Les erreurs scientifiques du Coran

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Une critique courante envers le Coran , est qu'il contient de nombreuses erreurs scientifiques et historiques. Le coran ne cherche pas à différencier le monde réel et des événements fictifs du folklore commun et des fausses croyances des personnes vivant au 7ème siècle en Arabie . Les apologistes de l'islam font généralement appel à la métaphore, aux interprétation alternatives. Ils soutiennent également que le contenu du coran devait être compréhensible pour les gens de son temps. Les critiques leur rétoque qu'un communicateur parfait et omniscient aurait néanmoins pu éviter les déclarations dans le Coran qui renforçaient les fausses croyances de l'époque, faisaient douter les générations futures de sa perfection car le coran aura de ce faite, toutes les caractéristiques d'une œuvre humaine de son temps.

Astronomie

Geocentricisme

Le Coran mentionne à plusieurs reprises que le soleil et la lune voyagent sur un " falakin" traduit par sur une "orbite" pour donne du crédit scientifique au coran.Mais le coran ne mentionne pas une seule fois que la Terre le fait aussi. Ceci est cohérent avec une vision du cosmos centrée sur la Terre plate (géocentrique) qui place une Terre immobile au centre de l'univers et tous les "corps célestes" voyagent autour de la Terre. C'était la compréhension dominante de l'univers avant le XVIe siècle, lorsque Copernic a contribué à expliquer et à populariser une vision de l'univers centrée sur le soleil (héliocentrique). Fait révélateur, l'orbite du soleil est presque toujours mentionnée dans le contexte de la nuit et du jour (le Coran 13: 2 étant la seule exception) et est toujours mentionnée avec celle de la lune (qui orbite en fait autour de la Terre chaque mois, et apparaît également, à l'œil nu, de parcourir le ciel chaque nuit lorsqu'il est visible).

37. Et une preuve pour eux est la nuit. Nous en écorchons le jour et ils sont alors dans les ténèbres.

38. et le soleil court vers un gîte qui lui est assigné; telle est la détermination du Tout-Puissant, de l'Omniscient.

39. Et la lune, Nous lui avons déterminé des phases jusqu'à ce qu'elle devienne comme la palme vieillie.

40. Le soleil ne peut rattraper la lune, ni la nuit devancer le jour; et chacun vogue dans une orbite.
Qur'an 36:37-40

Le Coran 36:37-40, apparaissant, dans un passage sur la nuit et dire juste après avoir décrit le changement du jour à la nuit, déclare que le soleil court vers un lieu de repos pour lui. Il y a aussi des hadiths sahih (Sahih Muslim 1:297) qui mentionnent le cycle quotidien du soleil en utilisant le même mot arabe pour signifier un lieu de repos, qui est sous le trône d'Allah, et c'est là que chaque nuit le soleil se prosterne et on lui demande d'aller se lever 'de sa place montante'. Ce cycle se répète, jusqu'au jour où Allah demande au soleil de se lever "de votre lieu de coucher". le jour censé etre celui de la fin du monde.

L'autre interprétation parmi les exégètes était que cela faisait référence au dernier repos du soleil le dernier jour. D'autres versets parlent du soleil nageant pour un «terme nommé» (en utilisant un mot arabe différent). Une autre version du hadith ci-dessus soutient probablement ce point de vue (pour plus de détails sur toutes ces choses, voir les notes de bas de page dans l'article principal). Quelle que soit l'interprétation voulue, le mouvement du soleil est néanmoins mentionné juste après avoir décrit le jour et la nuit, tout comme le verset suivant mentionne les différentes demeures désignées pour la lune chaque nuit. Tout le passage parle du jour et de la nuit et du mouvement du soleil et de la lune dans ce contexte.


33. Et c'est Lui qui a créé la nuit et le jour, le soleil et la lune, chacun voguant dans une orbite.

Un point de vue moderne expliquerait la description coranique ci-dessus du soleil se déplaçant sur une orbite comme une référence à notre soleil en orbite autour du trou noir au centre de la galaxie de la voie lactée tous les 225 millions d'années. Les critiques soutiennent que cela n'a aucune pertinence pour les échelles de temps humaines et que rien dans le texte n'implique que le soleil orbite autour d'autre chose que de la Terre. Le Coran ne différencie jamais en aucune façon l'orbite du soleil de celle de la lune et implique systématiquement qu'elles sont de nature commune.

29. N'as-tu pas vu qu'Allah fait pénétrer la nuit dans le jour, et qu'il fait pénétrer le jour dans la nuit, et qu'Il a assujetti le soleil et la lune chacun poursuivant sa course jusqu'à un terme fixé? Et Allah est Parfaitement Connaisseur de ce que vous faites.

Ici, le soleil poursuivant sa "course" est quelque chose que l'auteur s'attend à ce que les gens aient VU (ce qui pose un autre défi pour l'interprétation de l'orbite galactique autour du trou noir tous les 225 Millions d'années et qui prouve que le coran parle bien du mouvement du soleil visible par l'humanité .

1. Par le soleil et par sa clarté! 2. Et par la lune quand elle le suit!
Qur'an 91:1-2

le mot traduit par "suivre" est principalement défini comme suivre, aller ou marcher derrière, suivre en voie d'imitation, d'action, etc. et était souvent utilisé pour les animaux comme les chameaux qui se suivaient les uns derrière les autres. La Lune ne suit pas réellement le mouvement du soleil. Le verset est le plus évocateur d'une vision d'une personne du 7ème siècle pourrait observer du ciel. Les critiques s'attendraient à un choix de formulation moins tendancieux dans un livre parfait si cela signifiait simplement que le soleil et la lune apparaissent l'un après l'autre. .

Abraham dit : « Mon Seigneur accorde la vie et la mort. » Il dit : « J’accorde la vie et la mort. » Abraham dit : «  Dieu amène le soleil de l’est, peux-tu l’amener de l’ouest ? » Le mécréant fut déconcerté. Dieu ne guide pas les pernicieux.

Ici, le Coran cite quelques lignes d'un débat entre Abraham et un roi mécréant, où Abraham répond qu'Allah "apporte le soleil" (yatee biahshamsi apporte *le soleil) de l'est. Le verbe arabe et la préposition indiquent que le soleil se déplace réellement. Ce verset supposé parole de dieu , est une autre preuve irréfutable que le mouvement dont parle Allah est bien le mouvement apparent du soleil . Mouvement qui n'est qu'une illusion car en vérité c'est la terre qui tourne sur elle meme et non le soleil qui tourne autour.

L'endroit ou le soleil se couche et se lève :

Dans ces versets, l'auteur présente une version d'une légende populaire du 7ème siècle d'un homme nommé Dhu'l-Qarnayn qui visite les lieux où le soleil se couche et se lève.

86. Et quand il eut atteint le Couchant, il trouva que le soleil se couchait dans une source boueuse, et, après d'elle il trouva une peuplade [impie]. Nous dîmes: "Ô Zul-Qarnayn! ou tu les châties, ou tu uses de bienveillance à leur égard".
90. Et quand il eut atteint le Levant, il trouva que le soleil se levait sur une peuplade à laquelle Nous n'avions pas donné de voile pour s'en protéger.


Qu'est ce que le "couchant" et le "levant" ? Durant les premiers siècles de l'islam l'interprétation unique était que ce sont les endroits ou se couchent littéralement le soleil.


Des siècles après la vie de Muhammad, des personnes ayant de meilleures connaissances astronomiques ont introduit des interprétations de ces versets, de sorte que Dhu'l-Qarnayn n'a voyagé que jusqu'à ce qu'il atteigne «l'ouest» ou à un endroit «au moment» où le soleil se couchait et non «l'endroit» où le soleil se couchait. Cependant, ces interprétations alternatives sont sévèrement fixées par le contexte et les mots arabes utilisés dans ces versets, qui indiquent à la place des lieux physiques où le soleil s'est couché et s'est levé.

Notez cet heureux hasard :

- quand Dhu'l-Qarnyan atteint le couchant: il vit le soleil se coucher

- quand il atteignit le levant : il vit le soleil se lever.


Une pléthore de preuves montre que les premiers musulmans comprenaient le verset de cette manière directe.( voir l'article principale sur le sujet )

La Terre et les Cieux crées en 6 jours

Le Coran présente le mythe prévalant au Moyen-Orient selon lequel la Terre et les cieux se sont formés en six jours. Ceci est en opposition avec les découvertes de la cosmologie moderne qui montrent que la Terre s'est formée quelque 9 milliards d'années après le début de l'univers.

Contrairement aux centaines d'autres versets où le mot arabe yawm ou son pluriel ayyam (أَيَّامٍ) est compris comme signifiant jour ou jours, lorsque le Coran décrit la création du monde, certains érudits musulmans modernes ont fait appel à sa signification alternative, "période de temps".

