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<metadesc>Qur'anists are a small group who reject the hadith and sunnah, a critical component of Islam. They are rejected as apostates by mainstream Muslims.</metadesc>
<metadesc>Qur'anists are a small group who reject the hadith and sunnah, a critical component of Islam. They are rejected as apostates by mainstream Muslims.</metadesc>
==Qur'an only Islam==


Within [[Islam]] the two largest sects are the [[Sunni]]s (up to 90%)<ref name="rl"></ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam Islām] - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite Sunnite] - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref><ref name="pew">[http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population] - Pew Research Center, October 7, 2009</ref><ref name="pew2">Tracy Miller - [http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population] - Pew Research Center, October 2009</ref> and [[Shiites|Shi'ite]]s (approximately 10-20%).<ref name="rl">[http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm Comparison of Sunni and Shia Islam] - ReligionFacts</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite Shīʿite] - Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010)</ref><ref name="pew"></ref><ref name="pew2"></ref> Together they make up almost the entirety of Islam. However, there is a small heretical group who are collectively known as "Qur'anists" (also referred to as ''Quraniyoon'', ''Ahle Quran'', or ''hadith rejectors''). They reject the [[Hadith]] (oral traditions) and the [[Sunnah]] (example) of [[Muhammad]], an integral part of Islam, and are viewed by mainstream Islam in much the same way as the Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed by mainstream Christianity (i.e. Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox etc).  
Within [[Islam]] the two largest sects are the [[Sunni]]s (up to 90%)<ref name="rl"></ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam Islām] - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite Sunnite] - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref><ref name="pew">[http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population] - Pew Research Center, October 7, 2009</ref><ref name="pew2">Tracy Miller - [http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population] - Pew Research Center, October 2009</ref> and [[Shiites|Shi'ite]]s (approximately 10-20%).<ref name="rl">[http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm Comparison of Sunni and Shia Islam] - ReligionFacts</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite Shīʿite] - Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010)</ref><ref name="pew"></ref><ref name="pew2"></ref> Together they constitute the vast majority of Muslims in the world today. However, there is a small but growing group, considered heretics by the others, who are collectively known as "Qur'anists" (also referred to as ''Quraniyoon'', ''Ahl al Quran'', or by their critics, ''hadith rejectors''). They reject the [[Hadith]] (oral traditions) and the [[Sunnah]] (example) of [[Muhammad]], an integral part of traditional Islam, and are viewed by the mainstream Islamic thought in much the same way as the Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed by mainstream Christianity (i.e. Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox etc). Their views have some similarities with those of ''modernist'' or ''progressive'' Muslims, who do not reject hadiths entirely, but draw on modern academic scholarship in taking a historical-critical view of the hadith corpus as well as skepticism towards traditional interpretations and jurisprudence.


===Rejected as Apostates===
===Rejected as Apostates===
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The Grand Mufti of Pakistan {{wp|Muhammad Rafi Usmani}} has also criticised Qur'anists in his lecture Munkareen Hadith (refuters of Hadith); he states:
The Grand Mufti of Pakistan {{wp|Muhammad Rafi Usmani}} has also criticised Qur'anists in his lecture Munkareen Hadith (refuters of Hadith); he states:


{{Quote||The Qur’aan, which they claim to follow, denies the faith of the one who refuses to obey the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and does not accept his ruling: “But no, by your Lord, they can have no Faith, until they make you (O Muhammad) judge in all disputes between them, and find in themselves no resistance against your decisions, and accept (them) with full submission.” [al-Nisa’ 4:65 – interpretation of the meaning]}}
{{Quote||The Qur’aan, which they claim to follow, denies the faith of the one who refuses to obey the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and does not accept his ruling: “But no, by your Lord, they can have no Faith, until they make you (O Muhammad) judge in all disputes between them, and find in themselves no resistance against your decisions, and accept (them) with full submission.” [al-Nisa’ 4:65 – interpretation of the meaning]}}[https://lote.org.uk/sh-nooruddeen-rashid/ Shaykh Noorud-deen Rashid] of the Lote Tree Foundation in the United Kingdom, answering on the islamanswers.co.uk website question "Are Hadith rejectors (Quranists) Kafir?" (22.04.24) ''Yes, Hadith rejectors (Quranists) are Kafir. People who reject the entirety of the Sunnah are Kafir. As opposed to those who reject individual Sahih Hadith. People who reject all Hadith have clearly opposed Quran, Hadith and the consensus of credible Muslim scholars (Ijma).''<ref>[https://islamanswers.co.uk/question/are-hadith-rejectors-quranists-kafir/ Are Hadith rejectors (Quranists) Kafir?] Islam Answers</ref>


==Problems with Quranism==
==Challenges for the Quranist View of Islam==


A major problem with the Quranist understanding of Islam is the central place that the Messenger, Muhammad, plays in the Qu'ran. The [[Qur'an]] alleges that it is entirely composed of [[Allah]]’s commands, not Muhammad’s, yet the Qur'an itself orders Muslims to obey the Messenger.  
A major problem with the Quranist understanding of Islam is the central place that the Messenger, Muhammad, plays in the Qu'ran. The [[Qur'an]] alleges that it is entirely composed of [[Allah]]’s commands, not Muhammad’s, yet the Qur'an itself orders Muslims to obey the Messenger.  
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{{Quote|{{Quran|4|80}}|'''He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah''': But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|80}}|'''He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah''': But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).}}


This verse somewhat begs the question of what, exactly, it is that the Messenger commands, since the Qur'anists themselves subscribe to the idea that the Qur'an is the word of [[Allah (God)]] himself and not just Muhammad's inspired word. The Qur’an also commands Muslims to follow the Messenger’s example, yet the only place this example is established is in the Sunnah. Without the Hadith, one cannot know Muhammad. Without knowing Muhammad, there is no [[Uswa Hasana]]. Doubting the hadith thus opens up multiple lines of doubt about entirety of Islam. If one rejects the hadiths, that in-turn rejects Islam as a system by going against the orders of the Qur'an and, in the eyes of most Muslims, renders the rejecter an apostate/murtad/kafir (whichever may apply). Ultimately, to remain faithful to Allah and the Qur'an in the traditional sense, there is no alternative to the Sunnah of the prophet as embodied in the hadith.
This begs the question of what, exactly, it is that the Messenger commands, since the Qur'anists themselves subscribe to the idea that the Qur'an is the word of [[Allah (God)]] himself and not just Muhammad's inspired word. The Qur’an also commands Muslims to follow the Messenger’s example, yet the only place this example is established is in the Sunnah. Without the Hadith (and Sirah, which is viewed with even more circumspection), one cannot know much of Muhammad. Without knowing Muhammad, there is no [[Uswa Hasana]]. Doubting the hadith thus opens up multiple lines of doubt about entirety of Islam as now practiced in most places. If one rejects the hadiths, that in-turn rejects Islam as a system by going against the orders of the Qur'an and, in the eyes of most Muslims, renders the rejecter an apostate/murtad/kafir. Ultimately, to remain faithful to Allah and the Qur'an in the traditional sense, there is no alternative to the Sunnah of the prophet as embodied in the hadith.


Islam means [[The Meaning of Islam|submission]] (contrary to popular belief that it means ''peace''), and more specifically it means ''submission to the will of Allah.'' Qur'an-only Muslims believe that the Qur'an clearly defines what exactly Allah's will is. But the case is not so clear.
Islam linguistically means [[The Meaning of Islam|submission]] (contrary to popular belief that it means ''peace''), and more specifically ''submission to the will of Allah.'' Qur'an-only Muslims believe that the Qur'an clearly defines what exactly Allah's will is, but this view is not without its problems.


For one thing, the Qur'an is full of [[Contradictions in the Quran|contradictory verses]] and commands; sometimes commanding believers to seek out and kill pagans ({{Quran|9|5}}), other times commanding Muslims to leave pagans to practice their polytheistic religions in peace ({{Quran|109|1-6}}). Without the Hadith and the Sirah to give context to the [[Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran)]] , the doctrine of [[Abrogation (Naskh)|Abrogation]] becomes untenable as there exists no clear timeline of which verses were revealed at which time and the Qur'an itself provides little to no evidence in this regard. The pacifist can decide to take from it a peaceful message by deliberately ignoring or twisting violent verses whereas the sadist can easily interpret a violent message by focusing on such verses as are found in Surah 9.  Both Muslims could be selectively justified by the Qur'an because of its contradictory messages from [[Chronological_Order_of_the_Qur'an|Muhammad-in-Mecca versus Muhammad-in-Medina]].
The Qur'an is full of [[Contradictions in the Quran|contradictory verses]] and commands; sometimes commanding believers to seek out and kill pagans ({{Quran|9|5}}), other times commanding Muslims to leave pagans to practice their polytheistic religions in peace ({{Quran|109|1-6}}). Without the Hadith and the Sirah to give context to the [[Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran)]] , the doctrine of [[Abrogation (Naskh)|Abrogation]] becomes untenable as there exists no clear timeline of which verses were revealed at which time and the Qur'an itself provides little to no evidence in this regard. Both the pacifist and the belicose could find various proof texts for their preferred approach to the faith in the Quran.  The stark differences of [[Chronological_Order_of_the_Qur'an|Muhammad-in-Mecca versus Muhammad-in-Medina]] would provide both with ample proof-texts.


If one rejects the Hadith (ie. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud), the Tafsir (e.g. Ibn Kathir, Ibn Abbas, al-Jalalayn, Maududi), and the History (ie. al-Tabari, Ibn Sa'd, al-Waqidi, Ibn Ishaq), then the entire historical context of the Qur'an, along with proof of Muhammad's existence is lost. It simply becomes an ancient Arabic document of partially incoherent, repetitive, and often-times confusing statements and commands. The reader is left with such questions as: "Who wrote this and why?" and "Who is Abu Lahab, and why are he and his wife going to be tortured?" and "Why don't these stories match the ones found in the Bible?" and "Who is [[Isa|'Isa]]?".  
If one rejects the Hadith (ie. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud), the Tafsir (e.g. Ibn Kathir, Ibn Abbas, al-Jalalayn, Maududi), and the History (ie. al-Tabari, Ibn Sa'd, al-Waqidi, Ibn Ishaq), then the entire historical context of the Qur'an Muslims usually use to understand the Qur'an is lost. Its explanatory power as a religious scripture is heavily diminished, as the suwar (chapters) of the Quran lack key elements of narrative, structure, and context to help the modern reader understand what they are talking about. The reader is left with such questions as: "Who is Abu Lahab, and why are he and his wife going to be tortured?" and "Why don't these stories match the ones found in the Bible?" and "Who is [[Isa|'Isa]]?" and many others which are not possible to discern from the text itself.  


