although al-masīḥ may formally be described as a laqab or “descriptive epithet,” which “would normally have a recognizable meaning” (Durie 2018, 161), there is no clear Qur’anic evidence to confirm that the Qur’an’s addressees did in fact connect the title al-masīḥ with the verb masaḥa, “to wipe,” which is only employed in the context of regulating the ablutions to be performed before prayer (Q 4:43, 5:6). Translationally, this state of affairs is best conveyed by rendering al-masīḥ as “Christ” rather than as “the Messiah” or “the anointed one,” seeing that in ordinary English usage “Christ” has come to function as a semantically opaque quasi-surname of Jesus (thus also Stewart 2021, 54–56).
One of the plural forms is in sura 2. Shaddel here argues that the verse is talking about Arab converts to Judaism.


{{Quote|{{Quran|2|78}}|
The epithet al-masīḥ entered Arabic prior to the Qur’an: it is reported that ʿabd al-masīḥ, “servant of Christ,” was a pre-Islamic proper name (KU 130). This is confirmed by a Nabataeo-Arabic inscription from the region around Najrān (Robin et al. 2014, 1125). Moreover, the title ms1ḥ, “Messiah,” features in Epigraphic South Arabian inscriptions by the Christian king Abraha (Sima 2004, 25; Robin 2015a, 153–154, 164, 169).}}This also may be why despite being called the Messiah, he does not feature particularly prominently in the Qur'an.
And among them are '''unlettered ones''' (أُمِّيُّونَ, ''ummeeoona'') who do not know the Scripture except in wishful thinking, but they are only assuming.}}
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 290). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.|It is initially striking that, notwithstanding the numerous Christian traditions reflected in the Qur’an,<sup>56</sup> the figure of Jesus himself is not very prominent in the Qur’an. At his first appearance, he does not figure independently but rather as an accompanying figure in a story about his mother, and remains closely bound up to her. The Qur’anic Jesus, ʿĪsā, bears the matronymic Ibn Maryam, “son of Mary,” obviously a polemically motivated “overwriting” of his Christian title “Son of God,” and this already signals his exclusively inner-worldly role in the Qur’an. The story of his life is not told coherently, but individual reports are scattered throughout the entire Qur’an,<sup>57</sup> without crystalizing into a coherent vita, as for example in the case of Moses.}}
Tafsir Al-Jalalayn says about the verse:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 2:78|
And there are some of them the Jews that are '''illiterate unlettered not knowing the Scripture''' the Torah but only desires lies which were handed down to them by their leaders and which they relied upon; and in their rejection of the prophethood of the Prophet and fabrications of other matters they have mere conjectures and no firm knowledge.}}


====Chapter 3 Verse 20====
==No More Than a Messenger==
Another is in verse 3:20 (see above regarding Reynolds' commentary about this and similar verses).
The Qur'an designates Jesus as a "rasul" (رسول) "messenger" or "apostle", putting him on the same level as the prophet Muhammad in this regard. This is, in effect, an attack on the trinitarian, god-unity conception of him in orthodox Christianity, which is underscored by how he is placed together with the other "messengers".  
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|20}}|
So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture '''and [to] the unlearned''' (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''wa-al-ummeena''), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.}}


Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20 says:
{{Quote| {{Quran|5|75}}|Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a woman of truth. They had both to eat their (daily) food. See how Allah doth make His signs clear to them; yet see in what ways they are deluded away from the truth!}}
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:20|
So if they the disbelievers dispute with you O Muhammad (s) concerning religion say to them ‘I have surrendered my countenance to God that is to say I have submitted to Him I and whoever follows me’ wajh ‘countenance’ is chosen here because of its noble character for the other parts of the body will just as soon surrender once the countenance has; and say to those who have been given the Scripture the Jews and the Christians '''and to the uninstructed the Arab idolaters''' ‘Have you submitted?’ that is to say ‘Submit!’ And so if they have submitted they have been guided from error but if they turn their backs to Islam your duty is only to deliver the Message; and God sees His servants and so requites them for their deeds — this statement was revealed before the command to fight them had been revealed.}}
Here, according to Tafsir Al-Jalalayn, as well as most academic scholars, the word ''ummiy'' means pagan or gentile (i.e. those not given a scripture).
====Chapter 3 Verse 75====
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|75}}|
And among the People of the Scripture is he who, if you entrust him with a great amount [of wealth], he will return it to you. And among them is he who, if you entrust him with a [single] silver coin, he will not return it to you unless you are constantly standing over him [demanding it]. That is because they say, "There is no blame upon us concerning '''the unlearned''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeena'')." And they speak untruth about Allah while they know [it].}}
The tafsir Al-Jalalayn explains:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 3:75|
And of the People of the Scripture is he who if you trust him with a hundredweight that is with much money he will return it to you on account of his trustworthiness the like of ‘Abd Allāh b. Salām to whom a man entrusted 1200 plates of gold which he then returned to him; and of them is he who if you trust him with one dinar will not return it to you on account of his treachery; unless you keep standing over him not leaving him for one minute for as soon as you leave him he will deny it as was the case with Ka‘b b. al-Ashraf to whom a man from Quraysh entrusted a dinar and later denied it. '''That refusal to return things is because they say ‘We have no duty towards namely no possibility of acquiring sin because of the Gentiles’ the Arabs; for they considered it lawful to be unjust towards any person of a different religion''' and they attributed the source of this conviction to God exalted be He. God exalted be He says They speak falsehood against God by attributing such things to Him while they are aware that they are liars.}}
The tafsir interprets ummiy here to mean gentiles, those not given a scripture.
====Chapter 7 Verses 157-158====
The two singular forms are in the verses 7:157 and 7:158 in the context of talking about Moses:
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."