Ni l'univers ni la Terre ne se sont formés en six longues périodes de temps distinctes. De même, il n'y a apparemment aucune tentative d'indiquer, même poétiquement, la vaste durée de temps pendant laquelle l'univers s'est développé (à savoir, 13,8 milliards d'années) meme en prenant yawm comme période de temps il n'y a aucune proportion respectée entre la formation de la terre et celle de l'univers ou des étoiles .

38. En effet, Nous avons créé les cieux et la terre et ce qui existe entre eux en six jours, sans éprouver la moindre lassitude.

la Terre spécifiquement a été créée en deux jours selon le Coran, et en quatre jours (les jours trois et quatre selon les tafsirs) ont été créées les montagnes et la subsistance de la Terre.

9. Dis: "Renierez-vous [l'existence] de celui qui a créé la terre en deux jours, et Lui donnerez-vous des égaux? Tel est le Seigneur de l'univers, 10. C'est Lui qui fermement fixé des montagnes au-dessus d'elle, l'a bénie, et lui assigna ses ressources alimentaires en quatre jours d'égale durée. [Telle est la réponse] à ceux qui t'interrogent.

Les montagnes continuent néanmoins de se créer et de s'éroder à ce jour. De même, les êtres vivants et leur subsistance continuent d'évoluer, mais le Coran dit que la création des montagnes et de leur subsistance s'est produite dans une période spécifique qui s'est terminée deux jours avant la fin de la création de l'univers.

La Terre crée avant les étoiles

Les éléments de la croûte terrestre et du noyau se sont d'abord formés dans les étoiles par nucléosynthèse. Lorsque ces étoiles ont explosé en supernovas, elles ont expulsé les éléments qui ont été utilisés dans les futurs systèmes solaires tels que celui de la Terre. Les datations radiométriques modernes des météorites et des roches de la Terre et de la Lune montrent que ces corps se sont formés en même temps que le soleil et ses autres planètes, il y a 4,5 milliards d'années. Le Coran, d'autre part, décrit la Terre comme étant entièrement formée AVANT les étoiles.

9. Dis: "Renierez-vous [l'existence] de celui qui a créé la terre en deux jours, et Lui donnerez-vous des égaux? Tel est le Seigneur de l'univers,

10. C'est Lui qui fermement fixé des montagnes au-dessus d'elle, l'a bénie, et lui assigna ses ressources alimentaires en quatre jours d'égale durée. [Telle est la réponse] à ceux qui t'interrogent.

11. Il S'est ensuite adressé au ciel qui était alors fumée et lui dit, ainsi qu'à la terre: "Venez tous deux, bon gré, mal gré". Tous deux dirent: "Nous venons obéissants".

12. Il décréta d'en faire sept cieux en deux jours et révéla à chaque ciel sa fonction. Et Nous avons décoré le ciel le plus proche de lampes [étoiles] et l'avons protégé.

Le Coran 2:29 confirme en outre que le ciel n'a été façonné en sept cieux lorsque, tout sur Terre a été créé.

29. C'est Lui qui a créé pour vous tout ce qui est sur la terre, puis Il a orienté Sa volonté vers le ciel et en fit sept cieux. Et Il est Omniscient.

Le mot lampes (masabeeha مَصَٰبِيحَ) dans le Coran 41:12 et le Coran 67:5 avec lequel Allah orne (zayyanna زَيَّنَّا) le ciel le plus bas devrait, bien sûr, inclure tous les corps lumineux tels que les étoiles. Ceux-ci sont appelés kawakib (كَوَاكِبِ) dans le Coran 37 :6, un mot qui apparaît également dans le rêve de Joseph (Coran 12 :4) et la destruction des cieux (Coran 82 :1-2).

Certains érudits musulmans modernes tentent de réconcilier la description coranique avec la science moderne en arguant que le mot «alors» dans les versets ci-dessus n'indique pas une séquence, mais qu'il signifie plutôt «de plus». Cet argument se heurte au fait que ces mots (thumma dans le Coran 41 :11 et le Coran 2 :29, et fa dans le Coran 41 :12 – tous traduits par « alors ») sont généralement utilisés pour indiquer une séquence. Dans d'autres contextes, thumma était parfois utilisé pour signifier « de plus ». Cet usage alternatif, cependant, serait toujours sans ambiguïté et clair dans son contexte, contrairement aux passages cités ci-dessus, qui décrivent évidemment un processus par étapes - la création des cieux après celle de la Terre.

Dans un autre passage, Coran 79:27-33, le ciel (singulier) a déjà été élevé et proportionné comme un plafond avant que la terre ne soit étendue, les pâturages produits et les montagnes fixées. Ibn Kathir note dans son tafsir qu'ibn 'Abbas a dit que la Terre a été créée avant chacun de ces événements et que les érudits ont interprété le mot arabe dahaha (دَحَىٰهَآ) au verset 79:30 pour désigner un type spécifique de propagation qui s'est produit après tout sur La Terre avait été créée. Cependant, le passage semble néanmoins contredire la séquence du Coran 41: 9-12, dans laquelle le ciel est toujours «fumé» après que la subsistance et les montagnes de la Terre aient été placées.

La Terre et le Ciel séparé

Les érudits musulmans modernes soutiennent généralement que le verset suivant est compatible et même prédictif de la théorie du Big Bang. Selon la théorie du Big Bang, l'Univers s'est formé il y a 13,8 milliards d'années en raison d'une expansion rapide à partir de la singularité. La terre s'est alors formée, il y a 4,54 milliards d'années, par accrétion de débris qui entouraient le précurseur du Soleil. Il n'y a eu à aucun moment une "séparation" de la terre et des cieux "unis". Dans les mythes des œufs cosmiques, une structure semblable à un œuf était divisée en deux moitiés, la moitié inférieure formant la terre et la moitié supérieure formant le ciel. Le Coran 21:30 et les versets similaires supposent que les auditeurs connaissent les grandes lignes de ce mythe qui était extrêmement répandu à l'époque de Mahomet et de ses compagnons.

30. Ceux qui ont mécru, n'ont-ils pas vu que les cieux et la terre formaient une masse compacte? Ensuite Nous les avons séparés et fait de l'eau toute chose vivante. Ne croiront-ils donc pas ?

Le mot traduit « réunis » est ratqan (رَتْقًا) signifiant fermé ou cousu, également utilisé métaphoriquement en termes de réconciliation des gens, mais n'implique pas une masse ou un état homogène.

La séparation des cieux et de la terre peut être lue dans le contexte de versets qui mentionnent quelque chose "entre" leur état pleinement formé (qui semble être occupé par les nuages Coran 2:164 et les oiseauxQuran 24:41).

38. En effet, Nous avons créé les cieux et la terre et ce qui existe entre eux en six jours, sans éprouver la moindre lassitude.

Il n'y a pas de théorie scientifique dans laquelle la Terre et les cieux ont été séparés l'un de l'autre. Si l'on soutient que le Coran 21:30 décrit le big bang, les particules atomiques qui formeraient plus tard la Terre devraient au début être séparées de celles qui formeraient tout le reste dans l'univers. Ceci, cependant, n'a aucune ressemblance avec la cosmologie scientifique moderne, dans laquelle le matériau qui forme la Terre a traversé au moins une génération antérieure d'étoiles, et plus récemment faisait partie de divers astéroïdes, comètes et planètes en orbite autour du soleil (qui pourraient tous être décrits comme étant dans les « cieux ») qui parfois sont entrés en collision et ont fusionné les uns avec les autres, parfois se sont séparés et ont progressivement fusionné sous l'effet de la gravité pour former la Terre et d'autres planètes.

Le verset suivant, le Coran 21:31, parle de montagnes placées sur la Terre. Ici, « la Terre » doit signifier notre planète, mais les interprétations modernes du verset précédent soutiennent que « la Terre » se réfère simplement aux particules atomiques au moment du big bang.

Les cieux fait de fumé

Il n'y a pas d'étape dans la formation de l'univers qui impliquait de la fumée (particules de carbone en suspension à la suite d'une combustion ; le mot fumée traduit est le nom dukhan دُخَانٍ, qui signifie une fumée littérale du type qui s'élève d'un feu). De même, la Terre et les cieux ne sont pas "venus" chacun en tant qu'entités séparées à aucun moment. Au contraire, la Terre fait partie de cet univers et s'est développée en son sein.