The often-levelled charge by the Qur'an-only sects that "Sunni's and Shi'ite's are following a deviant form of Islam by introducing these man-made books," is also questionable, considering most of the narrators of hadith are the very same people who passed down the Qur'an itself. The first Muslims ([[Sahabah]]- companions of Muhammad, which include all four [[Caliph|Rightly Guided Caliphs]]) who partook in the Hijra to [[Medina]], ''were not'' Qur'an-only Muslims as far as we can tell, nor the generation of Muslims that followed the death of Muhammad (the [[Tabi'un]]). As far back as the Rashidun Caliphs, the idea of "Sunnah" was salient although this idea changed rapidly in the first centuries of Islam. Recording and sorting through these narrations in written form was to codify and clarify already existing beliefs - though admittedly much later than the time of Muhammad, with the majority of compilations recorded in the 9th century (for a history on this, see the Britannica entry on [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadith Hadith]), leading to many [[Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Daif (Weak) Hadiths|Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Da'if (Weak) Hadiths]] being recorded.  
Quranists often say "Sunni's and Shi'ite's are following a deviant form of Islam by introducing these man-made books," but the [[Textual History of the Qur'an]] shows that many of the same transmitters who transmitted hadith also transmitted the Quran before it was first written down, at least according to the Muslim histories. The first Muslims ([[Sahabah]]- companions of Muhammad, which include all four [[Caliph|Rightly Guided Caliphs]]) who partook in the Hijra to [[Medina]], ''were not'' Qur'an-only Muslims as far as we can tell, nor the generation of Muslims that followed the death of Muhammad (the [[Tabi'un]]). As far back as the Rashidun Caliphs, the idea of "Sunnah" was salient although this idea changed rapidly in the first centuries of Islam. Recording and sorting through these narrations in written form was to codify and clarify already existing beliefs - though admittedly much later than the time of Muhammad, with the majority of compilations recorded in the 9th century (for a history on this, see the Britannica entry on [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadith Hadith]), leading to many [[Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Daif (Weak) Hadiths|Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Da'if (Weak) Hadiths]] being recorded.  


It can be argued that Qur'an only Muslims often reject the Hadith, a fundamental aspect of mainstream Islam, simply due to it preserving the norms of the early Islamic community which are in flagrant contradiction to modern, liberal mores around consent, sexuality, freedom of belief, and human rights. They may deny this as the reason behind their rejection of Hadith, but this appears to fit the idea by many Quranists who accept Hadith essentially as a historical source for the emergence of Islam but dismiss it as a religious or law-giving one. Critics argue this approach is logically unfeasible - either the Hadith are a valid source of information for Muslims, or they are not. One should not be able to pick and choose which bits to keep and which bits to ignore when the 'good' and the 'bad' all originate from the same sources.  
It can be argued that Qur'an only Muslims often reject the Hadith, a fundamental aspect of mainstream Islam, simply due to it preserving the norms of the early Islamic community which are in flagrant contradiction to modern, liberal mores around consent, sexuality, freedom of belief, and human rights. They may deny this as the reason behind their rejection of Hadith, but this appears to fit the idea by many Quranists who accept Hadith essentially as a historical source for the emergence of Islam but dismiss it as a religious or law-giving one. Critics argue this approach is logically unfeasible - either the Hadith are a valid source of information for Muslims, or they are not. One should not be able to pick and choose which bits to keep and which bits to ignore when the 'good' and the 'bad' all originate from the same sources.  
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This verse asks Muslims to follow everything Mohammad gives them, and abstain from everything he forbids. That means they are commanded by Allah to follow the Sunnah.
This verse asks Muslims to follow everything Mohammad gives them, and abstain from everything he forbids. That means they are commanded by Allah to follow the Sunnah.


The following verse also describes him as “a good exemplar (uswatun ḥasanatun) for those who place their hope on God and the Last Day and invoke God often”, suggesting followers emulate him in general,<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. “''[https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:34ef078e-0bb9-422e-8fd7-a42c8d1bdf1b/files/m73f645bb4eda180c5d419565b2b19ce0 Muhammad as an Episcopal Figure.]''” Arabica, vol. 65, no. 1-2, Brill Academic Publishers, 2018, pp. 1–30. ''PP13.''
The following verse also describes him as “a good exemplar" (uswatun ḥasanatun) for those who place their hope on God and the Last Day and invoke God often”, suggesting followers emulate him in general,<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. “''[https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:34ef078e-0bb9-422e-8fd7-a42c8d1bdf1b/files/m73f645bb4eda180c5d419565b2b19ce0 Muhammad as an Episcopal Figure.]''” Arabica, vol. 65, no. 1-2, Brill Academic Publishers, 2018, pp. 1–30. ''PP13.''


https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341480</ref> which is of course impossible to do without his personal traits and actions (which rarely alluded to in the Qur'an alone) being recorded as extra-Qur'anic traditions.
https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341480</ref> which is of course impossible to do without his personal traits and actions (which rarely alluded to in the Qur'an alone) being recorded as extra-Qur'anic traditions.
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==== The Sahabah / Companions of the prophet ====
==== The Sahabah / Companions of the prophet ====
Alongside instructions to obey Muhammad, we see his followers are also to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity<ref>''al-ʿālamūn pl. | the world-dwellers Entry.'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 526). Princeton University Press.
Alongside instructions to obey Muhammad, his followers are also to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity<ref>''al-ʿālamūn pl. | the world-dwellers Entry.'' Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 526). Princeton University Press.


''Instead, it is preferable to understand the assumed universal role of Muhammad and his followers in line with Q 2:143, 22:78, and 3:110: the Qur’anic believers are to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity, as “the best community ever brought forth for people, enjoining right and dissuading from wrong” (Q 3:110: kuntum khayra ummatin ukhrijat li-l-nāsi taʾmurūna bi-l-maʿrūfi wa-tanhawna ʿani l-munkari), and as a “middle” or “intermediate” community (ummah wasaṭ) who will be “witnesses” over the remainder of humankind, just as the Qur’anic Messenger functions as a “witness” (shahīd) over the Qur’anic believers (Q 2:143, similarly 22:78).'' </ref> in the Qur'an, giving way to mawqūf hadith, i.e. hadith from the companions of Muhammad / aṣ-ṣaḥābah,<ref>[https://muftiwp.gov.my/en/artikel/irsyad-al-hadith/1114-irsyad-al-hadith-series-76-mawquf-hadith ''IRSYAD AL-HADITH SERIES 76: MAWQUF(الموقوف) HADITH'']''.'' MUHAMMAD MUSHFIQUE BIN AHMAD AYOUP. 2016. Mufti of Federal Territories Office.</ref> often referred to as 'The Sahabah' (where the isnad does not go all the way to Muhammad directly). As recordings of this are needed for future generations to know what the community was doing at the time.
''Instead, it is preferable to understand the assumed universal role of Muhammad and his followers in line with Q 2:143, 22:78, and 3:110: the Qur’anic believers are to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity, as “the best community ever brought forth for people, enjoining right and dissuading from wrong” (Q 3:110: kuntum khayra ummatin ukhrijat li-l-nāsi taʾmurūna bi-l-maʿrūfi wa-tanhawna ʿani l-munkari), and as a “middle” or “intermediate” community (ummah wasaṭ) who will be “witnesses” over the remainder of humankind, just as the Qur’anic Messenger functions as a “witness” (shahīd) over the Qur’anic believers (Q 2:143, similarly 22:78).'' </ref> in the Qur'an, giving way to mawqūf hadith, i.e. hadith from the companions of Muhammad / aṣ-ṣaḥābah,<ref>[https://muftiwp.gov.my/en/artikel/irsyad-al-hadith/1114-irsyad-al-hadith-series-76-mawquf-hadith ''IRSYAD AL-HADITH SERIES 76: MAWQUF(الموقوف) HADITH'']''.'' MUHAMMAD MUSHFIQUE BIN AHMAD AYOUP. 2016. Mufti of Federal Territories Office.</ref> often referred to as 'The Sahabah' (where the isnad does not go all the way to Muhammad directly). As recordings of this are needed for future generations to know what the community was doing at the time.
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==Five Pillars of Islam==
==Five Pillars of Islam==
The concept "[[Five Pillars of Islam|5 pillars in Islam]]" is practiced and preached widely in the Muslim world and is a crucial part of the Muslim way of life. Yet this concept is not described or defined in the Qur'an in any way. It is only found in the hadith. Looking at the pillars individually, four out of five of Islam’s Pillars would not make any sense without the Hadith, therefore making Islam impossible to practice.
The concept "[[Five Pillars of Islam|5 pillars in Islam]]" is practiced and preached widely in the Muslim world and is a crucial part of the Muslim way of life. Yet this concept is not described or defined in the Qur'an in any way. It is only found in the hadith. Looking at the pillars individually, four out of five of Islam’s Pillars find their basis in the Hadith, and do not come (explicitly) from the Quran.


===Shahadah===
===Shahadah===


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|7}}|Allah’s Apostle said: “Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):  
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||8|darussalam}}|Allah’s Apostle said: “Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):  
<BR>1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle.”}}
<BR>1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle.”}}


These are Muhammad's words and are not found within the Qur'an. Therefore, Islam’s First Pillar is without basis in the absence of the works of Muslim historians Ibn Ishaq (704-770 AD) and al-Tabari (838-923 AD). If there is no definition as to what the [[Shahadah]] should be (or indeed if there is one at all), it can be any arbitrary phrase in any language (or not be carried out at all). In fact there are at-least three different shahadahs used by various Qur'anist sects.
These are Muhammad's words and are not found within the Qur'an, being found in the works of Muslim historians Ibn Ishaq (704-770 AD) and al-Tabari (838-923 AD). Without these sources, the [[Shahadah]] as it is commonly known does not exist. Due to this there are at-least three different shahadahs used by various Qur'anist sects.


===Salah===
===Salah===


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|7}}|“2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly.”}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||8|darussalam}}|“2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly.”}}


Once again, the Qur'an does not provide all of the needed guidance. The “compulsory congregational [[Salah|prayer]]” is not described in the Qur’an at all. In fact, the Qur’an number of prayers could be interpreted several ways (Qur'anists do not even agree upon the number of daily prayers that should be offered. The various number of prayers should be offered are 0, 2, 3 or 5),<ref>''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranism#:~:text=Some%20Quranists%20pray%20five%20times,Isra'%20and%20Mi'raj. Quranism.]'' Wikipedia. Accessed 02/02/24.</ref> and none of which depict exactly how to pray, while the hadith clarify five. The only explanation of the obligatory prostration is found in the Sunnah, i.e. Muslims are performing a ritual without Qur’anic precedence. Also in the prayer itself, certain Arabic recitations and verses are recited. The Qur'an does not give specifications for these recitations so unless one follows hadiths and traditions, the recitations can be anything for a Qur'anist.
The Qur'an does not provide the guidance for the well-known 5 prayers practiced by Muslims today. The “compulsory congregational [[Salah|prayer]]” is not described in the Qur’an at all. In fact, the Qur’an number of prayers could be interpreted several ways (Qur'anists do not even agree upon the number of daily prayers that should be offered. The various number of prayers should be offered are 0, 2, 3 or 5),<ref>''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranism#:~:text=Some%20Quranists%20pray%20five%20times,Isra'%20and%20Mi'raj. Quranism.]'' Wikipedia. Accessed 02/02/24.</ref>, with no clarification on how to pray.  The hadith, meanwhile, specify five daily prayers. The only explanation of the obligatory prostration is found in the Sunnah, i.e. Muslims are performing a ritual without Qur’anic precedence. Also in the prayer itself, certain Arabic recitations and verses are recited. The Qur'an does not give specifications for these recitations so again this is only found in the Hadith.  