7:156 "And decree for us in this world [that which is] good and [also] in the Hereafter; indeed, we have turned back to You." [ Allah ] said, "My punishment - I afflict with it whom I will, but My mercy encompasses all things." So I will decree it [especially] for those who fear Me and give zakah and those who believe in Our verses -"
===Who was Given the Injil===
{{Main|Injil}}


7:157 "Those who follow the Messenger, '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيَّ, ''al-ummiy'') prophet, whom they find written in what they have of the Torah and the Gospel, who enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong and makes lawful for them the good things and prohibits for them the evil and relieves them of their burden and the shackles which were upon them. So they who have believed in him, honored him, supported him and followed the light which was sent down with him - it is those who will be the successful."
The Qur'an talks of the '''Injil''' (إنجيل) referring to the New Testament of the Bible (usually the four Gospels) as being given to Jesus, rather than being written by his followers. The Qur'an also treats this as one book instead of many (and not as the general "good news" of Jesus' incarnation, death, and resurrections as the word is used in Christian literature):


7:158 "Say, [O Muhammad], "O mankind, indeed I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; He gives life and causes death." So believe in Allah and His Messenger, '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيِّ, ''al-ummiy'') prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided."
{{Quote| {{Quran|5|46}}|And We sent after them in their footsteps Isa, son of Marium, verifying what was before him of the Taurat and We gave him the Injeel in which was guidance and light, and verifying what was before it of Taurat and a guidance and an admonition for those who guard (against evil).}}


7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."}}
==The Crucifixion of Isa==
So the information about Muhammad's illiteracy (as orthodoxy interpreted the word, but alternatively his coming from a people without a scripture) was for some reason inserted into a passage which talks about Moses. The context doesn't provide any indication as to what the word ''ummiy'' means here.


According to Tafsir Ibn Kathir, it is a description of Muhammad in Jewish and Christian scripture and that rabbis and priests "well know" it:
Islam's portrayal of the crucifixion of Jesus differs vastly from the mainstream Christian view and approaches the Gnostic view. According to [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Islamic Theology|Islamic theology]], Jesus was never crucified. It was merely a [[Allah the Best Deceiver|deception by Allah]] who made it appear that he was. This conception of Jesus' crucifixion curiously borrows elements from the docetist heresy (in Greek Δοκηταί Dokētaí , from the word δοκεῖν/δόκησις dokeĩn "to seem", dókēsis "apparition, phantom), a heresy which otherwise is the total opposite of the Islamic christology: in this conception, Jesus was a totally unearthly, divine being, without even a human body. Knowledge of its doctrines in the present day are based on several apocryphal works which have been discovered, particularly from the Nag Hammadi cache of gnostic Christian texts.
{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 7:157|
(Those who follow the Messenger, '''the Prophet who can neither read nor write whom they find written with them in the Tawrah and the Injil,) This is the description of the Prophet Muhammad in the Books of the Prophets'''. They delivered the good news of his advent to their nations and commanded them to follow him. His descriptions were still apparent in their Books, as '''the rabbis and the priests well know'''.}}
It is worth noting, however, that Ibn Kathir doesn't specify what this "well known" description of Muhammad in the Torah is.


====Chapter 62 Verse 2====
The dates of authorship for these writings show the relative lateness of the doctrine.  All of The canonical Christian scriptures were authored during the 1st century A.D.  The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter and the Second Treatise of the Great Seth were authored during the 3rd century A.D.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. (2003) ''The Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make It into the New Testament''. (p. 78). Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Most scholars have dated this gnostic treatis [The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter] to the third century."</ref><ref>Ehrman, Bart D. (2003) ''The Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make It into the New Testament''. (p. 82). Oxford: Oxford University Press. "This book [The Second Treatise of the Great Seth], which was discovered at Nag Hammadi (see page 19), probably dates from the third century."</ref> Meanwhile, according the traditional Muslim chronology, the Qur'an was revealed between 610-632 AD; its initial compilation was in 633 AD; and a "revisionary committee" preserved a standardized version sometime between 644-656 AD. Possible modern findings allow for an even earlier date of composition, but no estimate puts any Qur'anic material as in existence before the 5th century.  
The modern academic view is that again this verse refers to gentiles or pagans i.e. those not given a scripture. The verse has traditionally been interpreted to describe the Arabs as illiterates. However, modern epigraphic research has refuted this picture (as outlined above), and first century Quran manuscripts show that an early Arabic orthographic standard was already in existence.


{{Quote|{{Quran|62|2-3}}|
===Quran===
62:2 "It is He who has sent among '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''al-ummeen'') a Messenger from themselves reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom - although they were before in clear error -"


62:3 "And [to] others of them who have not yet joined them. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise."}}
{{Quote|1={{Quran|4|156-159}}|2=That they rejected Faith; that they uttered against Mary a grave false charge; That they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- '''but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them''', and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, '''for of a surety they killed him not:- Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself'''; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise;- And there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them;-}}
In 62:2, according to the tafsir Al-Jalalayn, the word means illiterate and refers to the illiterate Arabs:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2|
It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs '''ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’''' a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.}}
Ibn Kathir says "other" in 62:3 means Persians:
{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir on 62:3 |
The Prophet explained Allah's statement,


﴿وَءَاخَرِينَ مِنْهُمْ﴾
===Gnostic Writings===


(And others among them) by mentioning Persia. }}
{{Quote|1=[http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/apopet.html The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]|2=The Savior said to me, "He whom you see above the cross, glad and laughing, is the living Jesus. But he into whose hands and feet they are driving the nails is his physical part, which is the substitute. They are putting to shame that which is in his likeness. But look at him and me."
===Claimed prediction of an illiterate prophet in the Bible===
A popular Islamic preacher Zakir Naik proposed that an illiterate prophet is predicted in Isaiah 29:12 <ref>http://www.unchangingword.com/illiterate-prophet/</ref>. According to Zakir Naik, the verse says:
{{Quote|Non-existant (Isaiah 29:12 according to Zakir Naik)|
"The book shall be given to a person who is not learned. And when will be asked "Read this!", he will say "I am not learned".}}
This could be a prediction of what Aisha described:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...}}
Isaiah 29:12, however, is as follows:
{{Quote|Isaiah 29:11-13|
29:11 "For you this whole vision is nothing but words sealed in a scroll. And if you give the scroll to someone who can read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I can’t; it is sealed.”"