11. Il S'est ensuite adressé au ciel qui était alors fumée et lui dit, ainsi qu'à la terre: "Venez tous deux, bon gré, mal gré". Tous deux dirent: "Nous venons obéissants". 12. Il décréta d'en faire sept cieux en deux jours et révéla à chaque ciel sa fonction. Et Nous avons décoré le ciel le plus proche de lampes [étoiles] et l'avons protégé. Tel est l'Ordre établi par le Puissant, l'Omniscient.

Certains érudits musulmans modernes interprètent néanmoins la « fumée » comme l'état primordial de l'univers après le big bang. Il convient de noter, cependant, que le verset indique une époque où seul le ciel, mais pas la Terre, était de la fumée. Ceci est particulièrement difficile quand on considère que la Terre et ses montagnes sont décrites comme existant déjà dans les deux versets précédents (Coran 41 :9-10, discuté ci-dessus).

Les septs Terres

Le Coran 65:12 déclare clairement qu'il existe sept terres.

12. Allah qui a créé sept cieux et autant de terres. Entre eux [Son] commandement descend, afin que vous sachiez qu'Allah est en vérité Omnipotent et qu'Allah a embrassé toute chose de [Son] savoir.

Un hadith de Bukhari révèle que ces sept Terres sont empilées les unes au-dessus des autres.

Le Prophète a dit: "Quiconque prend injustement un morceau de la terre d'autrui, il s'effondrera sur les sept terres le Jour de la Résurrection.

Le nombre, comme sept cieux, pourrait provenir d'une mauvaise interprétation de la mythologie de l'Antiquité classique dans laquelle il y avait sept planètes en mouvement (Mercure, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturne, le soleil et la lune). Le nombre sept, cependant, ne concorde pas avec les découvertes des astronomes modernes, qui savent qu'il y a huit planètes ordinaires et cinq planètes naines, ce qui fait un grand total de treize dans notre système solaire. L'astronomie moderne a également trouvé plusieurs milliers de planètes dans d'autres systèmes solaires et les cosmologistes estiment que des centaines de milliards d'étoiles et de planètes existent dans l'univers en général.

Les Sept Cieux

L'univers se compose de centaines de milliards de galaxies, chacune avec des centaines de milliards d'étoiles. Le Coran déclare qu'au-delà de notre ciel qui contient les étoiles, il existe six autres cieux. Le mythe des sept cieux était une idée courante répandue au Moyen-Orient à l'époque où le Coran a été récité pour la première fois.

15. N'avez-vous pas vu comment Allah a créé sept cieux superposés

Certains érudits islamiques modernes ont soutenu que ces versets se réfèrent aux sept couches de l'atmosphère. Cependant, le Coran 37:6 déclare que les étoiles occupent le ciel le plus proche. De plus, il y a 5 plutôt que 7 couches principales dans l'atmosphère terrestre, et de même seulement 5 plutôt que 7 couches principales dans la Terre elle-même.

6. Nous avons décoré le ciel le plus proche d'un décor: les étoiles,

Le soleil et la Lune ont des dimensions similaires

Dans un passage sur les événements du jour de la résurrection, le Coran implique que le soleil et la lune sont de taille et de distance comparables. Alors qu'une telle perspective est intuitive pour quelqu'un en Arabie du septième siècle qui regarde le soleil et la lune à l'œil nu et observe les éclipses, la science moderne a révélé que 64,3 millions de lunes pourraient tenir dans le soleil.

9. et que le soleil et la lune serons réunis,

Le mot arabe traduit par "sont joints" est jumi'a, un verbe qui signifie rassembler, rassembler, rassembler.

La moon séparé en deux

Le Coran et le Hadith déclarent que la lune a été miraculeusement divisée en deux morceaux puis, vraisemblablement, reconstituée. Il n'y a cependant aucune preuve scientifique suggérant que la lune ait jamais été divisée en deux parties. Les critiques ont souligné que puisque la lune est visible à la moitié de la planète à un moment donné, il devrait exister de nombreux récits de différentes parties du monde attestant de l'événement s'il s'est effectivement produit. Les Romains, les Grecs, les Égyptiens, les Perses, les Chinois et les Indiens avaient des astronomes passionnés qui, selon les critiques, auraient dû voir cet événement et l'enregistrer dans leur histoire. L'absence totale d'un tel enregistrement historique d'autres civilisations contemporaines de Mahomet est donc présentée comme une forte indication que l'événement décrit dans les Écritures ne s'est jamais produit.

1. L'Heure approche et la lune s'est fendue.
D'après Ibn Massoud :

Au cours de la vie du Messager d'Allah (ﷺ), la lune a été divisée en deux parties ; une partie est restée au-dessus de la montagne, et l'autre partie est allée au-delà de la montagne. Là-dessus, le Messager d'Allah (ﷺ) a dit: "Soyez témoin de ce miracle."


La nature de la Lune

Les érudits musulmans modernes ont parfois soutenu que le Coran avait prédit la prise de conscience que la lune n'émet pas sa propre lumière, mais reflète simplement la lumière provenant du Soleil. Le mot arabe pour réfléchi (in`ikaas) n'apparaît pas dans les deux versets coraniques qui disent que la Lune est une "lumière". Au lieu de cela, le mot noor (nooran نُورًا) est utilisé, ce qui signifie simplement "une lumière", et, dans un autre verset, le mot muneer (muneeran مُّنِيرًا) est utilisé, ce qui signifie "donner de la lumière" et est de la même racine que noor . Néanmoins, l'usage de ces mots est vague et semble permettre des interprétations alternatives.

5. C'est Lui qui a fait du soleil une clarté et de la lune une lumière, et Il en a déterminé les phases afin que vous sachiez le nombre des années et le calcul (du temps). Allah n'a créé cela qu'en toute vérité. Il expose les signes pour les gens doués de savoir.
16. et y a fait de la lune une lumière et du soleil une lampe?

Noor apparaît à nouveau (cette fois en tant que participe muneeran مُّنِيرًا) dans un verset similaire sur la lune :

61. Que soit béni Celui qui a placé au ciel des constellations et y a placé un luminaire (le soleil) et aussi une lune éclairante!

Le Coran 33:45-46 montre le plus clairement la signification de noor comme étant "lumière" plutôt que "lumière réfléchie". Une lampe est décrite comme "lumière brillante" avec le même mot arabe utilisé dans le Coran 25:61 (muneeran مُّنِيرًا) :

46. appelant (les gens) à Allah, par Sa permission; et comme une lampe éclairante.

Dans le Lexique de l'arabe classique de Lane, le mot muneer (مُّنِيرً) est défini comme « donner de la lumière, briller, briller ou briller de mille feux ». Noor est défini sur la page précédente comme 'Light; Quel qu'il soit; et ses rayons'. En référence au Coran 10:5 (cité ci-dessus) qui décrit la lune avec ce mot, Lane écrit : « Dans le Kur. X. 5, le soleil est appelé ضياء et la lune نور et il est dit que ضياء est essentiel, mais نور est accidentel [lumière] ». La notion de lumière essentielle et accidentelle et son application au soleil et à la lune ne proviennent pas des Arabes à l'époque du Coran, mais plutôt du livre Kitab al-Manazir, communément appelé "Optique", publié en 1572 par le grand polymathe et pionnier de l'optique al-Hazen. Lane poursuit en disant, citant le très réputé dictionnaire classique Taj al-Arus, 'il [la lumière] est de deux sortes, la lumière du monde présent et celle du monde à venir ; et le premier est soit perçu sensiblement, par l'œil, et c'est ce qui se diffuse des corps lumineux, comme le soleil et la lune et les étoiles, et est mentionné dans le Kur. X. 5 précitée ».

Le mot noor est également utilisé dans le Coran 24:35 pour montrer qu'Allah est la "lumière" de l'univers. L'auteur n'implique pas qu'Allah reflète la lumière d'une autre source, mais plutôt qu'il est la source ultime de toute lumière.

35. Allah est la Lumière des cieux et de la terre. Sa lumière est semblable à une niche où se trouve une lampe. La lampe est dans un (récipient de) cristal et celui-ci ressemble à un astre de grand éclat; son combustible vient d'un arbre béni: un olivier ni oriental ni occidental dont l'huile semble éclairer sans même que le feu la touche. Lumière sur lumière. Allah guide vers Sa lumière qui Il veut. Allah propose aux hommes des paraboles et Allah est Omniscient.

Les étoiles projectiles contre les démons

Le Coran déclare que les étoiles (kawakib ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ) et/ou les lampes (masabih مَصَٰبِيحَ) ornent les cieux et protègent des démons. Alors que les étoiles sont des boules de gaz géantes des milliers de fois plus grosses que la Terre, les météores sont de petites masses rocheuses ou des grains de débris qui brûlent après être entrés dans l'atmosphère terrestre. De nombreux peuples anciens ont confondu les deux, car les météores ressemblent à des étoiles qui traversent le ciel ; c'est pourquoi on les appelait souvent étoiles filantes ou étoiles filantes. Dans le verset suivant, le Coran affirme qu'Allah utilise les étoiles comme missiles pour éloigner les démons. Cela s'inspire d'un mythe arabe qui était courant à l'époque où le Coran a été récité pour la première fois.