===Zakat===
===Zakat===


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|7}}|“3. To pay Zakat.”}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||8|darussalam}}|“3. To pay Zakat.”}}


The terms of the [[Zakat]] are omitted from the Qur’an. The first to commit them to paper was Ishaq. A century later than that, Tabari referenced Ishaq’s Hadith. This practice is without basis in the Qur'an by itself.  
The terms of the [[Zakat]] are omitted from the Qur’an. The first to commit them to paper was Ishaq. A century later than that, Tabari referenced Ishaq’s Hadith. This practice is without basis in the Qur'an by itself.  
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===Hajj===
===Hajj===


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|7}}|“4. To perform Hajj.”}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||8|darussalam}}|“4. To perform Hajj.”}}


This is also missing instructions, as well as the purpose for the rituals described in the Quran.<ref>''Muhammad'' (Past Masters) Michael Cook. 1996 (Revision of 1983 original) 9780192876058 (ISBN10: 0192876058). (Kindle Locations 469-487). Kindle Edition. </ref> The only full explanations of the [[Hajj]] are found in the Sunnah. No aspect of the pilgrimage can be performed without referencing the Hadith. Muslims would not have this ritual without the Sunnah.  
The instructions for and purpose of this ritual are not found in the Qur'an.<ref>''Muhammad'' (Past Masters) Michael Cook. 1996 (Revision of 1983 original) 9780192876058 (ISBN10: 0192876058). (Kindle Locations 469-487). Kindle Edition. </ref> The only full explanations of the [[Hajj]] are found in the Sunnah. No aspect of the pilgrimage can be performed without referencing the Hadith. Muslims would not have this ritual without the Sunnah.  


===Sawm===
===Sawm===


{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|2|7}}|“5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.”}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||8|darussalam}}|“5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.”}}


[[Sawm]], the final pillar of Islam is also not described in the Qur'an, the “perfect, detailed, and final revelation to mankind”. Though the Qur'an describes the fast, without the Hadith, Muslims wouldn’t know why they are fasting. The accounts of the meaning of Ramadan are in the Traditions, initially chronicled by Ibn Ishaq and then copied by the hadith compliers such as Bukhari, Muslim etc. and historians/exegetes like Al-Tabari.
[[Sawm]], the final pillar of Islam is also not described in detail in the Qur'an. Though the Qur'an describes and commands fasting, without the Hadith, the reason for the Ramadan fast would not be known. The accounts of the meaning of Ramadan are in the Sunnah, initially chronicled by Ibn Ishaq and then copied by the hadith compliers such as Bukhari, Muslim etc. and historians/exegetes like Al-Tabari.
 
Strangely, the one pillar that is actually described in the most detail in the Qur'an, is actually a borrowed [[Pagan Origins of Islam|pagan]] ritual Qusayy invented pre-dating Muhammad's Islam. Qusayy's family took a cut on merchandise sold during the “truce of the gods” fairs of Ramadan.


== Islamic Law ==
== Islamic Law ==
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=== Sunni-Shia Split ===
=== Sunni-Shia Split ===
There is nothing mentioned about how religious leaders are rightfully meant to be chosen, nor how religious laws are meant to be administered. With no direct instructions for a successor, or how to chose one (or them) in the Quran, there was a civil war almost immediately after Muhammad's death - which according to traditional accounts lead to the Sunni-Shia split. A quick summary of this can be read in this history.com [https://www.history.com/news/sunni-shia-divide-islam-muslim article].  
There is no mention of how religious or community leaders are rightfully meant to be chosen, nor how religious laws are meant to be administered in the Qur'an. With no direct instructions for a successor, or how to chose one (or multiple) in the Quran, there was a civil war almost immediately after Muhammad's death - which according to traditional accounts contributed to the Sunni-Shi'a split.  


There is no actual direct concept of a political caliph (khilafah) in the Quran, which is central to both of the two most widespread branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi'i Islam. One can see all the ways this word is used on Quran Corpus [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=xlf here] in the 'noun' sections, denoting general successors rather than the political leader of the Muslim community. In fact the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad’s death.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/caliph Caliph Entry]'' | Definition & History | Britannica | Professor Asma Afsaruddin</ref>  
There is no actual direct concept of a political caliph (khilafah) in the Quran, which is central to both of the two most widespread branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi'i Islam. One can see all the ways this word is used on Quran Corpus [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=xlf here] in the 'noun' sections, denoting general successors rather than the political leader of the Muslim community. In fact the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad’s death.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/caliph Caliph Entry]'' | Definition & History | Britannica | Professor Asma Afsaruddin</ref>  
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== Other issues ==
== Other issues ==


=== '''Characters in the Quran''' ===
===Characters in the Quran===
There are also characters supposedly contemporary to Muhammad such as [[Abu Lahab]] ({{Quran|111|1}} (and his wife {{Quran|111|4}})) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Haritha_al-Kalbi Zayd] ({{Quran|33|37}}), who have no equivalents in biblical literature to refer to, that are named but not introduced formally - so the meaning of the verses and who they are is highly obscure (if not impossible to understand fully) without secondary literature.
The Quran also refers to contempories to Muhammad such as [[Abu Lahab]] ({{Quran|111|1}} (and his wife {{Quran|111|4}})) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Haritha_al-Kalbi Zayd] ({{Quran|33|37}}), who are not mentioned at all in the Bible - so the meaning of the verses and who they are referring to is highly obscure (if not impossible to understand fully) without the Sunnah and sirah.  


=== Abrogation ===
=== Abrogation ===
Scholars of Islam developed the principle of [[Naskh (Abrogation)]] which is used to reconcile seemingly contradictory commandments ''(e.g. see: [[List of Abrogations in the Qur'an]])'' in the Quran. This is where an earlier verse is 'abrogated' by new verses, and becomes no longer valid as the latest verse now applies.
Scholars of Islam developed the principle of [[Naskh (Abrogation)]] which is used to reconcile seemingly contradictory commandments ''(e.g. see: [[List of Abrogations in the Qur'an]])'' in the Quran. In this is "later" verses can abrogate or cancel out "earlier verses" if the "earlier" verse contradicts the "later" verse.


The main issue specifically for Quranists is that the Quran itself does not come in [[:en:Chronological_Order_of_the_Qur'an|chronological order]] of the time of revelation, but mostly follows a pattern of longer Surahs at the beginning getting shorter as one goes through the book. Only by using extra-Quranic material from traditions is it possible to come up with an order to know which ruling would abrogate which.
This issue arises for Quranists since the Quran itself is not arranged in [[:en:Chronological_Order_of_the_Qur'an|chronological order]] of the time of revelation, but mostly follows a pattern of longer Surahs at the beginning getting shorter ones towards the end of the book. Only by using extra-Quranic material from traditions is it possible to come up with an order to know which ruling would abrogate which.


For example, many classical Islamic scholars (such as Ibn Kathir)<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/4.15 ''Ibn Kathir Tafsir on Verse 4:15.''] Ibn Kathir d.1373</ref> believe that the verse commanding women to be confined to house arrest until death for a vague 'lewdness' (l-fāḥishata) charge:
For example, many classical Islamic scholars (such as Ibn Kathir)<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/4.15 ''Ibn Kathir Tafsir on Verse 4:15.''] Ibn Kathir d.1373</ref> believe that the verse commanding women to be confined to house arrest until death for a vague 'lewdness' (l-fāḥishata) charge:
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Was then abrogated by a newly mentioned punishment for adultery:
Was then abrogated by a newly mentioned punishment for adultery:
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|2}}|The [unmarried] woman or [unmarried] man found guilty of sexual intercourse - lash each one of them with a hundred lashes, and do not be taken by pity for them in the religion of Allah, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|2}}|The [unmarried] woman or [unmarried] man found guilty of sexual intercourse - lash each one of them with a hundred lashes, and do not be taken by pity for them in the religion of Allah, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day.}}
But there is no obvious way to reconcile this without the extra traditions.
There is no way to use [[Naskh (Abrogation)]] as it is classically understood to reconcile these two verses without the aide of the sunnah and sirah.  


=== Verses that have no meaning and/or make no sense ===
=== Verses that have no meaning ===
Many verses lack any clear meaning without further context, a few (of many) are given below. For example it is impossible to know what the following verses are talking about by themselves (tafsirs generally link them to angels, though the third verse is sometimes also linked to humans reciting the Quran).<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/37.1 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 31:1].'' Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/37.1 Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 37:1-5]''. Ibn Kathir d 1373.</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|37|1-4}}|“By those ranged in ranks.  
Many verses lack any clear meaning without further context, a few (of many) are given below. By themselves these verses lack the necessary context for complete understanding (tafsirs generally link them to angels, though the third verse is sometimes also linked to humans reciting the Quran).<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/37.1 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 31:1].'' Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/37.1 Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 37:1-5]''. Ibn Kathir d 1373.</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|37|1-4}}|“By those ranged in ranks.  
Then those who drive away with reproof.  
Then those who drive away with reproof.  
And those who recite a reminder.  
And those who recite a reminder.  
Lo! Your Lord is surely One.”}}
Lo! Your Lord is surely One.”}}
Similarly the versus below are often given fanciful/mythological explanations by commentators, far beyond would ever be possible to gather from the Quran itself:<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/52.1 ''Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 52:1-16''.] Ibn Kathir d. 1373.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/52.4 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 52:4.]'' Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.</ref>
Similarly the verses below are often given mythological explanations by commentators, far beyond would ever be possible to gather from the Quran itself:<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/52.1 ''Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 52:1-16''.] Ibn Kathir d. 1373.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/52.4 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 52:4.]'' Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|52|1-4}}|By the mountain,  
{{Quote|{{Quran|52|1-4}}|By the mountain,  
And a book inscribed,  
And a book inscribed,  
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And those who race each other (in) a race,  
And those who race each other (in) a race,  
by those that direct an affair!}}
by those that direct an affair!}}
And.
And again


{{Quote|{{Quran|77|1-4}}|I CALL TO WITNESS those who are sent consecutively,
{{Quote|{{Quran|77|1-4}}|I CALL TO WITNESS those who are sent consecutively,
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And those that distinguish distinctly,}}
And those that distinguish distinctly,}}


And.
And again


{{Quote|{{Quran|51|1-4}}|By oath of those which carry away while dispersing.
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|1-4}}|By oath of those which carry away while dispersing.
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Then by oath of those which distribute by the command.}}
Then by oath of those which distribute by the command.}}


As well as (see the expansive explanation in Tafsir Al-Jalalayn).<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/38.34 ''Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on Verse 34:38.''] Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce)</ref>
As well as this (see the expansive explanation in Tafsir Al-Jalalayn).<ref>[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/38.34 ''Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on Verse 34:38.''] Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce)</ref>


{{Quote|{{Quran|38|34}}|And We certainly tried Solomon and placed on his throne a body; then he returned.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|38|34}}|And We certainly tried Solomon and placed on his throne a body; then he returned.}}


There is no explanation of what the ten nights are.
In the below verse, there is no explanation of what the ten nights are in the Quran.
{{Quote|{{Quran|89|1-3}}|“By the break of dawn, And ten nights, And the even and the odd,}}Nor the four months.
{{Quote|{{Quran|89|1-3}}|“By the break of dawn, And ten nights, And the even and the odd,}}Nor the four months below.
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|36}}|The number of months with God is twelve in accordance with God's law since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are holy.  
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|36}}|The number of months with God is twelve in accordance with God's law since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are holy.  
This is the straight reckoning. So do not exceed yourselves during them; but fight the idolaters to the end as they fight you in like manner; and remember, God is with those Who preserve themselves from evil and do the right.}}
This is the straight reckoning. So do not exceed yourselves during them; but fight the idolaters to the end as they fight you in like manner; and remember, God is with those Who preserve themselves from evil and do the right.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|15|87}}|And We have certainly given you, [O Muhammad], seven of the often repeated [verses] and the great Qur'an.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|15|87}}|And We have certainly given you, [O Muhammad], seven of the often repeated [verses] and the great Qur'an.}}


In Islamic tradition the consensus view is that these seven verses relate to the seven verses of the opening surah al-Fātiha, as to be used as units of every prayer; which nothing in the text itself suggests, and there have been other minority opinions.<ref>See Islamic commentaries for [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.87 ''verse 15:87'']</ref> Interestingly Allah is meant to be the speaker of all verses, so without extra-qur'anic material one would simply be left with a statement of prayer to himself, and no instruction/explanation of the reason for its inclusion (as a ritual prayer).
In Islamic tradition the consensus view is that these seven verses relate to the seven verses of the opening surah al-Fātiha, as to be used as units of every prayer; which nothing in the text itself suggests, and there have been other minority opinions.<ref>See Islamic commentaries for [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.87 ''verse 15:87'']</ref> Interestingly Allah is meant to be the speaker of all verses, so without extra-qur'anic material one would simply be left with a statement of prayer by Allah to Allah, and no instruction/explanation of the reason for its inclusion (as a ritual prayer).