29:12 "Or if you give the scroll to someone who cannot read, and say, “Read this, please,” they will answer, “I don’t know how to read.”"
But I, when I had looked, said, "Lord, no one is looking at you.  Let us flee this place."  But he said to me, "I have told you, 'Leave the blind alone!'  And notice how they do not know what they are saying.  For the son of their glory, instead of my servant, they have put to shame."


29:13 "The Lord says: “These people come near to me with their mouth and honor me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me. Their worship of me is based on merely human rules they have been taught."}}
And I saw someone about to approach us who looked like him, even him who was laughing about the cross, and he was <filled> with a pure spirit, and he (was) the Savior...And he said to me, "Be strong!  For you are the one to whom these mysteries have been given, to know through revelation that he whom they have crucified is first-born, and the home of demons, and the clay vessel in which they dwell...But he who stands near him is the living Savior...}}


*اسم (''ism'') means "a noun".
{{Quote|1=[http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/2seth.html The Second Treatise of the Great Seth]|2="And I was in the mouths of lions.  And (as for) the counsel which they planned about me against destruction of their deception and their foolishness, I did not give in to them as they had devised.  And I was not afflicted at all.  Those there punished me, yet I did no die in solid reality but in what appears.....For my death which they think happened, (happened) to them in their error and blindness.  They nailed their man up to their death.  For their minds did not see me, for they were deaf and blind.  But in doing these things, they render judgment against themselves...For when I came down no one saw me.  For I kept changing my forms above, transforming from appearance to appearance.}}


So this word has a variety of meanings. One could speculate that it could even mean "motherly" (derived from ''umm'' - mother), because Muhammad's father died before Muhammad was born and he lived only with his mother.
=== Jewish Writings on Jesus ===
{{Main|Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#The_End_of_Jesus's_Earthly_Mission}}
More recent (2025) research by Professor Sean Anthony has shown strong parallels with only the 'appearance' of crucifixion to Jesus's enemies and end of Jesus's ministry on Earth with a Jewish anti-gospel work known in modern scholarship as Toledot Yeshu (The Life Story of Jesus),<ref>Sean W. Anthony; ''The Early Aramaic Toledot Yeshu and the End of Jesus’s Earthly Mission in the Qur’an.'' Studies in Late Antiquity 1 May 2025; 9 (2): 151–185. doi: <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1525/sla.2025.9.2.151</nowiki></ref> running as a counter-narrative to it by siding with the Christians views in the story, which he contends is a more likely source given the context of the passages appearing in passages criticizing the Medinan Jews' beliefs - with the motifs and counter motifs highlighted in the main article sub-section.


===Indications Muhammad was literate===
===Canonical Christian Scriptures===
Muhammad was employed by his first wife Khadija to travel as a merchant. It's hard to do trade business without being able to write. Besides this implicit indication to his ability to write, we have explicit hadiths talking about Muhammad writing.


====Hadiths====
The doctrine of Jesus' escape from the crucifixion starkly contrasts with all of the writings of Paul the apostle, as well as the canonical gospels, which along with the testimony of some Roman historians such as Tacitus and Josephus constitute our earliest testimony on the life of Jesus. The aforementioned Roman historians agree with the gospels that Jesus was executed by the Roman state, and modern historians tend to rate the reality of the crucifixion as the single most certainly true aspect of the gospels.
كتب (''kataba'') means "he wrote":
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|3|65}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:


'''Once the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter or had an idea of writing a letter'''. The Prophet (ﷺ) was told that they (rulers) would not read letters unless they were sealed. So the Prophet (ﷺ) got a silver ring made with "Muhammad Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)" engraved on it. As if I were just observing its white glitter in the hand of the Prophet.}}
<big>'''Gospels'''</big>
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|42|5117}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:


'''The Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) a letter to Heraclius''': "From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql (Heraclius), Chief of the Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance." Ibn Yahya reported on the authority of Ibn Abbas that AbuSufyan said to him: We then came to see Hiraql (Heraclius) who seated us before him. He then called for the letter from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Its contents were: "In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, from Muhammad the Messenger of Allah, to Hiraql, chief of Byzantines. Peace be to those who follow the guidance. To proceed."}}
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2027:32-66,%2028:1-20&version=NIV Matthew 27:32-66, 28:1-20 NIV]
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|18|2921}} (sahih)|
Narrated Umar ibn al-Khattab:


Sa'id said: Umar ibn al-Khattab said: Blood-money is meant for the clan of the slain, and she will not inherit from the blood-money of her husband. Ad-Dahhak ibn Sufyan said: '''The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) wrote (كَتَبَ) to me''' that I should give a share to the wife of Ashyam ad-Dubabi from the blood-money of her husband. So Umar withdrew his opinion.
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:21-47,%2016:1-20&version=NIV Mark 15:21-47, 16:1-20 NIV]


Ahmad ibn Salih said: AbdurRazzaq transmitted this tradition to us from Ma'mar, from az-Zuhri on the authority of Sa'id. In this version he said: The Prophet (ﷺ) made him governor over the bedouins.}}
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2023:26-56,%2024:1-53&version=NIV Luke 23:26-56, 24:1-53 NIV]
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|19|2993}}|
Narrated Yazid ibn Abdullah:


We were at Mirbad. A man with dishevelled hair and holding a piece of red skin in his hand came.
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2019:1-42,%2020:1-31&version=NIV John 19:1-42, 20:1-31 NIV]


We said: You appear to be a bedouin. He said: Yes. We said: Give us this piece of skin in your hand. He then gave it to us and we read it. It contained the text: "From Muhammad, Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), to Banu Zuhayr ibn Uqaysh. If you bear witness that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, offer prayer, pay zakat, pay the fifth from the booty, and the portion of the Prophet (ﷺ) and his special portion (safi), you will be under by the protection of Allah and His Apostle."
<big>'''Acts of the Apostles'''</big>