6. Nous avons décoré le ciel le plus proche d'un décor: les étoiles,

7. afin de le protéger contre tout diable rebelle.

8. Ils ne pourront être à l'écoute des dignitaires suprêmes [les Anges]; car ils seront harcelés de tout côté,

9. et refoulés. Et ils auront un châtiment perpétuel.

10. Sauf celui qui saisit au vol quelque [information]; il est alors pourchassé par un météore transperçant.

Les mêmes mots arabes sont utilisés au début du Coran 67:5 que dans le Coran 37:6 (زَيَّنَّا ٱلسَّمَآءَ ٱلدُّنْيَا), sauf que dans le Coran 67:5, le mot lampes est utilisé à la place des étoiles. Les lampes qui « embellissent le ciel » font référence aux étoiles), qui sont toujours là. Les météores, en revanche, sont désormais connus pour être distincts des étoiles lointaines. Ils ne sont souvent pas beaucoup plus gros que des grains de sable et ne deviennent visibles qu'une seconde lorsqu'ils brûlent, générant de la lumière dans l'atmosphère terrestre.

5. Nous avons effectivement embelli le ciel le plus proche avec des lampes [des étoiles] dont Nous avons fait des projectiles pour lapider des diables et Nous leur avons préparé le châtiment de la Fournaise.

Un hadith dans Sahih Muslim confirme que les « flammes/missiles poursuivants » dans les deux versets se réfèrent à des météores qu'ils ont vus tirer dans le ciel.

'Abdallah. Ibn 'Abbas rapporte : Une personne des Ansar qui était parmi les Compagnons du Messager d'Allah (psl) m'a rapporté : Alors que nous étions assis pendant la nuit avec le Messager d'Allah (psl), une étoile filante a donné une lumière éblouissante. Le Messager d'Allah (psl) a dit : que dites-vous à l'époque pré-islamique quand il y avait un tel tir (de météore) ? Ils ont dit : Allah et Son Messager connaissent le mieux (la position réelle), mais nous, cependant, avions l'habitude de dire que cette nuit-là un grand homme avait était né et un grand homme était mort, sur quoi le Messager d'Allah pbuh) a dit : (Ces météores) ne sont abattus ni à la mort de personne ni à la naissance de personne. Allah, l'Exalté et le Glorieux, commande quand Il décide de faire quelque chose. Alors (les Anges) soutenant le Trône chantent Sa gloire, puis chantent les habitants du ciel qui sont proches d'eux jusqu'à ce que cette gloire de Dieu atteigne ceux qui sont dans le ciel de ce monde. Alors ceux qui sont près des partisans du Trône demandent à ces partisans du Trône : Qu'a dit ton Seigneur ? Et ils les informent en conséquence de ce qu'Il dit. Ensuite, les habitants du ciel leur demandent des informations jusqu'à ce que ces informations atteignent le ciel du monde. Dans ce processus de transmission (le djinn arrache) ce qu'il parvient à entendre et il le transmet à ses amis. Et quand les anges voient les djinns, ils les attaquent avec des projectiles. S'ils ne racontent que ce qu'ils parviennent à arracher, c'est correct, mais ils l'allient avec des mensonges et y font des ajouts.

D'autres versets pertinents sont le Coran 55 : 33-35 (flamme de feu et de fumée, bien que dans un contexte légèrement différent) et le Coran 72 : 8-9.

LA ciel possède une voute céleste

Un mythe courant à l'époque de la composition du Coran était que le ciel ou les cieux étaient soutenus par des piliers, ce qui est également un motif biblique. Alors que les érudits musulmans classiques croyaient souvent en un ciel en forme de dôme, certains universitaires ont soutenu que les cieux coraniques sont des étendues plates et empilées. Ces cieux sont comme des toits (Coran 2 :22, Coran 21 :32, Coran 40 :64), en couches (Coran 71 :15 et Coran 67 :3, tandis que le Coran 13 :2 accentue davantage cette image en soulignant que, contrairement à ce à quoi on pourrait s'attendre avec une tente arabe, le toit qui est le ciel n'a pas besoin de "piliers" pour le soutenir. Le Coran 81:11 ajoute que le ciel est comme une couverture qui peut être "dépouillée", tandis que le Coran 21:104 indique qu'il sera éventuellement enroulé ou replié.

22. C'est Lui qui vous a fait la terre pour lit, et le ciel pour toit; qui précipite la pluie du ciel et par elle fait surgir toutes sortes de fruits pour vous nourrir, ne Lui cherchez donc pas des égaux, alors que vous savez (tout cela).
2. Allah est Celui qui a élevé [bien haut] les cieux sans piliers visibles
104. Le jour où Nous plierons le ciel comme on plie le rouleau des livres.


Le ciel décrit comme quelque chose qui peut tomber

Le Coran décrit le ciel/paradis comme un toit soutenu par Allah qui peut tomber ou dont des fragments peuvent se détacher et tomber sur les gens . La science moderne décrit le ciel comme un conglomérat de divers gaz.

44. Et s'ils voient tomber des fragments du ciel, ils disent: "Ce sont des nuages superposés".
9. Ne voient-ils donc pas ce qu'il y a comme ciel et comme terre devant et derrière eux? Si Nous voulions, Nous ferions au la terre les engloutisse, ou que des morceaux du ciel tombent sur eux. Il y a en cela une preuve pour tout serviteur repentant.
65. N'as-tu pas vu qu'Allah vous a soumis tout ce qui est sur la terre ainsi que le vaisseau qui vogue sur la mer par Son ordre? Il retient le ciel de tomber sur la terre, sauf quand Il le permettra. Car Allah est Plein de bonté et de miséricorde envers les hommes.

Les cieux enroulés

Le Coran 21:104 et le Coran 39:67 déclarent que les cieux seront « enroulés » le jour du jugement, ce qui implique la corporéité et la « planéité » de l'espace.

104. Le jour où Nous plierons le ciel comme on plie le rouleau des livres.
67. Il n'ont pas estimé Allah comme Il devrait l'être alors qu'au Jour de la Résurrection, Il fera de la terre entière une poignée, et les cieux seront pliés dans sa [main] droite. Gloire à Lui! Il est au-dessus de ce qu'ils Lui associent.


L'oubli des poles nord et sud

Dans les régions polaires, la longévité du jour et de la nuit varie en été et en hiver. Le jour devient de plus en plus court en hiver jusqu'à ce qu'il y ait des jours ou des semaines de nuit ininterrompue. Aux pôles eux-mêmes, le jour et la nuit durent alternativement six mois et toutes les phases de la lune se produisent plusieurs fois entre le lever et le coucher du soleil. Ces circonstances rendent impraticables bon nombre des rituels islamiques les plus importants et suggèrent que le ou les auteurs du Coran et des hadiths, dans la mesure où ils aspiraient à produire une religion praticable à l'échelle mondiale, n'étaient pas conscients des distorsions extrêmes de la durée du jour qui se déroulent près des pôles.

40. Le soleil ne peut rattraper la lune, ni la nuit devancer le jour; et chacun vogue dans une orbite.

A la lecture de ce verset on peut aussi se demander dans quel sens le jour et la nuit ont chacun une orbite Geocentrism and the Quran).

voir aussi Fasting and Prayer Requirements Near the Poles section below.

Biologie

Evolution

Le Coran adopteadopte une vision créationniste des origines de la vie sur terre. Cela s'écarte fortement des preuves scientifiques accablantes selon lesquelles les humains ont évolué à partir de formes de vie antérieures, au cours de millions d'années et par la sélection naturelle. Par conséquent, alors que certains érudits musulmans réinterprètent le Coran afin qu'ils puissent accepter la théorie de l'évolution, la plupart la rejettent en faveur d'une vision du monde créationniste. Les sondages d'opinion montrent que la majorité des musulmans conviennent que l'islam et l'évolution ne sont pas compatibles.

Les humains crées à partir d'argile

Le Coran déclare que l'homme a été créé instantanément à partir d'argile (salsalin صَلْصَٰلٍ) / boue (hamain حَمَإٍ). Rien n'indique que l'auteur soit au courant de l'évolution de la vie humaine sur des millions d'années ou de notre ascendance commune avec les singes et les primates. Alors que certains scientifiques discutent des mécanismes détaillés de l'évolution, ils conviennent que la descendance commune est un fait largement prouvé.