{{Quote|{{Quran|1|1-7}}|1:1 In the name of Allah, the merciful and compassionate
{{Quote|{{Quran|1|1-7}}|1:1 In the name of Allah, the merciful and compassionate
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The same issue occurs with the final two 'prayer' surahs, 113 ({{Quran|113|1-5}}) and 114 ({{Quran|114|1-6}}), although these at least open with the statement 'say' (''qul'' قول')<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2994.pdf قول] - Lane's Lexicon pp. 2294</ref> however there is no context given for why, when and where they are supposed to be said found in the Qur'an.
The same issue occurs with the final two 'prayer' surahs, 113 ({{Quran|113|1-5}}) and 114 ({{Quran|114|1-6}}), although these at least open with the statement 'say' (''qul'' قول')<ref>[https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_2994.pdf قول] - Lane's Lexicon pp. 2294</ref> however there is no context given for why, when and where they are supposed to be said found in the Qur'an.


In fact this happens to many verses throughout the Qur'an, where only later traditions clarify that the whole book is meant to be from Allah, and not just the parts of it that can be gained from reading the Qur'an alone; such as swearing oaths on himself, angels speaking, and the regular (and unnaturally sounding) third person voice.
In fact this happens to many verses throughout the Qur'an, where only later traditions clarify that the whole book is meant to be from Allah, and not just the parts of it that can be gained from reading the Qur'an alone; without this contexts, it would not be clear that verses such as swearing oaths on Allah, angels speaking, and the regular (and unnaturally sounding) third person voice are all meant to be read as coming from Allah himself.  


{{Quote|Bell, Richard., and W. Montgomery. Watt. Introduction to the Quran. Edinburgh, 1977. pp. 66-67|The assumption that God is himself the speaker in every passage, however leads to difficulties. Frequently God is referred to in the third person. It is no doubt allowable for a speaker to refer to himself in the third person occasionally, but the extent to which we find the Prophet apparently being addressed and told about God as a third person, is unusual. It has, in fact, been made a matter of ridicule that in the Quran God is made to swear by himself. That he uses oaths in some of the passages beginning, “I swear (not)…” can hardly be denied [e.g., 75.1, 2; 90.1].…“By thy Lord,” however, is difficult in the mouth of God…. Now there is one passage which everyone acknowledges to be spoken by angels, namely 19.64: “We come not down but by command of thy Lord; to him belongs what is before us and what is behind us and what is between that; nor is thy Lord forgetful, Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is between them; so serve him, and endure patiently in his service; knowest thou to him a namesake?”  
{{Quote|Bell, Richard., and W. Montgomery. Watt. Introduction to the Quran. Edinburgh, 1977. pp. 66-67|The assumption that God is himself the speaker in every passage, however leads to difficulties. Frequently God is referred to in the third person. It is no doubt allowable for a speaker to refer to himself in the third person occasionally, but the extent to which we find the Prophet apparently being addressed and told about God as a third person, is unusual. It has, in fact, been made a matter of ridicule that in the Quran God is made to swear by himself. That he uses oaths in some of the passages beginning, “I swear (not)…” can hardly be denied [e.g., 75.1, 2; 90.1].…“By thy Lord,” however, is difficult in the mouth of God…. Now there is one passage which everyone acknowledges to be spoken by angels, namely 19.64: “We come not down but by command of thy Lord; to him belongs what is before us and what is behind us and what is between that; nor is thy Lord forgetful, Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is between them; so serve him, and endure patiently in his service; knowest thou to him a namesake?”  
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In 37.161-166 it is almost equally clear that angels are the speakers. This, once admitted, may be extended to passages in which it is not so clear. In fact, difficulties in many passages are removed by interpreting the “we” of angels rather than of God himself speaking in the plural of majesty. It is not always easy to distinguish between the two, and nice questions sometimes arise in places where there is a sudden change from God being spoken of in the third person to “we” claiming to do things usually ascribed to God, e.g., 6.99; 25.45.}}
In 37.161-166 it is almost equally clear that angels are the speakers. This, once admitted, may be extended to passages in which it is not so clear. In fact, difficulties in many passages are removed by interpreting the “we” of angels rather than of God himself speaking in the plural of majesty. It is not always easy to distinguish between the two, and nice questions sometimes arise in places where there is a sudden change from God being spoken of in the third person to “we” claiming to do things usually ascribed to God, e.g., 6.99; 25.45.}}


Not mentioned are also verses that seem to be spoken by the jinn in surah 72 (surah al-jinn)<ref>Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion pp. 25. (pp. 116 Kindle Edition). Lexington Books.  
Some verses that seem to be spoken by the jinn in surah 72 (surah al-jinn)<ref>Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion pp. 25. (pp. 116 Kindle Edition). Lexington Books.  


..There are conversations reported between the Messenger and others and between believers and disbelievers, and there are often rapid switches between different conversations. ''There are even conversations where jinn speak to each other (Q72)...''</ref> beginning from verse 8 onwards, which one would not see as coming from Allah without extra-Quranic appeals.Even the whole of Surah 105 (Surah of the Elephant) is left unexplained, which we have to look to traditions and commentaries for the meaning and what it is referring to.<ref>E.g. ''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/105.1 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 105:1.]'' (Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.) summarises the general story.</ref>
..There are conversations reported between the Messenger and others and between believers and disbelievers, and there are often rapid switches between different conversations. ''There are even conversations where jinn speak to each other (Q72)...''</ref> beginning from verse 8 onwards, would not seem to be attributable to Allah without the tradition providing the information that this is the case.Even the whole of Surah 105 (Surah of the Elephant) would be difficult to explain, as the verse refers to Allah in the third person. The meaning of these verses are also very opaque and lacking in context without the tradition.<ref>E.g. ''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/105.1 Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 105:1.]'' (Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.) summarises the general story.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|105|1-5}}|Have you not regarded how your Lord dealt with the army of the elephants?  
{{Quote|{{Quran|105|1-5}}|Have you not regarded how your Lord dealt with the army of the elephants?  
Did He not put their scheme into ruin?  
Did He not put their scheme into ruin?  
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{{Quote|<i>The Prophet’s Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran. pp. 43–44.</i>Archer, George|..yet the fact remains that the early Quran is extraordinarily elliptical; it implies identities but almost never identifies. Consider this brief passage from the famous ninety-sixth sura called either “the Clot” (al-ʿAlaq) or “Recite” (Iqraʾ):
{{Quote|<i>The Prophet’s Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran. pp. 43–44.</i>Archer, George|..yet the fact remains that the early Quran is extraordinarily elliptical; it implies identities but almost never identifies. Consider this brief passage from the famous ninety-sixth sura called either “the Clot” (al-ʿAlaq) or “Recite” (Iqraʾ):


Surely to your Lord is the return. Have you seen the one who forbids a slave when he is praying? (Q 96:8–10)
<i>Surely to your Lord is the return. Have you seen the one who forbids a slave when he is praying? (Q 96:8–10)</i>
 
Imagine we were to read this passage cold, without any previous knowledge of the Quran, Muhammad, or Islam. What are the pronouns telling us? We have “your Lord” (rabbika, using the singular possessive your). Who is the you implied here? The whole audience being spoken of but in the singular? The narrator speaking about himself in the second person? Someone in the audience who already affirms this single God as their own? Is this the same “you” implied by “Have you seen” (araʾayta) in the following verse? Does this mean a particular singular person has literally seen a servant who isn’t allowed to worship freely? Does it mean that the narrator of the Quran has seen this happen? Does it mean generally that one sees this sort of thing happen? Likewise, is “the one who” (alladhī) a particular person, and the audience knows exactly who this is? Is this one in the audience? Did the narrator’s eyes dart toward them when he said this, or toward their house? Or is this a general discussion of a type of person? And then who is the “slave” (ʿabd): a slave of God, so any of God’s servants? Slaves or other lower-class people generally? A certain slave whom everyone in town knows? The narrator himself (now in the third person)? <br> These questions can go on, and most of them can be at least partially resolved using contextual clues and later Quranic commentaries. Indeed, one of the major functions of so much classical Islamic writing—prophetic epic-biographies, anecdotes, and commentary literatures—is to give the Quran context. But we aren’t asking here who is implied by these sorts of pronouns, conjugations, and possessives; we are asking why there are so many ungrounded implications in the first place. The weight and excess of such indeterminate personal or place markers, without names or even much detail, tells us that the Quran in its early manifestations is quite oral. The divine speech is embodied and conversational. A passage like Q 96 makes no sense without contextualization. The Prophet thought this passage was going to be spoken on a particular date and in front of particular people. The context of the passage is thus assumed. Oral performances must do this; pure literature doesn’t (and often can’t). You are reading or hearing this right now. I have no meaningful idea about who you are, and you don’t know where I am writing this passage. But when the Quranic narrator says, “No, I swear by this land and you are a lawful resident in this land,” the listener knows they personally are “you,” can see the “I,” and are standing on the “land.”<sup>8</sup> This kind of speech is entirely situational; it only makes sense in a very precise context.}}
 
==Criticism of hadiths==
Critics wonder why if these secondary texts/examples/revelations, which include the hadith as well as biographies of the prophet, are so important, they could not simply be included in the main holy book to avoid ambiguity and misleading scripture (not to mention schisms in sects across Islam). Especially when the Qur'an is claiming it is the preserved word of God - yet extra secondary revelations are needed to understand it and add to it, with many contradicting each other (see [[Contradictions in the Hadith]] and further examples from a Muslim website [https://www.mohammedamin.com/Community_issues/How-reliable-are-hadith.html here]) as well as the Qur'an itself (as this Islamic [http://astudyofquran.org/wp/10-the-implications-of-hadith-for-islam/10-3-ways-the-hadith-contradicts-the-quran/ website] shows), not to mention science ([[Scientific Errors in the Hadith]]) and common sense (see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Remarkable and Strange Islamic Traditions]]).
 