'''We then asked: Who wrote (كَتَبَ) this document for you? He replied: The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ).'''}}
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%201:1-11&version=NIV Acts 1:1-11 NIV]


وكتب (''wa-kataba'') means "and he wrote":
==The Return of Isa==
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|53|387}}|
Narrated Abu Humaid As-Saidi:


We accompanied the Prophet (ﷺ) in the Ghazwa of Tabuk and the king of 'Aila presented a white mule and a cloak as a gift to the Prophet. '''And the Prophet (ﷺ) wrote (وَكَتَبَ) to him''' a peace treaty allowing him to keep authority over his country.}}
Muslim apocalyptic literature says that Jesus will return as a Muslim and will break the cross (destroy Christianity), kill swine (This may be a reference to the destruction of the Jews, as the [[Qur'an]] says Jews were once turned into apes and pigs<ref>{{Quran|5|60}}</ref>), and advance the cause of [[Islam]]. He will also abolish the [[jizyah]], which will leave Jews and Christians with only two options, to convert to Islam or face execution and enslavement. Verse 9:29 calls for the subduing of Jews and Christians.  


فكتب (''fa-kataba'') means "then he wrote":
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|29}}|Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, '''(even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued'''.}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|9|89|302}}|
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Jews should either pay the blood money of your (deceased) companion or be ready for war." '''After that Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) wrote (فَكَتَبَ) a letter to the Jews''' in that respect, and they wrote that they had not killed him.}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|3|49|863}}|
Narrated Al-Bara:


When the Prophet (ﷺ) intended to perform `Umra in the month of Dhul-Qada, the people of Mecca did not let him enter Mecca till he settled the matter with them by promising to stay in it for three days only. When the document of treaty was written, the following was mentioned: 'These are the terms on which Muhammad, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) agreed (to make peace).' They said, "We will not agree to this, for if we believed that you are Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) we would not prevent you, but you are Muhammad bin `Abdullah." The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "I am Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and also Muhammad bin `Abdullah." Then he said to `Ali, "Rub off (the words) 'Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)' ", but `Ali said, "No, by Allah, I will never rub off your name." So, '''Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) took the document and wrote (فَكَتَبَ)''', 'This is what Muhammad bin `Abdullah has agreed upon: No arms will be brought into Mecca except in their cases, and nobody from the people of Mecca will be allowed to go with him (i.e. the Prophet (ﷺ) ) even if he wished to follow him and he (the Prophet (ﷺ) ) will not prevent any of his companions from staying in Mecca if the latter wants to stay.'}}
===Quran===
====The first revelation====
The first sura was the sura 96, which  begins as follows:
{{Quote|{{Quran|96|1-5}}|'''Read''' (اقرا, ''iqra'') in the name of your Lord who created -


Created man from a clinging substance.
{{Quote|1={{Quran|43|57-64}} (Yusufali), see also {{Quran|4|159}}|2=When (Jesus) the son of Mary is held up as an example, behold, thy people raise a clamour threat (in ridicule)!  And they say, "Are our gods best, or he?" This they set forth to thee, only by way of disputation: yea, they are a contentious people.  He was no more than a servant: We granted Our favour to him, and We made him an example to the Children of Israel.  And if it were Our Will, We could make angels from amongst you, succeeding each other on the earth.  '''And (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment)''': therefore have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow ye Me: this is a Straight Way.  Let not the Evil One hinder you: for he is to you an enemy avowed.  When Jesus came with Clear Signs, he said: "Now have I come to you with Wisdom, and in order to make clear to you some of the (points) on which ye dispute: therefore fear Allah and obey me.  "For Allah, He is my Lord and your Lord: so worship ye Him: this is a Straight Way."}}


Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous -
===Hadith===


Who taught '''by the pen''' (بالقلم, ''bil-qalam'') -
Islam carries over its apocalyptic tradition from Christianity. As such the hadith teaches that Jesus will come back to fight for Islam.


Taught man that which he knew not.}}
{{Quote|{{Abudawud|37|4310}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah:


*The word ''iqra'' is sometimes translated as "recite", but "recitation" in Arabic is تِلاَوَة (''tilawa'') and the Quran uses form of that word for "recitation" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=tlw</ref>.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: There is no prophet between me and him, that is, Jesus (peace be upon him). He will descent (to the earth). When you see him, recognise him: a man of medium height, reddish fair, wearing two light yellow garments, looking as if drops were falling down from his head though it will not be wet. '''He will fight the people for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill swine, and abolish jizyah. Allah will perish all religions except Islam'''. He will destroy the Antichrist and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will die. The Muslims will pray over him.}}


There are two versions of the story of the first revelation. In the Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq it goes as follows:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|55|657}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:
{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah by Ibn Ishaq |When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. "He came to me," said the apostle of God, "while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade whereon was some writing, and said, ‘Read!’ I said, '''‘What shall I read?’''' (وما اقرأ) He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What then shall I read?’—and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same to me again. He said:


‘Read in the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is the most beneficent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men.’
Allah’s Apostle said, “By Him in Whose Hands my soul is, surely (Jesus,) the son of Mary will soon descend amongst you and will judge mankind justly (as a Just Ruler); he will break the Cross and kill the pigs and there will be no Jizya (i.e. taxation taken from non Muslims). Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it, and a single prostration to Allah (in prayer) will be better than the whole world and whatever is in it.” Abu Huraira added “'''If you wish, you can recite (this verse of the Holy Book): — ‘And there is none Of the people of the Scriptures (Jews and Christians) But must believe in him (i.e Jesus as an Apostle of Allah and a human being) Before his death. And on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness Against them'''.” (4.159) (See Fateh Al Bari, Page 302 Vol 7)}}
So I read it, and he departed from me. And I awoke from my sleep, and it was as though these words were written on my heart.}}
It says وما اقرأ "and what (should I) read?". So in this story Muhammad can read, he just asks what should he read.