26. Nous créâmes l'homme d'une argile crissante, extraite d'une boue malléable.
14. Il a créé l'homme d'argile sonnante comme la poterie;

Le Coran déclare également, dans le même ordre d'idées, que le premier homme a été créé à partir de poussière ( turabin تُرَابٍ).

59. Pour Allah, Jésus est comme Adam qu'Il créa de poussière, puis Il lui dit "Sois": et il fut.


Adam et Eve

Le Coran contient des histoires concernant les « premiers humains » qui détaillent, entre autres, comment tous les gens descendent d'Adam et Eve (appelés Hawa en arabe), les deux premiers ancêtres. Ces humains ont été créés dans un jardin (le mot pour paradis en arabe est jannah, qui signifie littéralement « jardin ») puis amenés sur Terre entièrement formés (les hadiths Sahih disent qu'Adam mesurait 60 coudées - ou 90 pieds - de hauteur). Cette vision des origines de la vie humaine est directement remise en question par des preuves ADN accablantes et les nombreux fossiles d'espèces pré-Homo sapiens qui ont vécu sur terre pendant des millions d'années avant l'évolution de l'homme moderne. Les preuves ADN probantes montrent que les humains ont une ascendance commune avec d'autres primates incluent les rétrovirus endogènes et la fusion de chromosomes dans les mêmes emplacements génétiques.

189. C'est Lui qui vous a créés d'un seul être dont il a tiré son épouse, pour qu'il trouve de la tranquillité auprès d'elle; et lorsque celui-ci eut cohabité avec elle, elle conçut une légère grossesse, avec quoi elle se déplaçait (facilement). Puis lorsqu'elle se trouva alourdie, tous deux invoquèrent leur Seigneur: "Si Tu nous donnes un (enfant) sain, nous serons certainement du nombre des reconnaissants".


Dans le verset ci-dessus, l'allusion poétique au sexe et à la grossesse et l'invocation du couple à Allah ne laissent aucun doute sur le fait que la première phrase fait référence à la descendance commune d'Adam (dans des versets similaires, c'est moins explicite). Tous les exégètes classiques affirment que cet « être unique » (نَّفْسٍ وَٰحِدَةٍ) fait référence à Adam. Les tafsirs sunnites et chiites classiques le confirment et il existe même des récits de hadiths mutawatir (rapports transmis en masse) impliquant que tous les humains descendent d'Adam (pour plus de détails, voir Évolution et Islam).

Un autre verset décrit la descendance littérale de l'humanité d'un homme en référence aux moyens sexuels par lesquels elle a été réalisée ("fluide méprisé", c'est-à-dire le sperme) après qu'Allah eut créé ce premier homme à partir d'argile.

7. qui a bien fait tout ce qu'Il a créé. Et Il a commencé la création de l'homme à partir de l'argile, 8. puis Il tira sa descendance d'une goutte d'eau vile [le sperme];


Embryologie

Le Coran contient des descriptions concernant les fluides corporels et les stades de développement de l'embryon humain. Beaucoup de ces descriptions sont extrêmement vagues et la plupart ont une ressemblance frappante avec des descriptions similaires trouvées dans le Talmud juif ainsi qu'avec les idées des anciens Grecs, comme Galien. Ces descriptions ne concordent pas avec les découvertes de la science moderne et sont généralement considérées comme banales dans le contexte arabe du VIIe siècle où le Coran a été récité pour la première fois.

Sperme provenant entre la colonne vertébrale et les côtes

Le Coran déclare que le sperme provient de quelque part entre la colonne vertébrale et les côtes. D'autres versets et hadiths suggèrent également une fonction de reproduction pour la colonne vertébrale. Bien que cela corresponde aux opinions des médecins de l'Antiquité, la science moderne a montré que le sperme provient des testicules et le sperme de diverses glandes situées derrière et sous la vessie, qui ne se situe pas entre la colonne vertébrale et les côtes.

5. Que l'homme considère donc de quoi il a été créé.

6. Il a été créé d'une giclée d'eau

7. sortie d'entre les lombes et les côtes.

L'embryon formé à partir de sperme

Le Coran décrit la formation initiale d'un embryon humain à partir d'un fluide émanant de l'homme, qui a été placé dans l'utérus (et éventuellement mélangé avec un fluide féminin). Cela reflète l'opinion répandue à cette époque selon laquelle le sperme est le matériau à partir duquel l'embryon est initialement formé, comme l'enseignent Hippocrate, Galien et le Talmud juif. C'est aussi évident dans les hadiths. En revanche, la science moderne a montré que le sperme est le véhicule des spermatozoïdes, dont l'un fusionne avec l'ovule d'une femme dans sa trompe de Fallope, et que la cellule résultante se divise (plutôt que le milieu séminal) et retourne dans l'utérus pour implantation.


20. Ne vous avons-Nous pas créés d'une eau vile

21. que Nous avons placée dans un reposoir sûr,
13. puis Nous en fîmes une goutte de sperme dans un reposoir solide.
18. De quoi [Allah] l'a-t-Il créé? 19. D'une goutte de sperme, Il le crée et détermine (son destin):

Oubli de l'ovule

Le Coran, dans toute sa discussion sur la reproduction humaine, ne mentionne pas le rôle de l'ovule, impliquant plutôt que la reproduction est causée simplement par le stockage du sperme masculin dans l'utérus féminin. son but n'était pas compris au 7ème siècle - cela semble expliquer son omission dans le Coran.

6. Il a été créé d'une giclée d'eau

Humans created from a clot of blood

The Qur'an describes humans as being formed from a clot of blood after an initial semen stage. By contrast, modern science has revealed that there is no stage in embryonic development where the relevant material is a clot of blood. The Quranic description is likely influenced by a simplistic attempt at explaining human reproduction based on unaided-eye observations of an early-term miscarriage and a woman's menstrual cycle. While in modern times some Muslims scholars have advanced alternative meanings for the relevant word, the historical certainty that the word can mean clotted blood (also the unanimous understanding in the classical tafsirs), which has a clear biological meaning, while being used in the Qur'an in the context of a biological description (formation of a baby), renders the modern reinterpretations extremely challenging.

Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood...
Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood:
Narrated 'Abdullah bin Mus'ud: “Allah's Apostle, the true and truly inspired said, "(The matter of the Creation of) a human being is put together in the womb of the mother in forty days, and then he becomes a clot of thick blood for a similar period, and then a piece of flesh for a similar period.”

Gender decided at clot stage

The Qur'an states that an embryo is transformed from semen into a clot, shaped (presumably into a human mold), and then determined into either the male or female sex. Modern genetics, on the other hand, has shown that the sex of a human is decided at the moment of conception.[1]

Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth? Then he became a clot; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female.

While translators mostly use "And" in verse 39, the Arabic particle is fa, as also in the previous conjunction, which indicates sequence (i.e. 'and then').[2] Classical tafsirs share this reading, and the same reading is reflected in a sahih hadith found in both Bukhari and Muslim:

Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."

Bones formed before flesh

The Qur'an states that the bones of a human embryo are formed first and then covered up with flesh. By contrast, modern science has shown that muscles and the cartilage 'models' of the future bones start to form at the same time and in parallel. Muscles have started to form before the cartilage models start to be replaced with actual bone.

Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood; then of that clot We made a (foetus) lump; then we made out of that lump bones then (not and) clothed the bones with flesh; then we developed out of it another creature. So blessed be Allah, the best to create!

The Qur'an again parallels the influential Greek physician Galen, who says:

And now the third period of gestation has come. After nature has made outlines of all the organs and the substance of the semen is used up, the time has come for nature to articulate the organs precisely and to bring all the parts to completion. Thus it caused flesh to grow on and around all the bones...
Galen, On semen, p.101

All organisms created in pairs

The Quran states that all beings are created in pairs. However, modern science has revealed that not every creature procreates or reproduces through a male and female sexual relationship. The whiptail lizard in the U.S. Southwest, Mexico, and South America, for instance, is an all-females species which reproduces by parthenogenesis. Viruses (if considered a life form) reproduce using a host's DNA and are neither female nor male. Bacteria reproduce by cell division. Fungus can reproduce either asexually or sexually with thousands of genders. Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through pollination. Hermaphrodites of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy.

And of every thing We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction.
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge.

Fetus in three layers of darkness

The word butun (بطن) means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators have opted to use the more specific (and evocative) word "womb".[3] Classical tafsirs interpreted the "three darknesses" as the placenta, womb (uterus), and belly. Modern science has revealed there to be many more such layers in the human body, such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers). In terms of extra-embryonic membranes, there is also the allantois, which is a sac-like structure and does not surround the embryo, but becomes part of the umbilical cord and is not in any real sense 'a darkness' viz-a-viz the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the amniotic sac, which is quite thin and transparent. The idea of three membranes around the fetus (chorion, allantois, and amnion) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen, and the description found in the Quran in all likelihood draws on Galen's widespread influence in the late antique world.