The entire method of verifying isnads<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/isnad</ref> (a chain of narrators leading back to the prophet or his companions), and therefore the hadith, as being classed as authentic, good, weak or fabricated is also never mentioned in the Qur'an. These tell the reader whether they should be followed or not, so are of utter importance to the religion. However as Britannica notes, these are also a non-contemporary (to Muhammad or early companion's of his) invention:{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/isnad |title=Britannica entry on 'Isnads'}}|During Muhammad’s lifetime and after his death, hadiths were usually quoted by his Companions and contemporaries and were not prefaced by isnāds; only after a generation or two (c. 700 CE) did the isnād appear to enhance the weight of its text. In the 2nd century AH (after 720 CE), when the example of the Prophet as embodied in hadiths—rather than local custom as developed in Muslim communities—was established as the norm (sunnah) for an Islamic way of life, a wholesale creation of hadiths, all “substantiated” by elaborate isnāds, resulted. Since hadiths were the basis of virtually all Islamic scholarship, especially Qurʾānic exegesis (tafsīr) and legal theory (fiqh), Muslim scholars had to determine scientifically which of them were authentic. This was done by a careful scrutiny of the isnāds, rating each hadith according to the completeness of its chain of transmitters and the reliability and orthodoxy of its authorities.}}This has resulted in many different large collections across different books, which examining them all and personally scrutinising these chains being such an enormous task, it is usually simply left to scholars to issue rulings on matters, rather than a personal reading.
{{Quote|{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/isnad |title= Britannica entry on 'ʿilm al-ḥadīth'}}|Many scholars produced collections of hadiths, the earliest compilation being the great Musnad of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, arranged by isnād. But only six collections, known as al-kutub al-sittah (“the six books”), arranged by matn—those of al-Bukhārī (died 870), Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (died 875), Abū Dāʾūd (died 888), al-Tirmidhī (died 892), Ibn Mājāh (died 886), and al-Nasāʾī (died 915)—came to be recognized as canonical in orthodox Islam, though the books of al-Bukhārī and Muslim enjoy a prestige that virtually eclipses the other four.}}[https://www.rug.nl/staff/j.j.little/?lang=en Dr Joshua Little], on [https://islamicstudies.harvard.edu/people/javad-hashmi Dr. Javad T. Hashmi]'s YouTube channel gives a brief overview of 21 core reasons historians are skeptical of their historical value and accuracy in the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bz4vMUUxhag Oxford Scholar Dr. Joshua Little Gives 21 REASONS Why Historians are SKEPTICAL of Hadith]. The list as he notes is in order of the weakest reasons to the strongest, i.e. the most damming points are found later in the video. As Joshua notes at 1:32:10, the first seven are the most trivial in comparison (though are still highly problematic and important to understand, and give context to the rest). If their historical value is of doubt then so are key parts of both Sunni and Shia scripture.
 
<u>Timestamps:</u>
 
* 0:00 Introduction
* 4:43 Hadith compared to other sources of history
* 12:15 Transmission of hadith vs Transmission of the Qur'an
* 15:46 Difference between oral and written preservation
* 18:42 Discussion on skepticism and revisionism
* 35:42 Meta-historiography; traditionalist dismissal that skepticism is fringe and outdated
 
# 42:22 Prior probability of false ascription in religious-historical material
# 47:13 The earliest extant collections were recensions from the ninth century onwards
# 56:23 Hadith are full of contradictions
# 1:03:51 A large number of hadith suspiciously look exactly like later religious sectarian, political, tribal, familial, and other partisan, polemical and apologetic creations
# 1:08:45 Hadith talking about later terms, later institutions, later events, and later phenomena.
# 1:11:51 Putative supernatural explanations for texts have a vanishingly low prior probability of explaining the existence of these reports
# 1:27:48 Reports of mass fabrication
# 1:32:04 Isnads rose relatively late, and became widespread even later
# 1:44:33 Early usage of the word Sunnah was a generic notion of sunnah as good practice, which was not specifically Prophetical, and was independent of hadith
# 1:52:44 A rapid numerical growth in hadith can be observed
# 1:57:01 Absence of Hadith in early sources
# 1:59:49 Retrojection of hadith; ratio of cited hadith changes from mostly ascribed to followers then to companions then to the Prophet
# 2:09:02 Various peculiar correlations, descriptions, and content that don't make sense as a product of genuine historical transmission but make more sense as a product of later debates and later ascription preferences
# 2:17:45 Hadith contradicting earlier literary and archeological sources
# 2:21:08 Orality means less precision in transmission
# 2:31:17 Extreme variation, early rapid mutation and distortion across the hadith corpus
# 2:34:28 Artificial literary or narrative elements; Recurring topoi
# 2:37:53 Hadith exhibit telltale signs of storyteller construction
# 2:40:25 Exegetical reports about the context of the Quran are exegesis in disguise
# 2:45:32 Recurring disconnect between the Hadith and the Qur'an in terms of historical memory
# 2:50:30 There was no effective method for distinguishing between authentic and inauthentic hadith
 
* 2:58:03 Conclusion


In a separate video on the channel Sképsislamica, Joshua Little defends accepting a historical Muhammad as being the founder of Islam despite the issue's with hadith, called [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tm9QU5uB3To Did Muhammad Exist? An Academic response to a Popular Question], where from ~20:00 - 1:37:39, he elaborates on these, but this time focusing on biographical hadith, with the points raised adding even more weight to the arguments against their accuracy.
Imagine we were to read this passage cold, without any previous knowledge of the Quran, Muhammad, or Islam. What are the pronouns telling us? We have “your Lord” (rabbika, using the singular possessive your). Who is the you implied here? The whole audience being spoken of but in the singular? The narrator speaking about himself in the second person? Someone in the audience who already affirms this single God as their own? Is this the same “you” implied by “Have you seen” (araʾayta) in the following verse? Does this mean a particular singular person has literally seen a servant who isn’t allowed to worship freely? Does it mean that the narrator of the Quran has seen this happen? Does it mean generally that one sees this sort of thing happen? Likewise, is “the one who” (alladhī) a particular person, and the audience knows exactly who this is? Is this one in the audience? Did the narrator’s eyes dart toward them when he said this, or toward their house? Or is this a general discussion of a type of person? And then who is the “slave” (ʿabd): a slave of God, so any of God’s servants? Slaves or other lower-class people generally? A certain slave whom everyone in town knows? The narrator himself (now in the third person)? <br><br> These questions can go on, and most of them can be at least partially resolved using contextual clues and later Quranic commentaries. Indeed, one of the major functions of so much classical Islamic writing—prophetic epic-biographies, anecdotes, and commentary literatures—is to give the Quran context. But we aren’t asking here who is implied by these sorts of pronouns, conjugations, and possessives; we are asking why there are so many ungrounded implications in the first place. The weight and excess of such indeterminate personal or place markers, without names or even much detail, tells us that the Quran in its early manifestations is quite oral. The divine speech is embodied and conversational. A passage like Q 96 makes no sense without contextualization. The Prophet thought this passage was going to be spoken on a particular date and in front of particular people. The context of the passage is thus assumed. Oral performances must do this; pure literature doesn’t (and often can’t). You are reading or hearing this right now. I have no meaningful idea about who you are, and you don’t know where I am writing this passage. But when the Quranic narrator says, “No, I swear by this land and you are a lawful resident in this land,” the listener knows they personally are “you,” can see the “I,” and are standing on the “land.”<sup>8</sup> This kind of speech is entirely situational; it only makes sense in a very precise context.}}


== Additional Points ==
== Additional Points ==


=== Differences between the Meccan - Medinan Split ===
=== Differences between the Meccan - Medinan Split ===
As Mark Durie notes, there are stark differences between the Meccan and Medinan split of the role of Muhammad, in which he goes from a mere 'warner' to a military leader of a new theocracy requiring complete obedience alongside God.
As Mark Durie notes below, a stark difference iin the Quran exists between the so-called "Meccan" and "Medinan" surahs, reflecting change in message from that of a 'warner' to a military leader of a warlike religious community.
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 174-177). Lexington Books.|Before the Eschatological Transition the Messenger is “only” a “bringer of good news” (bashīr) and “a warner” (nadhīr) (Q7:188; Q17:105; Q25:1), with no “authority” or “lawful power” (sulṭān), just like previous messengers (Q14:11). Other pre-transitional descriptions of the Messenger are in the same vein: he is neither a “watcher” (ḥafīẓ; Q6:104, 107; Q11:86; Q42:48), nor a “guardian” (wakīl; Q6:66, 107; Q10:108; Q11:12; Q17:54; Q25:43; Q39:41; Q42:6), nor a “controller” or “record-keeper”12 (muṣayṭir; Q88:21–22), nor a “tyrant” (jabbār; Q50:45) over believers, nor does he himself guide them (Q28:56),13 so “nothing of their account (falls) on you” (Q6:52).14 For believers, the emphasis at this stage is on believing the signs of Alla¯h, trusting in Alla¯h, rejecting association (shirk), and being eager to do good deeds, including making contributions (zakat), and performing daily prayers [...]
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 174-177). Lexington Books.|Before the Eschatological Transition the Messenger is “only” a “bringer of good news” (bashīr) and “a warner” (nadhīr) (Q7:188; Q17:105; Q25:1), with no “authority” or “lawful power” (sulṭān), just like previous messengers (Q14:11). Other pre-transitional descriptions of the Messenger are in the same vein: he is neither a “watcher” (ḥafīẓ; Q6:104, 107; Q11:86; Q42:48), nor a “guardian” (wakīl; Q6:66, 107; Q10:108; Q11:12; Q17:54; Q25:43; Q39:41; Q42:6), nor a “controller” or “record-keeper”12 (muṣayṭir; Q88:21–22), nor a “tyrant” (jabbār; Q50:45) over believers, nor does he himself guide them (Q28:56),13 so “nothing of their account (falls) on you” (Q6:52).14 For believers, the emphasis at this stage is on believing the signs of Alla¯h, trusting in Alla¯h, rejecting association (shirk), and being eager to do good deeds, including making contributions (zakat), and performing daily prayers [...]


[...] After the transition, the community of believers becomes dissociated from disbelievers, who are not to be taken as “allies.” The believers are a more regulated community, which now “commands right and forbids wrong,” exercising authority even over disbelievers. The Messenger’s function also changes after the transition, when he assumes a position of command over believers, whose duty is no longer merely to listen to the Messenger and believe, but to obey, giving him their total personal allegiance (Sinai 2015–2016, 68). The community is now to “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger,” for “Whoever obeys the Messenger has obeyed Alla¯h” (Q4:80).15 It is striking that the formula “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger” appears 21 times in post-transitional sūrahs but never in pre-transitional sūrahs. The phrase “Alla¯h and the/his Messenger” joins the authority of the Messenger to that of Alla¯h.16 “Alla¯h” is conjoined with “the/his Messenger” (and sometimes “messengers”) 97 times after the transition, in 16 of the 23 post-transitional sūrahs, but only twice before the transition (Q72:23 and Q7:158). [...]  
[...] After the transition, the community of believers becomes dissociated from disbelievers, who are not to be taken as “allies.” The believers are a more regulated community, which now “commands right and forbids wrong,” exercising authority even over disbelievers. The Messenger’s function also changes after the transition, when he assumes a position of command over believers, whose duty is no longer merely to listen to the Messenger and believe, but to obey, giving him their total personal allegiance (Sinai 2015–2016, 68). The community is now to “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger,” for “Whoever obeys the Messenger has obeyed Alla¯h” (Q4:80).15 It is striking that the formula “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger” appears 21 times in post-transitional sūrahs but never in pre-transitional sūrahs. The phrase “Alla¯h and the/his Messenger” joins the authority of the Messenger to that of Alla¯h.16 “Alla¯h” is conjoined with “the/his Messenger” (and sometimes “messengers”) 97 times after the transition, in 16 of the 23 post-transitional sūrahs, but only twice before the transition (Q72:23 and Q7:158). [...]  
[...] Before the transition the emphasis is on believing Alla¯h’s warnings through the Messenger, and responding to these warnings by doing good deeds. After the transition the emphasis is on obedience in conformity to the specific instructions—the “limits”—brought by the Messenger, who is paired with Alla¯h in authority over believers.}}
[...] Before the transition the emphasis is on believing Alla¯h’s warnings through the Messenger, and responding to these warnings by doing good deeds. After the transition the emphasis is on obedience in conformity to the specific instructions—the “limits”—brought by the Messenger, who is paired with Alla¯h in authority over believers.}}
Which is when the Qur'an shows this development, creating problems for Quranists. Critics content this change in theology shows a man-made difference in response to the surrounding circumstances rather than a consistent God as is claimed in {{Quran|35|43}} ''(But you will never find in the way of Allah any change, and you will never find in the way of Allah any alteration'').
Without the doctrine of [[Naskh (Abrogation)]], dependant as it is on the sirah and hadith which Quranists reject, this stark difference in tone and message is hard to reconcile, as the two groups of surahs seem to present very different messages.  