Ibn Ishaq died in 761. But in the 9th century, Bukhari recorded the narration differently:
As in Christian apocalyptic literature, on judgment day Jesus will judge the people by the words of the Qur'an.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
}}


*If the ''iqra'' in 96:1 meant "recite" as some translators translated it, then here Muhammad says "I don't know how to recite".
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|55|658}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:


This shift from ''"and what shall I read"'' (وما اقرأ) to ''"I don't know how to read"'' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ) seems to indicate that Muhammad's illiteracy was a later invention.
Allah’s Apostle said “How will you be when the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you and he will judge people by the Law of the Quran and not by the law of Gospel (Fateh-ul Bari page 304 and 305 Vol 7)}}


==Hadith regarding the Ummah as an unlettered people==
It is further worth noting that the life and purpose of Jesus as outlined in the Islamic scriptures differs a great deal from the narrative presented regarding Jesus in Christian scriptures.
According to a hadith, Muhammad said that the Islamic community was a ummiyya who could not write nor count. The hadith has been understood to mean that the start of the month should be determined by moon sighting and not by calculation.<ref>https://islamqa.info/en/4713</ref>:
{{Quote|{{Muslim|6|2376}}|
Ibn 'Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah's Apostle as saying:


We are '''an unlettered people''' ( أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ, ''umma ummiyya'') who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus. folding his thumb when he said it the third time.
==See Also==
}}


==Relevant Quotations==
{{Hub4|Jesus|Jesus}}  
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|61}}|
And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, "He is '''an ear''' (أذن, ''udhun'')."
}}{{Quote|{{Quran|44|14}}|Yet they turn away from him and say: "'''Tutored (by others)''' (مُعَلَّمٌۭ), a man possessed!"}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|155-159}}|
7:155 "And Moses chose from his people seventy men for Our appointment. And when the earthquake seized them, he said, "My Lord, if You had willed, You could have destroyed them before and me [as well]. Would You destroy us for what the foolish among us have done? This is not but Your trial by which You send astray whom You will and guide whom You will. You are our Protector, so forgive us and have mercy upon us; and You are the best of forgivers."


7:156 "And decree for us in this world [that which is] good and [also] in the Hereafter; indeed, we have turned back to You." [ Allah ] said, "My punishment - I afflict with it whom I will, but My mercy encompasses all things." So I will decree it [especially] for those who fear Me and give zakah and those who believe in Our verses -"
==External Links==


7:157 "Those who follow the Messenger, '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيَّ, ''al-ummiy'') prophet, whom they find written in what they have of the Torah and the Gospel, who enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong and makes lawful for them the good things and prohibits for them the evil and relieves them of their burden and the shackles which were upon them. So they who have believed in him, honored him, supported him and followed the light which was sent down with him - it is those who will be the successful."
*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Intro/islamic_jesus.html Dr. Mark Durie - Isa, the Muslim Jesus]
*[http://answering-islam.org/authors/adams/crucifixion_confusion.html Derik Adams - The Confusion of Islam regarding the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ]
*[https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=islamwhattheydonttellyou164 islamwhattheydonttellyou164 - Jesus as Isa: The Honest Truth] - ''YouTube Video''


7:158 "Say, [O Muhammad], "O mankind, indeed I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, [from Him] to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is no deity except Him; He gives life and causes death." So believe in Allah and His Messenger, '''the unlettered''' (الْأُمِّيِّ, ''al-ummiy'') prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and follow him that you may be guided."
==References==
 
{{reflist}}
7:159 "And among the people of Moses is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice."
}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|...suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "I do not know how to read."...}}{{Quote|{{Quran|3|20}}|
So if they argue with you, say, "I have submitted myself to Allah [in Islam], and [so have] those who follow me." And say to those who were given the Scripture '''and [to] the unlearned''' (وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ, ''wa-al-ummeena''), "Have you submitted yourselves?" And if they submit [in Islam], they are rightly guided; but if they turn away - then upon you is only the [duty of] notification. And Allah is Seeing of [His] servants.
}}<br />
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 62:2|
It is He Who sent to the unlettered folk among the Arabs '''ummī means ‘one who cannot write or read a book’''' a messenger from among them namely Muhammad (s) to recite to them His signs the Qur’ān and to purify them to cleanse them from idolatry and to teach them the Book the Qur’ān and wisdom in the rulings that it contains though indeed wa-in in has been softened from the hardened form with its subject having been omitted that is to say understand it as wa-innahum before that before his coming they had been in manifest error.}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|1|3}}|
He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to (his wife) Khadija to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and asked him to read. The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, "'''I do not know how to read.''' (مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ)" The Prophet (ﷺ) added, "The angel caught me (forcefully) and pressed me so hard that I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read and I replied, 'I do not know how to read.' Thereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second time till I could not bear it any more. He then released me and again asked me to read but again I replied, 'I do not know how to read (or what shall I read)?' Thereupon he caught me for the third time and pressed me, and then released me and said, 'Read in the name of your Lord, who has created (all that exists), created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous." (96.1, 96.2, 96.3)
}}
 
=== Modern Academic Quotations ===
The Sub-Reddit [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/ r/AcademicQuran] moderator(s) have complied a list of quotes and citations from modern academics on the data as to whether Muhammad literate or not which can be read here: [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/1fz3vr8/the_data_on_muhammads_literacy/ ''The data on Muhammad's literacy'']
 
==See also==


{{Translation-links-english|[[Mohamed a negramotnost|Czech]]}}
[[Category:People of the Book]]
 
[[Category:Isa al-Masih (Jesus)]]
==References==
[[Category:Maryam (Mary)]]
<references />
[[Category:Christian tradition]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Sirah]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]

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An old Turkish depiction of the ascension of the Islamic Isa.