He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?

Functions of the heart

The Quran describes the heart as a locus of contemplation, thought, and even decision outside of the brain.

And We place upon their hearts veils lest they should understand it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion.
Lo! now they fold up their breasts that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the breasts (of men).

Source and purity of Milk

The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are, however, not located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Many kinds of cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before they can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans are lactose intolerant and unable to digest milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting. These realities appear to challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable'.

And verily in cattle (too) will ye find an instructive sign. From what is within their bodies between excretions and blood, We produce, for your drink, milk, pure and agreeable to those who drink it.

Geology and meteorology

Flat Earth

Facing toward Mecca

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to face the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray. In consideration of the roundness of the Earth, scholars developed the great circle method to carry out this instruction. However, a number of problems have been suggested: one facing Mecca also necessarily has their back turned to it (a display of disrespect which is roundly prohibited in Islam), and one directly opposite Mecca on the globe may pray in any direction. A similar consideration leads North American Muslims, who live in the hemisphere of this antipode of Mecca, to instead prefer the rhumb-line technique since the great circle method would cause people north and south in the Americas to face away from each as they pray (great circle lines from this antipode diverge cross the continent before they start to converge again when they enter the hemisphere of Mecca). Finally, Astronauts in Earth's orbit or on the Moon and Mars would are essentially unable to follow these instructions (suggesting that the author of the Qur'an did not have such future realities in mind).

From whencesoever Thou startest forth, turn Thy face in the direction of the sacred Mosque; that is indeed the truth from the Lord. And Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.

Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise till sunset during Ramadan. In the polar regions there are six months of sunlight and six months of perpetual night during Summer and Winter. Such fasting is not practicable for anyone living in the polar regions, and very easy (depth of Winter) or extremely hard (height of Summer) in places within around 40 degrees latitude of the poles. Various rules have been contrived by Muslim scholars for those at such latitudes to try to accommodate the (here inconvenient) fact that we live on a round Earth.

...Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall...

A similar issue emerges for the five daily prayers. Persons living in the polar region would not be able to make a sunset or sunrise prayer for much of the year. Even in less extreme contextxs, for cities further south like Aberdeen in Scotland, the gap between the night prayer (Isha) and the dawn prayer (Fajr) is still around 4 and a half hours in June, so a person praying five times a day is required to interrupt their sleep around 3.20am, then go back to sleep before getting up for the day. These challenges would likely not have been on the mind of the author of the Quran during the 7th century in Arabia.

Establish regular prayers - at the sun's decline till the darkness of the night, and the morning prayer and reading: for the prayer and reading in the morning carry their testimony.

Earth as spread out and flat

The author of the Qur'an mentions that the Earth is 'spread out' and laid flat. The Arabic word here (sataha) was used to describe making the flat top or roof of a house or chamber and making a top surface flat.[4] Words from the same root mean the flat top surface or roof of a house or chamber, a bounded flat plane in geometry, a level place upon which dates can be spread, a rolling pin (which expands the dough), plane or flat.

And at the Earth, how it is spread out?

The Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn agrees with this understanding of the verse saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.

And the earth, how it was laid out flat?, and thus infer from this the power of God, exalted be He, and His Oneness? The commencing with the [mention of] camels is because they are closer in contact with it [the earth] than any other [animal]. As for His words sutihat, 'laid out flat', this on a literal reading suggests that the earth is flat, which is the opinion of most of the scholars of the [revealed] Law, and not a sphere as astronomers (ahl al-hay'a) have it, even if this [latter] does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.

Earth as like carpet

The Arabic word (bisaatan) used here means a thing that is spread or spread out or forth, and particularly a carpet.[5]

And Allah has made the earth for you as a carpet (spread out)

Earth as like a couch

The Earth is described using an Arabic word (firashan) that means a thing that is spread on the ground to sit or lay upon.[6]

[He] who made for you the earth a bed [spread out] and the sky a ceiling and sent down from the sky, rain and brought forth thereby fruits as provision for you. So do not attribute to Allah equals while you know [that there is nothing similar to Him].

The same root word for couch in Quran 2:22 is used as a verb in Quran 51:48 in the sense of to spread (the first word translated spread here).

And the earth, We have spread it; how excellent (are) the Spreaders!

Earth as like a bed

The Earth is described as a 'bed' (or 'carpet' in the Yusuf Ali translation) in verse Quran 20:53, and similarly Quran 43:10. The Arabic word (mahdan) suggests something completely flat and spread out on the ground (and not, for instance, 'rolled up' for storage).[7]

Who hath appointed the earth as a bed and hath threaded roads for you therein and hath sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers kinds of vegetation

Sometimes the same Arabic word is translated as expanse, as in Quran 78:6-7. Together with the next verse, the Earth is here a thing spread out and pegged down by mountains.

Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?

The same root word is used as a participle at the end of Quran 51:48.

And the earth, We have spread it; how excellent (are) the Spreaders!

Earth stretched out

In the verse below, as also in Quran 13:3 and Quran 50:7, the Qur'an uses a verb (madadna) that meant to extend by drawing or pulling, stretch out, expand.[8]

And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.

Earth as a level plain

The Qur'an describes a time in the future when mountains will be removed. Quran 18:47 uses an Arabic word (baarizatan) that means "entirely apparent" to describe the Earth at this time.[9] Quran 20:106 uses words (qa'an and safsafan) that mean a level plain.[10] This description implies the Earth is flat and level and that it is the mountains which give it shape.

And (bethink you of) the Day when we remove the hills and ye see the earth emerging, and We gather them together so as to leave not one of them behind.
They will ask thee of the mountains (on that day). Say: My Lord will break them into scattered dust. And leave it as an empty plain, Wherein thou seest neither curve nor ruggedness.

Permanent barrier between fresh and salt water

When a fresh water river flows into the sea or ocean, there is a transition region in between. This transition region is called an estuary where the fresh water remains temporarily separated from the salt water. However, this separation is not absolute, is not permanent, and the different salinity levels between the two bodies of water eventually homogenize. The Qur'an, by contrast, suggests that the separation between the two types of water is absolute, permanent, and maintained by some sort of divine barrier placed between them.

It is He Who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: One palatable and sweet, and the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them, a partition that is forbidden to be passed.

Mountains prevent the earth from shaking

Modern geology has discovered that large plates in the crust of the earth are responsible for the formation of mountains. Called plate tectonics, the slow movement of these massive plates meet and the pressure between them pushes up the crust, forming mountains while also causing earthquakes and faults in the Earth's surface. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other. The Qur'an, by contrast, holds that mountains are like pegs in the ground, stabilizing the Earth which would shake without them.

And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves
Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?

Mountains cast upon Earth

Mountains are usually formed through the movement and collision of lithospheric (tectonic) plates. This is an ongoing process that continues to this day as the plates slowly move. The Quran, by contrast, states that the mountains on Earth's surface were cast upon it by God. The imagery is clear when one considers the above verses which describe the Mountains as 'pegs' which stabilize the Earth (which is itself compared to a carpet and bed roll).

And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,

The word 'he has cast' is alqa (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast. It is the same word as is used in Quran 3:44 when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered), and Quran 12:10 when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in Quran 20:20 when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake.[11]

Chests contract with altitude

Quran 6:125 states that a person's chest cavity gets smaller at higher altitude. Modern science, by contrast, has revealed that the opposite is the case.

Those whom Allah (in His plan) willeth to guide,- He openeth their breast to Islam; those whom He willeth to leave straying,- He maketh their breast close and constricted, as if they had to climb up to the skies: thus doth Allah (heap) the penalty on those who refuse to believe.

Earthquakes as a punishment

The Quran describes Earthquakes, blizzards, hurricanes, and other destructive natural activity as being a sort of punishment for the people they inflict. Research, however, has not found any correlation between civilizations' irreligiosity and their susceptibility to these or other type of natural disaster.

Do then those who devise evil (plots) feel secure that Allah will not cause the earth to swallow them up, or that the Wrath will not seize them from directions they little perceive?
But they denied him, and the dreadful earthquake took them, and morning found them prostrate in their dwelling place.
Do ye then feel secure that He will not cause you to be swallowed up beneath the earth when ye are on land, or that He will not send against you a violent tornado (with showers of stones) so that ye shall find no one to carry out your affairs for you

Disregard of evaporation in water cycle

Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the water cycle is described in the Qur'an. Every verse about rain in the Qur'an implies that rain comes either directly from the sky or from Allah. The crucial step of evaporation of water into the air is never mentioned. That Quran describes a linear process orchestrated by Allah rather than a cyclical process (as with the water cycle) renders these modern reinterpretations challenging.