==See Also==
==See Also==

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Within Islam the two largest sects are the Sunnis (up to 90%)[1][2][3][4][5] and Shi'ites (approximately 10-20%).[1][6][4][5] Together they constitute the vast majority of Muslims in the world today. However, there is a small but growing group, considered heretics by the others, who are collectively known as "Qur'anists" (also referred to as Quraniyoon, Ahl al Quran, or by their critics, hadith rejectors). They reject the Hadith (oral traditions) and the Sunnah (example) of Muhammad, an integral part of traditional Islam, and are viewed by the mainstream Islamic thought in much the same way as the Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed by mainstream Christianity (i.e. Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox etc). Their views have some similarities with those of modernist or progressive Muslims, who do not reject hadiths entirely, but draw on modern academic scholarship in taking a historical-critical view of the hadith corpus as well as skepticism towards traditional interpretations and jurisprudence.

Rejected as Apostates

According to Sunni and Shi'ite orthodoxy, the hadith literature is an integral part of the Muslim faith. The 11th century Andalusian Maliki theologian and scholar Yusuf ibn abd al-Barr wrote in his Jami' Bayan al-'Ilm wa Fadlihi جـامع بـيـان أخذ العـلم وفضلـه (Compendium Exposing the Nature of Knowledge and Its Immense Merit):

The Sunna is divided into two types. The first is the consensus transmitted from the masses to the masses. This is one of the proofs that leave no excuse for denial and there is no disagreement concerning them. Whoever rejects this consensus has rejected one of Allah's textual stipulations and committed apostasy. The second type of Sunna consists in the reports of established, trustworthy lone narrators with uninterrupted chains. The congregation of the ulamas of the Community have said that this second type makes practice obligatory. Some of them said that it makes both knowledge and practice obligatory.
Ibn Abd al-Barr - Jami' Bayan al-'Ilm (2:33)

According to many high-ranking figures at Al-Azhar University, a highly respected authority in Sunni Islam (and who also accept Shi'ite fiqh as a fifth school of Islamic thought),[7] Qur'anists are not Muslims:

Dr. Yousef Elbadry, a member of the Higher Assembly of Islamic Affairs, accuses the Quranists of having a strange logic because relying on the wholly [sic] Quran only; while the Quran itself -as he claims- is in need for the Sunna,. Dr. ELbadry wonders what the Quranists say about verses like, "He who obeys the messenger obeys God?" Dr. Elbadry added that these Quranists went astray and should be considered apostates.
. . .

Dr. Mohamed Said Tantawy, the Sheikh of AL-Azhar replied saying that those who call for relying only on the wholly Quran are ignorant, lairs, and do not know religious rules because the ideas in the Sunna came from God, but it was put into words by the prophet (Peace be upon him). Moreover, Sunna explains and clarify the rules mention as in the wholly Quran.
. . .
Dr. Mahmoud Ashour, a member of the Committee of Islamic Research, that the Sunna is indeed a source of the Islamic Sharia, and that those who deny it are illogical because it is impossible to understand Islam with the Sunna. Dr. Ashour stresses that denying the Sunna costs the Quranists to lose their faith. He then called to protect Islam against those Quranists who plan to destroy Islam and pose the greatest threat on Islam and Muslims. He finally accused the Quranists to be spies and agents for other forces to aim at destroying Islam from Inside, but God will protect his religion as he promised.
. . .

Dr. Mohamed Abdelmonem Elberry, a professor at the School of Hadith and Explanation, Al-Azhar University, stressed the point that most Muslims have always agreed on validity of the Sunna, whether it is the verbal of practical Sunna. "The wholly Quran ordered us to obey the Messenger, and since this who do not are not true believers,"
Sheikhs of Alazhar: Quranists are Apostates; and the Evidence from the Holey Book Proves Their Guilt

Contemporary scholars such as Gibril Haddad have commented on the apostatic nature of a wholesale denial of the probativeness of the Sunnah according to Sunni Orthodoxy, writing "it cannot be imagined that one reject the entire probativeness of the Sunna and remain a Muslim".[8]

The Grand Mufti of Pakistan Muhammad Rafi Usmani has also criticised Qur'anists in his lecture Munkareen Hadith (refuters of Hadith); he states:

The Qur’aan, which they claim to follow, denies the faith of the one who refuses to obey the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and does not accept his ruling: “But no, by your Lord, they can have no Faith, until they make you (O Muhammad) judge in all disputes between them, and find in themselves no resistance against your decisions, and accept (them) with full submission.” [al-Nisa’ 4:65 – interpretation of the meaning]

Shaykh Noorud-deen Rashid of the Lote Tree Foundation in the United Kingdom, answering on the islamanswers.co.uk website question "Are Hadith rejectors (Quranists) Kafir?" (22.04.24) Yes, Hadith rejectors (Quranists) are Kafir. People who reject the entirety of the Sunnah are Kafir. As opposed to those who reject individual Sahih Hadith. People who reject all Hadith have clearly opposed Quran, Hadith and the consensus of credible Muslim scholars (Ijma).[9]

Challenges for the Quranist View of Islam

A major problem with the Quranist understanding of Islam is the central place that the Messenger, Muhammad, plays in the Qu'ran. The Qur'an alleges that it is entirely composed of Allah’s commands, not Muhammad’s, yet the Qur'an itself orders Muslims to obey the Messenger.

He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah: But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).
Quran 4:80

This begs the question of what, exactly, it is that the Messenger commands, since the Qur'anists themselves subscribe to the idea that the Qur'an is the word of Allah (God) himself and not just Muhammad's inspired word. The Qur’an also commands Muslims to follow the Messenger’s example, yet the only place this example is established is in the Sunnah. Without the Hadith (and Sirah, which is viewed with even more circumspection), one cannot know much of Muhammad. Without knowing Muhammad, there is no Uswa Hasana. Doubting the hadith thus opens up multiple lines of doubt about entirety of Islam as now practiced in most places. If one rejects the hadiths, that in-turn rejects Islam as a system by going against the orders of the Qur'an and, in the eyes of most Muslims, renders the rejecter an apostate/murtad/kafir. Ultimately, to remain faithful to Allah and the Qur'an in the traditional sense, there is no alternative to the Sunnah of the prophet as embodied in the hadith.

Islam linguistically means submission (contrary to popular belief that it means peace), and more specifically submission to the will of Allah. Qur'an-only Muslims believe that the Qur'an clearly defines what exactly Allah's will is, but this view is not without its problems.

The Qur'an is full of contradictory verses and commands; sometimes commanding believers to seek out and kill pagans (Quran 9:5), other times commanding Muslims to leave pagans to practice their polytheistic religions in peace (Quran 109:1-6). Without the Hadith and the Sirah to give context to the Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran) , the doctrine of Abrogation becomes untenable as there exists no clear timeline of which verses were revealed at which time and the Qur'an itself provides little to no evidence in this regard. Both the pacifist and the belicose could find various proof texts for their preferred approach to the faith in the Quran. The stark differences of Muhammad-in-Mecca versus Muhammad-in-Medina would provide both with ample proof-texts.

If one rejects the Hadith (ie. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud), the Tafsir (e.g. Ibn Kathir, Ibn Abbas, al-Jalalayn, Maududi), and the History (ie. al-Tabari, Ibn Sa'd, al-Waqidi, Ibn Ishaq), then the entire historical context of the Qur'an Muslims usually use to understand the Qur'an is lost. Its explanatory power as a religious scripture is heavily diminished, as the suwar (chapters) of the Quran lack key elements of narrative, structure, and context to help the modern reader understand what they are talking about. The reader is left with such questions as: "Who is Abu Lahab, and why are he and his wife going to be tortured?" and "Why don't these stories match the ones found in the Bible?" and "Who is 'Isa?" and many others which are not possible to discern from the text itself.

Quranists often say "Sunni's and Shi'ite's are following a deviant form of Islam by introducing these man-made books," but the Textual History of the Qur'an shows that many of the same transmitters who transmitted hadith also transmitted the Quran before it was first written down, at least according to the Muslim histories. The first Muslims (Sahabah- companions of Muhammad, which include all four Rightly Guided Caliphs) who partook in the Hijra to Medina, were not Qur'an-only Muslims as far as we can tell, nor the generation of Muslims that followed the death of Muhammad (the Tabi'un). As far back as the Rashidun Caliphs, the idea of "Sunnah" was salient although this idea changed rapidly in the first centuries of Islam. Recording and sorting through these narrations in written form was to codify and clarify already existing beliefs - though admittedly much later than the time of Muhammad, with the majority of compilations recorded in the 9th century (for a history on this, see the Britannica entry on Hadith), leading to many Mawdu' (Fabricated) and Da'if (Weak) Hadiths being recorded.

It can be argued that Qur'an only Muslims often reject the Hadith, a fundamental aspect of mainstream Islam, simply due to it preserving the norms of the early Islamic community which are in flagrant contradiction to modern, liberal mores around consent, sexuality, freedom of belief, and human rights. They may deny this as the reason behind their rejection of Hadith, but this appears to fit the idea by many Quranists who accept Hadith essentially as a historical source for the emergence of Islam but dismiss it as a religious or law-giving one. Critics argue this approach is logically unfeasible - either the Hadith are a valid source of information for Muslims, or they are not. One should not be able to pick and choose which bits to keep and which bits to ignore when the 'good' and the 'bad' all originate from the same sources.

Other verses

O believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. Should you disagree on anything, then refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if you ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is the best and fairest resolution.
Quran 4:59
But the faithful, men and women, are comrades of one another: they bid what is right and forbid what is wrong and maintain the prayer, give the zakat, and obey Allah and His Apostle. It is they to whom Allah will soon grant His mercy. Indeed Allah is all-mighty, all-wise.
Quran 9:71
(We sent them) with Clear Signs and Books of dark prophecies; and We have sent down unto thee (also) the Message; that thou mayest explain clearly to men what is sent for them, and that they may give thought.
Quran 16:44

The message (Qur'an) is explained and elaborated upon by the Prophet. Preserving the message (Qur'an) also requires preserving the Sunnah which explains the message, as the previous verse states.

Whatever Allah has restored to His Messenger from the people of the towns, it is for Allah and for the Messenger, and for the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer, so that it may not be a thing taken by turns among the rich of you, and whatever the Messenger gives you, accept it, and from whatever he forbids you, keep back, and be careful of (your duty to) Allah; surely Allah is severe in retributing (evil)
Quran 59:6

This verse asks Muslims to follow everything Mohammad gives them, and abstain from everything he forbids. That means they are commanded by Allah to follow the Sunnah.