In orthodox Islam, Isa al-Masih (عيسى المسيح usually translated as Jesus Christ) is believed to be a prophet, second in rank to Muhammad, and not the son of God. Indeed, associating divinity with Jesus is decried as blasphemy in the Qur'an time and again. The Qur'an, though, does have its own Christological vision of Jesus' mission on earth and his incarnation in the virgin Mary. Islamic holy literature including the Qur'an also carries over many fantastic tales of the doings of Jesus from apocryphal literature.

The Conception of Isa

Main Article: Virgin Conception of Jesus in the Qur'an

The Qur'anic verses 21:91 and 66:12 in conjunction with the tafsirs, tell us the angel Jibreel (جبريل Gabriel) was sent to breathe Allah's spirit into Maryam's (Mary's) vagina in order to conceive Jesus.

[وَمَرْيَمَ ابْنَةَ عِمْرَانَ الَّتِى أَحْصَنَتْ فَرْجَهَا]

(And Maryam, the daughter of `Imran who guarded her chastity (private part).) meaning, who protected and purified her honor, by being chaste and free of immorality,

[فَنَفَخْنَا فِيهِ مِن رُّوحِنَا]

(And We breathed into it (private part) through Our Ruh,) meaning, through the angel Jibril. Allah sent the angel Jibril to Maryam, and he came to her in the shape of a man in every respect. Allah commanded him to blow into a gap of her garment and that breath went into her womb through her private part; this is how `Isa was conceived.
Tafsir 'ibn Kathir - Quran 66:12

The name ʿĪsā

The name ʿĪsā does not appear to be the Arabised version of Jesus's (real) Hebrew name Yeshuaʿ, Nickel (2017) notes The first thing the reader of the Qurʾān notices in reading the Arabic text of the Qurʾānic material about Jesus is that he is not called Yasūʿ, as one might expect from the Semitic milieu, but rather ʿĪsā. In terms of the Arabic root letters, the ʿayn and yāʾ seem to have switched positions.[1]

The Messiah (al-Masīḥ)

The term "al-Masīḥ" in the Qurʾan, referring to ʿĪsā (Jesus), presents an intriguing case of linguistic and theological borrowing from the Biblical tradition into the Islamic text. As Durie 2018 shows, while al-Masīḥ as a phonological form has Biblical origins, its Qurʾanic usage does not carry the theological weight or implications it holds in the Biblical tradition. The incorporation of this term into the Qurʾan illustrates a borrowing process that involves the adaptation of a superficial feature stripping away its original theological significance from one religious tradition into another, serving a different theological function simply as a 'fossilized title' in its new context.[2]

Messiah in the Bible and Biblical Theology

In the Hebrew Bible, the term māshiaḥ (Greek: messías or christós) carries rich narrative, ritual, and theological connotations. It means "anointed one" and is applied to kings of Israel, signifying their consecration and divine favor through anointing with oil. This practice is seen in the anointing of Saul (1 Samuel 10:1)[3] and David (1 Samuel 16:13).[4] Anointing was not limited to kings but extended to priests[5] and sacred objects,[6] indicating dedication to God.

The term māshiaḥ thus encompasses themes of kingship, divine favor, protection, and covenant, especially highlighted in God's promise to David of an eternal dynasty (2 Samuel 7:12-16).[7] In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, māshiaḥ is translated as christós. In the New Testament, christós (or messías) is used as a title for Jesus, central to the proclamation of his identity and role as the fulfillment of Messianic prophecies, thus embedding Jesus deeply in the Messianic traditions of Israel.

The borrowing is more likely from Syriac məšîḥ, a regular passive participle of the root m-š-ḥ ("anoint"), used in Syriac Christian texts not only for Jesus but for other anointed Biblical figures as well.[8]

Masīḥ in the Qurʾan

The Qurʾan refers to ʿĪsā as al-Masīḥ in six passages (Q3:45; Q4:157, 171–172; Q5:17, 72, 75; Q9:30-31). In these instances, al-Masīḥ is presented as part of Jesus' full name without any explicit theological or narrative context that would link it to its Biblical meanings. The term appears in the structure: laqab (descriptive epithet) + ism (personal name) + nasab (ancestry): al-Masīḥ ʿĪsā ibn Maryam.[9]

The Qurʾan does not provide any context that would suggest a meaning for al-Masīḥ beyond it being a title for ʿĪsā. There are no implications of kingship or divine favor, nor is there any association with the rich Messianic traditions found in the Bible. This absence of context suggests that the term was borrowed as a phonological form—a title stripped of its original Biblical meanings.

This has led to various speculative interpretations by Muslim exegetes, often attempting to connect the term to Arabic roots in creative ways. However, these interpretations do not align with the original Biblical meanings.[10]

Nicolai Sinai similarly notes:

Al-masīḥ is a conventional Qur’anic epithet for Jesus, whose full Qur’anic name three verses give as al-masīḥu ʿīsā bnu maryama, “al-masīḥ Jesus, the son of Mary” (Q 3:45, 4:157.171), but who is also referred to simply as al-masīḥ, as in Q 4:172 or 9:30.6 Al-masīḥ obviously reflects the Syriac title mshīḥā, “the Messiah, the anointed one,” which renders Greek christos (CQ 24–25; FVQ 265–266). Within the morphological structure of Arabic, masīḥ is formed like a regular passive verbal adjective, such as qatīl, “killed,” with the corresponding first-form verb presumably being masaḥa bi-, “to wipe s.th.” (Q 4:43, 5:6, 38:33).7

Despite its potential semantic analysability, however, the expression al-masīḥ appears to be little more than a fossilised title in the Qur’an that does not convey any properly messianic expectations of the sort that imbue the New Testament title christos (Robinson 2003b, 12–13; Durie 2018, 157–164; see also QP 310–311). The fact that al-masīḥ can be followed by the matronymic “son of Mary” without an intervening “Jesus” (see Q 5:17.72.75) further heightens the impression that it behaves largely like an alternative proper name for Jesus; although al-masīḥ may formally be described as a laqab or “descriptive epithet,” which “would normally have a recognizable meaning” (Durie 2018, 161), there is no clear Qur’anic evidence to confirm that the Qur’an’s addressees did in fact connect the title al-masīḥ with the verb masaḥa, “to wipe,” which is only employed in the context of regulating the ablutions to be performed before prayer (Q 4:43, 5:6). Translationally, this state of affairs is best conveyed by rendering al-masīḥ as “Christ” rather than as “the Messiah” or “the anointed one,” seeing that in ordinary English usage “Christ” has come to function as a semantically opaque quasi-surname of Jesus (thus also Stewart 2021, 54–56).