That sends down (from time to time) rain from the sky in due measure;- and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead; even so will ye be raised (from the dead)

Mountains of hail in the sky

Hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds when updrafts raise water droplets to an altitude where they freeze. The Qur'an, by contrast, describes mountain-like masses of hail in the sky / heaven.

Hast thou not seen how Allah wafteth the clouds, then gathereth them, then maketh them layers, and thou seest the rain come forth from between them; He sendeth down from the heaven mountains wherein is hail, and smiteth therewith whom He will, and averteth it from whom He will. The flashing of His lightning all but snatcheth away the sight.

Transliteration: wayunazzilu (and he sends down) mina (from) alssamai (the sky) min (from) jibalin (mountains) feeha (in it ['it' is feminine here so must refer to the sky]) min (of) baradin (hail)


Tafsirs such as al-Jalalayn and the one attributed to Ibn Abbas say that this means mountains in the sky.[12] Ibn Kathir notes two views, that these are literally mountains of hail in the sky, or that they are a metaphor for clouds.[13] Clouds could poetically be described as mountains in the sky, but the verse says "mountains of hail in the sky", which critics would say strongly suggests large masses of ice (in the clouds or otherwise), and it was sometimes understood in this literal way as evidenced in tafsirs.

Allah smites with thunderbolts

The Quran describes thunder and lightning in a manner typical of ancient mythology. Allah, in a manner evocative of the legends most famously regarding Zeus, smites persons he wishes to punish with thunderbolts. A hadith, graded hasan (good) by Dar-us-Salam, further states that Muhammad believed the sound of thunder was an angel striking the clouds, which the angel drives along with a piece of fire (evoking the image of a whip of fire).

And the thunder declares His glory with His praise, and the angels too for awe of Him; and He sends the thunderbolts and smites with them whom He pleases, yet they dispute concerning Allah, and He is mighty in prowess.
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: "The Jews came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: 'O Abul-Qasim! Inform us about the thunder, what is it?' He said: 'An angel among the angels, who is responsible for the clouds. He has a piece of fire wherever that he drives the clouds wherever Allah wills.' They said: 'Then what is this noise we hear?' He said: 'It is him, striking the clouds when he drives them on, until it goes where it is ordered.' They said: 'You have told the truth.'

Zoology

Ants converse and recognize humans

Ants primarily communicate with each other using pheromones (chemical signals). While scientists have discovered that ants make some noises, nothing has ever indicated that the brains of ants could produce anything approximating complex speech. By contrast, the Qur'an recounts the story of an ant warning her fellow ants of the approach of Solomon's large army of humans. Solomon is able to understand her speech and proceeds, presumably, to leave the ants be.

At length, when they came to a (lowly) valley of ants, one of the ants said: "O ye ants, get into your habitations, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you (under foot) without knowing it." So he smiled, amused at her speech; and he said: "O my Lord! so order me that I may be grateful for Thy favours, which thou hast bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may work the righteousness that will please Thee: And admit me, by Thy Grace, to the ranks of Thy righteous Servants."

Four types of cattle

The Qur'an states that Allah has provided four kinds of cattle (eight including male and female). There exist, however, many more than four species of cattle. The word "cattle" in Quran 39:6 is al-ana'ami, from a root meaning plentiful subsistence and in this form meant pasturing (i.e. grazing) animals.[14] The word azwajin ("kinds" in the translation of 39:6 below) generally means "mate" or "member of a pair".[15] Quran 6:143-144 clarifies that this refers to male and female pairs of sheep, goats, oxen, and camels, suggesting that the author of the Qur'an was aware of four kinds of grazing animals useful for humans (horses, mules and donkeys are considered a separate category from al-ana'ami, see Quran 16:5-8). This does not include many other types of cattle from the regions outside of Arabia, such as reindeer, which were and remain important to people in northern latitudes.

He created you from one being, then from that (being) He made its mate; and He hath provided for you of cattle eight kinds. He created you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, in a threefold gloom. Such is Allah, your Lord. His is the Sovereignty. There is no Allah save Him. How then are ye turned away
And of the cattle (He produceth) some for burdens, some for food. Eat of that which Allah hath bestowed upon you, and follow not the footsteps of the devil, for lo! he is an open foe to you. Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain. Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain? Expound to me (the case) with knowledge, if ye are truthful. And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain. Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain; or were ye by to witness when Allah commanded you (all) this? Then who doth greater wrong than he who deviseth a lie concerning Allah, that he may lead mankind astray without knowledge. Lo! Allah guideth not wrongdoing folk.

Horses created as transportation

After thousands of years of domestication and cross-breeding, horses were domesticated approximately 4,000 years ago in East Europe and Central Asia. Prior to this, horses were wild animals not yet suitably bred for this purpose. Today feral horses are descendants of once domesticated horses that aren't tamed or used for human transportation. By contrast, the Qur'an appears to suggest that horses were created by Allah already prepared to serve human purposes.

And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and use for show; and He has created (other) things of which ye have no knowledge.

All animals live in communities

The Qur'an emphatically states that all animals live in "communities". Many animals, such as the jaguar or leopard, are however well known for being solitary creatures, rarely meeting in pairs and then only to mate. Animals of these kinds do not live in communities and rather tend to resort to violence when their solitude is disturbed (the opposite, some argue, of what it means to live in a community). There also exist species whose young are not raised as family and which lay eggs and abandon them before hatching. Sea Turtles, for instance, bury their eggs on a beach and leave them. When an egg hatches the baby turtle must dig to the surface and make a sprint to the sea or perish. Some reptiles behave similarly. The Carolina anole, which is a lizard species, is another such example. These anoles lay a single egg every 2 weeks, around 10 in total, each taking 5 to 7 weeks to hatch. Anole hatchlings must fend for themselves and are by nature solitary creatures from birth.

One modern translation of the Quran interprets umamun (community / nation) to mean "genus" (group of species, plural: genera). This interpretation appears difficult, however, for while today we categorize species into genera, families, and other taxonomic ranks within evolutionary tree (phylogenetic) models, such categories are understood as an evolutionary process in which, even now, sub-groups of many species are diverging and gradually evolving into new species.

There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have we omitted from the Book, and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end.

Bird flight as a miracle

Modern science has revealed the aerodynamic properties of birds' anatomy which enable them to fly. Bird flight essentially functions by creating a difference in the air pressure between the lower and upper part of the wing and this creates lift that pushes the bird upward. The wings of birds have evolved over millions of years and have thereby refined birds' flight abilities. By contrast, the Quran states that 'nothing' holds birds in the air, except for the miraculous power of Allah.

Do they not look at the birds, held poised in the midst of (the air and) the sky? Nothing holds them up but (the power of) Allah. Verily in this are signs for those who believe

History

Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to historical errors in the Quran.

Massive wall of iron

The Qur'an presents a version of the Syrian legend of Alexander the Great as a great king who helps a tribe of people build a massive wall of iron between two mountains. The Quran then states, along with the hadith, that this wall and the tribes it traps will remain in place until the Day of Judgement. Modern satellites and near comprehensive exploration of the Earth's surface, however, have yet to reveal any trace of such massive structure.

"Bring me blocks of iron." At length, when he had filled up the space between the two steep mountain-sides, He said, "Blow (with your bellows)" Then, when he had made it (red) as fire, he said: "Bring me, that I may pour over it, molten lead." Thus were they made powerless to scale it or to dig through it.


Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.

Mary as part of the Trinity

Mainstream Christian doctrine has never held Mary to be a part of the Trinity. The Qur'an, however, plainly states as much, leading some to conclude that Muhammad misunderstood Christian doctrine.

And behold! Allah will say: "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, worship me and my mother as gods in derogation of Allah'?" He will say: "Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, Thou I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden

This alternative formulation of the trinity is present even more clearly in Quran 5:72-75, which makes no mention of the holy spirit and takes measure to disprove the divinity of Jesus and his mother by pointing out that they, like normal human beings, also ate food.

They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger, messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food. See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!

Mary as Miriam

Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced maryam).

Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.
And Mary, daughter of 'Imran, whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.
Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham and the Family of 'Imran above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the wife of 'Imran said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.

"Wife of 'Imran" is here im'ra-atu ʿim'rāna, literally woman of Imran, though the same construction certainly means "wife" a few verses later (Quran 3:40), and in several other verses.

Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements. Sahih Muslim 25:5326 seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

Ezra as the son of God in Jewish doctrine

Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as practitioners of polytheism by stating that they hold Uzair (Ezra) to be the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christian doctrine which hold Jesus to be the son of God. This appears to be a confusion resulting from conflating the alternative senses in which Jewish and Christian theologians have employed and understood the word "son".