The following verse also describes him as “a good exemplar" (uswatun ḥasanatun) for those who place their hope on God and the Last Day and invoke God often”, suggesting followers emulate him in general,[10] which is of course impossible to do without his personal traits and actions (which rarely alluded to in the Qur'an alone) being recorded as extra-Qur'anic traditions.

There is certainly a good exemplar for you in the Apostle of Allah—for those who look forward to Allah and the Last Day, and remember Allah much.
Quran 33:21

The Sahabah / Companions of the prophet

Alongside instructions to obey Muhammad, his followers are also to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity[11] in the Qur'an, giving way to mawqūf hadith, i.e. hadith from the companions of Muhammad / aṣ-ṣaḥābah,[12] often referred to as 'The Sahabah' (where the isnad does not go all the way to Muhammad directly). As recordings of this are needed for future generations to know what the community was doing at the time.

And thus we have made you a just community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you. And We did not make the qiblah which you used to face except that We might make evident who would follow the Messenger from who would turn back on his heels. And indeed, it is difficult except for those whom Allah has guided. And never would Allah have caused you to lose your faith. Indeed Allah is, to the people, Kind and Merciful.
Quran 2:143
You are the best nation produced [as an example] for mankind. You enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah. If only the People of the Scripture had believed, it would have been better for them. Among them are believers, but most of them are defiantly disobedient.
Quran 3:110
And strive for Allah with the striving due to Him. He has chosen you and has not placed upon you in the religion any difficulty. [It is] the religion of your father, Abraham. Allah named you "Muslims" before [in former scriptures] and in this [revelation] that the Messenger may be a witness over you and you may be witnesses over the people. So establish prayer and give zakah and hold fast to Allah. He is your protector; and excellent is the protector, and excellent is the helper.
Quran 22:78

Five Pillars of Islam

The concept "5 pillars in Islam" is practiced and preached widely in the Muslim world and is a crucial part of the Muslim way of life. Yet this concept is not described or defined in the Qur'an in any way. It is only found in the hadith. Looking at the pillars individually, four out of five of Islam’s Pillars find their basis in the Hadith, and do not come (explicitly) from the Quran.

Shahadah

Allah’s Apostle said: “Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):
1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle.”
Sahih Bukhari 8

These are Muhammad's words and are not found within the Qur'an, being found in the works of Muslim historians Ibn Ishaq (704-770 AD) and al-Tabari (838-923 AD). Without these sources, the Shahadah as it is commonly known does not exist. Due to this there are at-least three different shahadahs used by various Qur'anist sects.

Salah

“2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly.”
Sahih Bukhari 8

The Qur'an does not provide the guidance for the well-known 5 prayers practiced by Muslims today. The “compulsory congregational prayer” is not described in the Qur’an at all. In fact, the Qur’an number of prayers could be interpreted several ways (Qur'anists do not even agree upon the number of daily prayers that should be offered. The various number of prayers should be offered are 0, 2, 3 or 5),[13], with no clarification on how to pray. The hadith, meanwhile, specify five daily prayers. The only explanation of the obligatory prostration is found in the Sunnah, i.e. Muslims are performing a ritual without Qur’anic precedence. Also in the prayer itself, certain Arabic recitations and verses are recited. The Qur'an does not give specifications for these recitations so again this is only found in the Hadith.

Zakat

“3. To pay Zakat.”
Sahih Bukhari 8

The terms of the Zakat are omitted from the Qur’an. The first to commit them to paper was Ishaq. A century later than that, Tabari referenced Ishaq’s Hadith. This practice is without basis in the Qur'an by itself.

Hajj

“4. To perform Hajj.”
Sahih Bukhari 8

The instructions for and purpose of this ritual are not found in the Qur'an.[14] The only full explanations of the Hajj are found in the Sunnah. No aspect of the pilgrimage can be performed without referencing the Hadith. Muslims would not have this ritual without the Sunnah.

Sawm

“5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.”
Sahih Bukhari 8

Sawm, the final pillar of Islam is also not described in detail in the Qur'an. Though the Qur'an describes and commands fasting, without the Hadith, the reason for the Ramadan fast would not be known. The accounts of the meaning of Ramadan are in the Sunnah, initially chronicled by Ibn Ishaq and then copied by the hadith compliers such as Bukhari, Muslim etc. and historians/exegetes like Al-Tabari.

Islamic Law

This issue continues into many different aspects of Islamic law, as Islamic Scholar Michael Cook notes:

In the early Islamic period there was a school of thought which saw the Koran as the sole and sufficient basis of Islamic law. God Himself, it was argued, describes the Koran as a book which makes everything clear. The consensus of Muslim scholars, however, was against this view. Too much is left unsaid in the Koran; for example, it tells the believer to pray, but omits essential information as to how he should do it.

The bulk of Islamic law as it actually evolved is thus non-Koranic in substance. Some of what is missing is supplied from the innumerable traditions regarding the sayings and doings of Muhammad. A typical example of such a tradition was given in Chapter 2: at the conquest of Khaybar, Muhammad is said to have declared the eating of the flesh of the domesticated ass forbidden. At the same time, the lawyers had to rely, in one way or another, on their own legal reasoning. All this would bulk large in any survey of Islamic law as such; here, however, I shall focus on such law as there is in the Koran.

Although it does not add up to a comprehensive law-code, the Koranic treatment of law covers a wide range of subject-matter. In the first place, it deals with specifically religious rituals and duties: washing, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage to the sanctuary. The treatment is uneven; thus the instructions on the fast are fairly full, whereas no indication is given as to how much alms a believer should give. It is nonetheless clear from the way in which the topics are treated that God's interest as a lawgiver is not confined to generalities.

For example, the believer in preparing himself for prayer is specifically instructed to wash his arms up to the elbows, and to wipe his feet to the ankles. In the second place, the Koran discusses a range of less narrowly religious aspects of law: marriage, divorce, inheritance, homicide, theft, usury, the drinking of wine, and the like.

Again, the treatment is uneven: thieves are to be punished by having their hands cut off, but the fate of the unrepentant usurer is not prescribed (though he receives a dire warning that he will find himself at war with God and His messenger)..
Muhammad (Past Masters). Michael Cook. 1996 (Revision of 1983 original) 9780192876058 (ISBN10: 0192876058). (Kindle Locations 457-486). Kindle Edition.

Sunni-Shia Split

There is no mention of how religious or community leaders are rightfully meant to be chosen, nor how religious laws are meant to be administered in the Qur'an. With no direct instructions for a successor, or how to chose one (or multiple) in the Quran, there was a civil war almost immediately after Muhammad's death - which according to traditional accounts contributed to the Sunni-Shi'a split.

There is no actual direct concept of a political caliph (khilafah) in the Quran, which is central to both of the two most widespread branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi'i Islam. One can see all the ways this word is used on Quran Corpus here in the 'noun' sections, denoting general successors rather than the political leader of the Muslim community. In fact the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad’s death.[15]

Other issues

Characters in the Quran

The Quran also refers to contempories to Muhammad such as Abu Lahab (Quran 111:1 (and his wife Quran 111:4)) and Zayd (Quran 33:37), who are not mentioned at all in the Bible - so the meaning of the verses and who they are referring to is highly obscure (if not impossible to understand fully) without the Sunnah and sirah.

Abrogation

Scholars of Islam developed the principle of Naskh (Abrogation) which is used to reconcile seemingly contradictory commandments (e.g. see: List of Abrogations in the Qur'an) in the Quran. In this is "later" verses can abrogate or cancel out "earlier verses" if the "earlier" verse contradicts the "later" verse.

This issue arises for Quranists since the Quran itself is not arranged in chronological order of the time of revelation, but mostly follows a pattern of longer Surahs at the beginning getting shorter ones towards the end of the book. Only by using extra-Quranic material from traditions is it possible to come up with an order to know which ruling would abrogate which.

For example, many classical Islamic scholars (such as Ibn Kathir)[16] believe that the verse commanding women to be confined to house arrest until death for a vague 'lewdness' (l-fāḥishata) charge:

If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, Take the evidence of four (Reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way
Quran 4:15

Was then abrogated by a newly mentioned punishment for adultery:

The [unmarried] woman or [unmarried] man found guilty of sexual intercourse - lash each one of them with a hundred lashes, and do not be taken by pity for them in the religion of Allah, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day.
Quran 24:2

There is no way to use Naskh (Abrogation) as it is classically understood to reconcile these two verses without the aide of the sunnah and sirah.

Verses that have no meaning

Many verses lack any clear meaning without further context, a few (of many) are given below. By themselves these verses lack the necessary context for complete understanding (tafsirs generally link them to angels, though the third verse is sometimes also linked to humans reciting the Quran).[17][18]

“By those ranged in ranks.

Then those who drive away with reproof. And those who recite a reminder.

Lo! Your Lord is surely One.”
Quran 37:1-4

Similarly the verses below are often given mythological explanations by commentators, far beyond would ever be possible to gather from the Quran itself:[19] [20]

By the mountain,

And a book inscribed, In parchment spread open,

And the frequented house
Quran 52:1-4

And again.

By those who extract violently, And those who draw out gently,

by those that swim serenely, and those that outstrip suddenly, And those who glide swimming, And those who race each other (in) a race,

by those that direct an affair!
Quran 79:1-5

And again

I CALL TO WITNESS those who are sent consecutively,

And those that strike violently, And those that revive by quickening,

And those that distinguish distinctly,
Quran 77:1-4

And again

By oath of those which carry away while dispersing.

Then by oath of those which carry the burdens. Then by oath of those which move with ease.

Then by oath of those which distribute by the command.
Quran 51:1-4

As well as this (see the expansive explanation in Tafsir Al-Jalalayn).[21]

And We certainly tried Solomon and placed on his throne a body; then he returned.
Quran 38:34

In the below verse, there is no explanation of what the ten nights are in the Quran.

“By the break of dawn, And ten nights, And the even and the odd,
Quran 89:1-3

Nor the four months below.

The number of months with God is twelve in accordance with God's law since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are holy. This is the straight reckoning. So do not exceed yourselves during them; but fight the idolaters to the end as they fight you in like manner; and remember, God is with those Who preserve themselves from evil and do the right.
Quran 9:36

Nor the Night of Determination (laylat-ul-qadr) - sometimes translated as the 'Night of Power'.

We sent it down in the night of determination.
Do you know what the night of determination is?
The night of determination is better than a thousand months.
In it angels and the spirit descend by permission of their Lord in every matter.
It is a blessing until break of day!
Quran 97:1-5

Nor the seven 'oft-repeated verses'.

And We have certainly given you, [O Muhammad], seven of the often repeated [verses] and the great Qur'an.
Quran 15:87

In Islamic tradition the consensus view is that these seven verses relate to the seven verses of the opening surah al-Fātiha, as to be used as units of every prayer; which nothing in the text itself suggests, and there have been other minority opinions.[22] Interestingly Allah is meant to be the speaker of all verses, so without extra-qur'anic material one would simply be left with a statement of prayer by Allah to Allah, and no instruction/explanation of the reason for its inclusion (as a ritual prayer).

1:1 In the name of Allah, the merciful and compassionate

1:2 Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds 1:3 The merciful and compassionate 1:4 Ruler of the day of judgment 1:5 [It is thee] we serve and [it is thee] we implore for help 1:6 Guide us to (or show us) the path of the straight (i.e., righteous)

1:7 Path of those whom you favor, not those who anger you and not those who have gone astray
Quran 1:1-7

The same issue occurs with the final two 'prayer' surahs, 113 (Quran 113:1-5) and 114 (Quran 114:1-6), although these at least open with the statement 'say' (qul قول')[23] however there is no context given for why, when and where they are supposed to be said found in the Qur'an.