The epithet al-masīḥ entered Arabic prior to the Qur’an: it is reported that ʿabd al-masīḥ, “servant of Christ,” was a pre-Islamic proper name (KU 130). This is confirmed by a Nabataeo-Arabic inscription from the region around Najrān (Robin et al. 2014, 1125). Moreover, the title ms1ḥ, “Messiah,” features in Epigraphic South Arabian inscriptions by the Christian king Abraha (Sima 2004, 25; Robin 2015a, 153–154, 164, 169).
al-masīḥ Entry | Christ Further vocabulary discussed: masaḥa intr. bi- | to wipe s.th. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 621-622). 2023. Princeton University Press.

This also may be why despite being called the Messiah, he does not feature particularly prominently in the Qur'an.

It is initially striking that, notwithstanding the numerous Christian traditions reflected in the Qur’an,56 the figure of Jesus himself is not very prominent in the Qur’an. At his first appearance, he does not figure independently but rather as an accompanying figure in a story about his mother, and remains closely bound up to her. The Qur’anic Jesus, ʿĪsā, bears the matronymic Ibn Maryam, “son of Mary,” obviously a polemically motivated “overwriting” of his Christian title “Son of God,” and this already signals his exclusively inner-worldly role in the Qur’an. The story of his life is not told coherently, but individual reports are scattered throughout the entire Qur’an,57 without crystalizing into a coherent vita, as for example in the case of Moses.
Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 290). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

No More Than a Messenger

The Qur'an designates Jesus as a "rasul" (رسول) "messenger" or "apostle", putting him on the same level as the prophet Muhammad in this regard. This is, in effect, an attack on the trinitarian, god-unity conception of him in orthodox Christianity, which is underscored by how he is placed together with the other "messengers".

Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a woman of truth. They had both to eat their (daily) food. See how Allah doth make His signs clear to them; yet see in what ways they are deluded away from the truth!
Quran 5:75

Who was Given the Injil

Main Article: Injil

The Qur'an talks of the Injil (إنجيل) referring to the New Testament of the Bible (usually the four Gospels) as being given to Jesus, rather than being written by his followers. The Qur'an also treats this as one book instead of many (and not as the general "good news" of Jesus' incarnation, death, and resurrections as the word is used in Christian literature):

And We sent after them in their footsteps Isa, son of Marium, verifying what was before him of the Taurat and We gave him the Injeel in which was guidance and light, and verifying what was before it of Taurat and a guidance and an admonition for those who guard (against evil).
Quran 5:46

The Crucifixion of Isa

Islam's portrayal of the crucifixion of Jesus differs vastly from the mainstream Christian view and approaches the Gnostic view. According to Islamic theology, Jesus was never crucified. It was merely a deception by Allah who made it appear that he was. This conception of Jesus' crucifixion curiously borrows elements from the docetist heresy (in Greek Δοκηταί Dokētaí , from the word δοκεῖν/δόκησις dokeĩn "to seem", dókēsis "apparition, phantom), a heresy which otherwise is the total opposite of the Islamic christology: in this conception, Jesus was a totally unearthly, divine being, without even a human body. Knowledge of its doctrines in the present day are based on several apocryphal works which have been discovered, particularly from the Nag Hammadi cache of gnostic Christian texts.

The dates of authorship for these writings show the relative lateness of the doctrine. All of The canonical Christian scriptures were authored during the 1st century A.D. The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter and the Second Treatise of the Great Seth were authored during the 3rd century A.D.[11][12] Meanwhile, according the traditional Muslim chronology, the Qur'an was revealed between 610-632 AD; its initial compilation was in 633 AD; and a "revisionary committee" preserved a standardized version sometime between 644-656 AD. Possible modern findings allow for an even earlier date of composition, but no estimate puts any Qur'anic material as in existence before the 5th century.

Quran

That they rejected Faith; that they uttered against Mary a grave false charge; That they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not:- Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise;- And there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them;-
Quran 4:156-159

Gnostic Writings

The Savior said to me, "He whom you see above the cross, glad and laughing, is the living Jesus. But he into whose hands and feet they are driving the nails is his physical part, which is the substitute. They are putting to shame that which is in his likeness. But look at him and me."

But I, when I had looked, said, "Lord, no one is looking at you. Let us flee this place." But he said to me, "I have told you, 'Leave the blind alone!' And notice how they do not know what they are saying. For the son of their glory, instead of my servant, they have put to shame."

And I saw someone about to approach us who looked like him, even him who was laughing about the cross, and he was <filled> with a pure spirit, and he (was) the Savior...And he said to me, "Be strong! For you are the one to whom these mysteries have been given, to know through revelation that he whom they have crucified is first-born, and the home of demons, and the clay vessel in which they dwell...But he who stands near him is the living Savior...
The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter
"And I was in the mouths of lions. And (as for) the counsel which they planned about me against destruction of their deception and their foolishness, I did not give in to them as they had devised. And I was not afflicted at all. Those there punished me, yet I did no die in solid reality but in what appears.....For my death which they think happened, (happened) to them in their error and blindness. They nailed their man up to their death. For their minds did not see me, for they were deaf and blind. But in doing these things, they render judgment against themselves...For when I came down no one saw me. For I kept changing my forms above, transforming from appearance to appearance.
The Second Treatise of the Great Seth

Jewish Writings on Jesus

Main Article: Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#The_End_of_Jesus's_Earthly_Mission

More recent (2025) research by Professor Sean Anthony has shown strong parallels with only the 'appearance' of crucifixion to Jesus's enemies and end of Jesus's ministry on Earth with a Jewish anti-gospel work known in modern scholarship as Toledot Yeshu (The Life Story of Jesus),[13] running as a counter-narrative to it by siding with the Christians views in the story, which he contends is a more likely source given the context of the passages appearing in passages criticizing the Medinan Jews' beliefs - with the motifs and counter motifs highlighted in the main article sub-section.

Canonical Christian Scriptures

The doctrine of Jesus' escape from the crucifixion starkly contrasts with all of the writings of Paul the apostle, as well as the canonical gospels, which along with the testimony of some Roman historians such as Tacitus and Josephus constitute our earliest testimony on the life of Jesus. The aforementioned Roman historians agree with the gospels that Jesus was executed by the Roman state, and modern historians tend to rate the reality of the crucifixion as the single most certainly true aspect of the gospels.

Gospels

Acts of the Apostles

The Return of Isa

Muslim apocalyptic literature says that Jesus will return as a Muslim and will break the cross (destroy Christianity), kill swine (This may be a reference to the destruction of the Jews, as the Qur'an says Jews were once turned into apes and pigs[14]), and advance the cause of Islam. He will also abolish the jizyah, which will leave Jews and Christians with only two options, to convert to Islam or face execution and enslavement. Verse 9:29 calls for the subduing of Jews and Christians.

Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.
Quran 9:29

Quran

When (Jesus) the son of Mary is held up as an example, behold, thy people raise a clamour threat (in ridicule)! And they say, "Are our gods best, or he?" This they set forth to thee, only by way of disputation: yea, they are a contentious people. He was no more than a servant: We granted Our favour to him, and We made him an example to the Children of Israel. And if it were Our Will, We could make angels from amongst you, succeeding each other on the earth. And (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment): therefore have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow ye Me: this is a Straight Way. Let not the Evil One hinder you: for he is to you an enemy avowed. When Jesus came with Clear Signs, he said: "Now have I come to you with Wisdom, and in order to make clear to you some of the (points) on which ye dispute: therefore fear Allah and obey me. "For Allah, He is my Lord and your Lord: so worship ye Him: this is a Straight Way."
Quran 43:57-64 (Yusufali), see also Quran 4:159

Hadith

Islam carries over its apocalyptic tradition from Christianity. As such the hadith teaches that Jesus will come back to fight for Islam.

Narrated AbuHurayrah: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: There is no prophet between me and him, that is, Jesus (peace be upon him). He will descent (to the earth). When you see him, recognise him: a man of medium height, reddish fair, wearing two light yellow garments, looking as if drops were falling down from his head though it will not be wet. He will fight the people for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill swine, and abolish jizyah. Allah will perish all religions except Islam. He will destroy the Antichrist and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will die. The Muslims will pray over him.
Sunan Abu Dawud 37:4310
Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, “By Him in Whose Hands my soul is, surely (Jesus,) the son of Mary will soon descend amongst you and will judge mankind justly (as a Just Ruler); he will break the Cross and kill the pigs and there will be no Jizya (i.e. taxation taken from non Muslims). Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it, and a single prostration to Allah (in prayer) will be better than the whole world and whatever is in it.” Abu Huraira added “If you wish, you can recite (this verse of the Holy Book): — ‘And there is none Of the people of the Scriptures (Jews and Christians) But must believe in him (i.e Jesus as an Apostle of Allah and a human being) Before his death. And on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness Against them.” (4.159) (See Fateh Al Bari, Page 302 Vol 7)
Sahih Bukhari 4:55:657

As in Christian apocalyptic literature, on judgment day Jesus will judge the people by the words of the Qur'an.

Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said “How will you be when the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you and he will judge people by the Law of the Quran and not by the law of Gospel (Fateh-ul Bari page 304 and 305 Vol 7)
Sahih Bukhari 4:55:658

It is further worth noting that the life and purpose of Jesus as outlined in the Islamic scriptures differs a great deal from the narrative presented regarding Jesus in Christian scriptures.

See Also

  • Jesus - A hub page that leads to other articles related to Jesus

External Links

References

  1. ↑ Nickel, Gordon D. “Jesus in the Qur'an.” pp. 289. The Wiley Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an, Second Edition, 2017, pp. 288–302.
  2. ↑ Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 6.2 Christology (p. 315 - 325). Lexington Books. 2018.
  3. ↑ 1 Samuel 10. Saul Anointed King. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com
  4. ↑ 1 Samuel 16:1-13. Samuel Anoints David. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com
  5. ↑ Exodus 28:41. Other Priestly Garments. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com
  6. ↑ Exodus 29:36. Other Priestly Garments. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com
  7. ↑ 2 Samuel 7:12-16. Samuel Anoints David. English Standard Version. Biblegateway.com
  8. ↑ Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. 6.2 Christology (p. 321). Lexington Books. 2018.
  9. ↑ Ibid. pp 320.
  10. ↑ Ibid. pp 321-322.
  11. ↑ Ehrman, Bart D. (2003) The Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make It into the New Testament. (p. 78). Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Most scholars have dated this gnostic treatis [The Coptic Apocalypse of Peter] to the third century."
  12. ↑ Ehrman, Bart D. (2003) The Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make It into the New Testament. (p. 82). Oxford: Oxford University Press. "This book [The Second Treatise of the Great Seth], which was discovered at Nag Hammadi (see page 19), probably dates from the third century."
  13. ↑ Sean W. Anthony; The Early Aramaic Toledot Yeshu and the End of Jesus’s Earthly Mission in the Qur’an. Studies in Late Antiquity 1 May 2025; 9 (2): 151–185. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/sla.2025.9.2.151
  14. ↑ Quran 5:60
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