In fact this happens to many verses throughout the Qur'an, where only later traditions clarify that the whole book is meant to be from Allah, and not just the parts of it that can be gained from reading the Qur'an alone; without this contexts, it would not be clear that verses such as swearing oaths on Allah, angels speaking, and the regular (and unnaturally sounding) third person voice are all meant to be read as coming from Allah himself.

The assumption that God is himself the speaker in every passage, however leads to difficulties. Frequently God is referred to in the third person. It is no doubt allowable for a speaker to refer to himself in the third person occasionally, but the extent to which we find the Prophet apparently being addressed and told about God as a third person, is unusual. It has, in fact, been made a matter of ridicule that in the Quran God is made to swear by himself. That he uses oaths in some of the passages beginning, “I swear (not)…” can hardly be denied [e.g., 75.1, 2; 90.1].…“By thy Lord,” however, is difficult in the mouth of God…. Now there is one passage which everyone acknowledges to be spoken by angels, namely 19.64: “We come not down but by command of thy Lord; to him belongs what is before us and what is behind us and what is between that; nor is thy Lord forgetful, Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is between them; so serve him, and endure patiently in his service; knowest thou to him a namesake?” In 37.161-166 it is almost equally clear that angels are the speakers. This, once admitted, may be extended to passages in which it is not so clear. In fact, difficulties in many passages are removed by interpreting the “we” of angels rather than of God himself speaking in the plural of majesty. It is not always easy to distinguish between the two, and nice questions sometimes arise in places where there is a sudden change from God being spoken of in the third person to “we” claiming to do things usually ascribed to God, e.g., 6.99; 25.45.
Bell, Richard., and W. Montgomery. Watt. Introduction to the Quran. Edinburgh, 1977. pp. 66-67

Some verses that seem to be spoken by the jinn in surah 72 (surah al-jinn)[24] beginning from verse 8 onwards, would not seem to be attributable to Allah without the tradition providing the information that this is the case.Even the whole of Surah 105 (Surah of the Elephant) would be difficult to explain, as the verse refers to Allah in the third person. The meaning of these verses are also very opaque and lacking in context without the tradition.[25]

Have you not regarded how your Lord dealt with the army of the elephants?

Did He not put their scheme into ruin? and send against them flocks of birds. Which hit them with stones of baked clay,

thus making them like chewed-up straw?
Quran 105:1-5

As are the first four verses of surah 90, as there is nothing to link the oath with the city of Mecca and it's meaning to Muhammad without extra-Quranic material.

Nay! I swear by this city,

And you (are) free (to dwell) in this city. And the begetter and what he begot.

Certainly, We have created man (to be) in hardship.
Quran 90:1-4

Archer (2024) summarises many of the issues, looking at Quran 96:8-10 and others.[26]

..yet the fact remains that the early Quran is extraordinarily elliptical; it implies identities but almost never identifies. Consider this brief passage from the famous ninety-sixth sura called either “the Clot” (al-ʿAlaq) or “Recite” (Iqraʾ):

Surely to your Lord is the return. Have you seen the one who forbids a slave when he is praying? (Q 96:8–10)

Imagine we were to read this passage cold, without any previous knowledge of the Quran, Muhammad, or Islam. What are the pronouns telling us? We have “your Lord” (rabbika, using the singular possessive your). Who is the you implied here? The whole audience being spoken of but in the singular? The narrator speaking about himself in the second person? Someone in the audience who already affirms this single God as their own? Is this the same “you” implied by “Have you seen” (araʾayta) in the following verse? Does this mean a particular singular person has literally seen a servant who isn’t allowed to worship freely? Does it mean that the narrator of the Quran has seen this happen? Does it mean generally that one sees this sort of thing happen? Likewise, is “the one who” (alladhī) a particular person, and the audience knows exactly who this is? Is this one in the audience? Did the narrator’s eyes dart toward them when he said this, or toward their house? Or is this a general discussion of a type of person? And then who is the “slave” (ʿabd): a slave of God, so any of God’s servants? Slaves or other lower-class people generally? A certain slave whom everyone in town knows? The narrator himself (now in the third person)?

These questions can go on, and most of them can be at least partially resolved using contextual clues and later Quranic commentaries. Indeed, one of the major functions of so much classical Islamic writing—prophetic epic-biographies, anecdotes, and commentary literatures—is to give the Quran context. But we aren’t asking here who is implied by these sorts of pronouns, conjugations, and possessives; we are asking why there are so many ungrounded implications in the first place. The weight and excess of such indeterminate personal or place markers, without names or even much detail, tells us that the Quran in its early manifestations is quite oral. The divine speech is embodied and conversational. A passage like Q 96 makes no sense without contextualization. The Prophet thought this passage was going to be spoken on a particular date and in front of particular people. The context of the passage is thus assumed. Oral performances must do this; pure literature doesn’t (and often can’t). You are reading or hearing this right now. I have no meaningful idea about who you are, and you don’t know where I am writing this passage. But when the Quranic narrator says, “No, I swear by this land and you are a lawful resident in this land,” the listener knows they personally are “you,” can see the “I,” and are standing on the “land.”8 This kind of speech is entirely situational; it only makes sense in a very precise context.
The Prophet’s Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran. pp. 43–44.Archer, George

Additional Points

Differences between the Meccan - Medinan Split

As Mark Durie notes below, a stark difference iin the Quran exists between the so-called "Meccan" and "Medinan" surahs, reflecting change in message from that of a 'warner' to a military leader of a warlike religious community.

Before the Eschatological Transition the Messenger is “only” a “bringer of good news” (bashīr) and “a warner” (nadhīr) (Q7:188; Q17:105; Q25:1), with no “authority” or “lawful power” (sulṭān), just like previous messengers (Q14:11). Other pre-transitional descriptions of the Messenger are in the same vein: he is neither a “watcher” (ḥafīẓ; Q6:104, 107; Q11:86; Q42:48), nor a “guardian” (wakīl; Q6:66, 107; Q10:108; Q11:12; Q17:54; Q25:43; Q39:41; Q42:6), nor a “controller” or “record-keeper”12 (muṣayṭir; Q88:21–22), nor a “tyrant” (jabbār; Q50:45) over believers, nor does he himself guide them (Q28:56),13 so “nothing of their account (falls) on you” (Q6:52).14 For believers, the emphasis at this stage is on believing the signs of Alla¯h, trusting in Alla¯h, rejecting association (shirk), and being eager to do good deeds, including making contributions (zakat), and performing daily prayers [...]

[...] After the transition, the community of believers becomes dissociated from disbelievers, who are not to be taken as “allies.” The believers are a more regulated community, which now “commands right and forbids wrong,” exercising authority even over disbelievers. The Messenger’s function also changes after the transition, when he assumes a position of command over believers, whose duty is no longer merely to listen to the Messenger and believe, but to obey, giving him their total personal allegiance (Sinai 2015–2016, 68). The community is now to “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger,” for “Whoever obeys the Messenger has obeyed Alla¯h” (Q4:80).15 It is striking that the formula “obey Alla¯h and (obey) His/the Messenger” appears 21 times in post-transitional sūrahs but never in pre-transitional sūrahs. The phrase “Alla¯h and the/his Messenger” joins the authority of the Messenger to that of Alla¯h.16 “Alla¯h” is conjoined with “the/his Messenger” (and sometimes “messengers”) 97 times after the transition, in 16 of the 23 post-transitional sūrahs, but only twice before the transition (Q72:23 and Q7:158). [...]

[...] Before the transition the emphasis is on believing Alla¯h’s warnings through the Messenger, and responding to these warnings by doing good deeds. After the transition the emphasis is on obedience in conformity to the specific instructions—the “limits”—brought by the Messenger, who is paired with Alla¯h in authority over believers.
Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 174-177). Lexington Books.

Without the doctrine of Naskh (Abrogation), dependant as it is on the sirah and hadith which Quranists reject, this stark difference in tone and message is hard to reconcile, as the two groups of surahs seem to present very different messages.

See Also

External Links

Links from Muslims

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Comparison of Sunni and Shia Islam - ReligionFacts
  2. ↑ Islām - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
  3. ↑ Sunnite - Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population - Pew Research Center, October 7, 2009
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Tracy Miller - Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population - Pew Research Center, October 2009
  6. ↑ Shīʿite - Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010)
  7. ↑ al-Azhar Verdict on the Shia - Shi'ite Encyclopedia v2.0, Al-islam
  8. ↑ Gibril Haddad - The Sunna as Evidence: The Probativeness of the Sunna - Living Islam, August, 1999
  9. ↑ Are Hadith rejectors (Quranists) Kafir? Islam Answers
  10. ↑ Sinai, Nicolai. “Muhammad as an Episcopal Figure.” Arabica, vol. 65, no. 1-2, Brill Academic Publishers, 2018, pp. 1–30. PP13. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341480
  11. ↑ al-ʿālamūn pl. | the world-dwellers Entry. Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 526). Princeton University Press. Instead, it is preferable to understand the assumed universal role of Muhammad and his followers in line with Q 2:143, 22:78, and 3:110: the Qur’anic believers are to function as an exemplary beacon for the rest of humanity, as “the best community ever brought forth for people, enjoining right and dissuading from wrong” (Q 3:110: kuntum khayra ummatin ukhrijat li-l-nāsi taʾmurūna bi-l-maʿrūfi wa-tanhawna ʿani l-munkari), and as a “middle” or “intermediate” community (ummah wasaṭ) who will be “witnesses” over the remainder of humankind, just as the Qur’anic Messenger functions as a “witness” (shahīd) over the Qur’anic believers (Q 2:143, similarly 22:78).
  12. ↑ IRSYAD AL-HADITH SERIES 76: MAWQUF(الموقوف) HADITH. MUHAMMAD MUSHFIQUE BIN AHMAD AYOUP. 2016. Mufti of Federal Territories Office.
  13. ↑ Quranism. Wikipedia. Accessed 02/02/24.
  14. ↑ Muhammad (Past Masters) Michael Cook. 1996 (Revision of 1983 original) 9780192876058 (ISBN10: 0192876058). (Kindle Locations 469-487). Kindle Edition.
  15. ↑ Caliph Entry | Definition & History | Britannica | Professor Asma Afsaruddin
  16. ↑ Ibn Kathir Tafsir on Verse 4:15. Ibn Kathir d.1373
  17. ↑ Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 31:1. Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.
  18. ↑ Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 37:1-5. Ibn Kathir d 1373.
  19. ↑ Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 52:1-16. Ibn Kathir d. 1373.
  20. ↑ Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 52:4. Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.
  21. ↑ Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on Verse 34:38. Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce)
  22. ↑ See Islamic commentaries for verse 15:87
  23. ↑ قول - Lane's Lexicon pp. 2294
  24. ↑ Durie, Mark. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion pp. 25. (pp. 116 Kindle Edition). Lexington Books. ..There are conversations reported between the Messenger and others and between believers and disbelievers, and there are often rapid switches between different conversations. There are even conversations where jinn speak to each other (Q72)...
  25. ↑ E.g. Tafsir Jalalayn on verse 105:1. (Al Jalalayn / Jalal ad-Din al-Maḥalli and Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti. Published in 1505.) summarises the general story.
  26. ↑ The Prophet’s Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran. pp. 64–67. 2024. Archer, George
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