The Jews call 'Uzair a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth!

David invented coats of mail

Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.[16]. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.[17] The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While, older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (sabighatin سَٰبِغَٰتٍ[18]) after Allah made the iron (al hadid ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (as-sardi ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.[19] A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him, Saying: Make thou long coats of mail and measure the links (thereof). And do ye right. Lo! I am Seer of what ye do.
And We made Solomon to understand (the case); and unto each of them We gave judgment and knowledge. And we subdued the hills and the birds to hymn (His) praise along with David. We were the doers (thereof). And We taught him the art of making garments (of mail) to protect you in your daring. Are ye then thankful?

Chainmail seems to have been familiar to the early Muslims. Muhammad is narrated as using a metaphor of two coats of iron (junnataani min hadeedin جُنَّتَانِ مِنْ حَدِيدٍ), one owned by a generous person and the other by a miser in whose coat every ring (halqat حَلْقَةٍ[20]) becomes close together (Sahih Muslim 5:2229). Ibn Kathir in his tafsir for 34:11 has narrations in which Mujahid and Ibn Abbas use that same arabic word meaning rings (الحلقة) to explain the Quranic verse[21].

Crucifixions in ancient Egypt

The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures. The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).

Ancient Egypt has been subjected to extensive study by archaeologists. While there exists hieroglyphic evidence of people impaled through upright stakes in ancient Egypt, this remains distinct from the Palm-tree crucifixions described in the Quran, as Palm trees are of too great girth to be used to vertically impale an individual.

O two companions of prison, as for one of you, he will give drink to his master of wine; but as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. The matter has been decreed about which you both inquire."
(Pharaoh) said: Ye put faith in him before I give you leave. Lo! he is your chief who taught you magic. Now surely I shall cut off your hands and your feet alternately, and I shall crucify you on the trunks of palm trees, and ye shall know for certain which of us hath sterner and more lasting punishment.

The singular Pharaoh

Geographically, the Coptic land of Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus, most Arabs were aware of the preservation method applied by the ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs. Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence, salt in the body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in the dead sea). There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved in this way. The Qur'an, by contrast, only speaks of "Pharaoh" (Firaun) singularly, as a proper noun without the definite article, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs.

This day shall We save thee in the body, that thou mayest be a sign to those who come after thee! but verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs!"

Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh

The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, Aad and its successor, Thamud. The destruction of Thamud after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned many times, either by an earthquake Quran 7:78 or a thunderous blast (for example Quran 54:31).

Its destruction is also alluded to by a believer from the family of Pharaoh:

And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.

The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in Quran 38:12-14.

Thamud is a term used by experts for a people or peoples of a particular region over a number of centuries (8th century BCE to the 4th century CE), but the Qur'an speaks only of a particular destruction of Thamud after the warnings of their prophet Salih went unheeded. It describes them as the builders of well known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al Hijr (the rocky tract), or Mada'in Salih today.

The errors in the Quran here are two-fold: It is now known that these were actually elaborately carved tombs, not homes or palaces, and that they were made by the Nabateans from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century AD, not before the time of the Pharaohs[22]. Petra in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al Hijr. There are over 100 tombs at al-Hijr, some very large, and many of them small, believed even by a 14th Century CE Arab traveller to contain the bones of the people of Thamud in their houses.[23]. Nabatean inscriptions forbid opening the tombs, reusing them or moving the bodies. The town of al-Hegra where the people lived some distance from the surrounding rock tombs was built of mud-brick and stone.[24]

The Quran says Thamud carved palaces from its plains, and homes from its mountains:

And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا [25]]. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."
And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.

These ruins were well known to Muhammad's listeners:

And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ [26]]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.
And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?

Al-Hijr is widely accepted as this location. It is also mentioned once by name in Quran 15:80-83 ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.

And certainly did the companions of Thamud [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.

Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):

Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar: The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.


Samaritans in ancient Egypt

The Qu'ran states that Moses dealt with a Samaritan during his time, however the Samaritans did not exist until well over half a millennium after Moses is supposed to have existed. The term samari itself comes from the city of Samaria, an archaeologically evidenced city built by King Omri around 870BC, nearly 700 years after Moses is supposed to have existed.

The likely source of this confusion is the story in the Bible in Hosea 8:5-6 where there is mentioned another golden calf worshipped by Samaritans after the time of Solomon. One modern perspective holds that the Qur'an might be referring to Zimri, son of Salu (Numbers 25:14). However, the Quranic character is referred to three times in Quran 20:85-88 as l-sāmiriyu with the definite article, "the Samiri", so this is a descriptive title rather than a proper name.

“( Allah) said; ‘We have tested thy people in thy absence: the Samiri has led them astray’.”
“( Moses) said, ‘What then is thy case, O Samiri?’”

Noah's worldwide flood

The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.

Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.
At length, behold! there came Our command, and the fountains of the earth gushed forth! We said: "Embark therein, of each kind two, male and female, and your family - except those against whom the word has already gone forth,- and the Believers." but only a few believed with him.
The son replied: "I will betake myself to some mountain: it will save me from the water." Noah said: "This day nothing can save, from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.
And Noah, said: "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers, a single one on earth!

Flood waters boiled from an oven

The Qur'an further describes the flood waters as boiling from an oven. There is no scientific nor historical evidence for a large flood of this nature. This element is not found even in more ancient versions of the story (Epic of Gilgamesh, Atra hasis, and Ziusudra). Its ultimate origin appears to be a highly tenuous rabbinical exergisis in the Babylonian Talmud, based on a word in an unrelated verse that means heat or wrath.[27]

The Gemara answers: Even according to Rabbi Eliezer a change was made, in accordance with the statement of Rav Ḥisda, as Rav Ḥisda said: They sinned with boiling heat, and they were punished with boiling heat; they sinned with the boiling heat of the sin of forbidden sexual relations, and they were punished with the boiling heat of scalding waters. This is derived from a verbal analogy. It is written here, with regard to the flood: “And the waters abated” (Genesis 8:1), and it is written elsewhere, with regard to King Ahasuerus: “And the heated anger of the king abated” (Esther 7:10), which implies that the word “abated” means cooled. This indicates that at first the waters of the flood had been scalding hot.

Note that in his translation, Yusuf Ali mistranslates the Aramaic loan word for the oven (alttannooru ٱلتَّنُّورُ)[28] as "fountains". The Arabic verb translated "gushed forth" (fara فَارَ) means "boiled" in the context of water in a cooking pot[29], as well as in the other verse where it is used, Quran 67:7.

(Thus it was) till, when Our commandment came to pass and the oven gushed forth water, We said: Load therein two of every kind, a pair (the male and female), and thy household, save him against whom the word hath gone forth already, and those who believe. And but a few were they who believed with him.
Then We inspired in him, saying: Make the ship under Our eyes and Our inspiration. Then, when Our command cometh and the oven gusheth water, introduce therein of every (kind) two spouses, and thy household save him thereof against whom the Word hath already gone forth. And plead not with Me on behalf of those who have done wrong. Lo! they will be drowned.

Noah's ark holding every species

Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Modern science has revealed, however, that there are over a hundred thousand species of animals including penguins, polar bears, koala bears, and kangaroos that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets. These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.

(Thus it was) till, when Our commandment came to pass and the oven gushed forth water, We said: Load therein two of every kind, a pair (the male and female), and thy household, save him against whom the word hath gone forth already, and those who believe. And but a few were they who believed with him.

Sociology

Linguistics

And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, "Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful."

The Qur'an, in multiple instances, states that the first humans "Adam and Eve" spoke to each other in some kind of language, and that God told them the names of 'all things'. Modern linguistics has revealed, however, that the type of sentences constructed in the Qur'an were not spoken by humans until over 100,000 years after the first humans evolved. The language of the first humans would be incomprehensible to us and they would not be able to express the kinds of sentences that Adam and Eve do in the Qur'an. The earliest forms of human communication were entirely different in nature from the sorts of languages humans have used in the last several thousands of years.

Some 1.9 million species of plants and animals have been identified and named, out of some 8.7 million that may actually exist[30]. Millions more have become extinct. Far more numerous are the living objects, galaxies, the countless stars and planets of the universe. In light of this, it is not clear what is meant by the idea that Allah taught Adam 'all the names', especially since the first humans do not appear to have been extremely knowledgeable.

Arabic as eminently accessible

Fewer than 4% of the world's population grows up speaking Arabic. The Arabic of this 4%, however, is not the Arabic of the Quran and is instead comprised of various regional dialects of modern colloquial Arabic. The text of the Quran is thus directly accessible only to a small portion of the world's population. Additionally, there are present in the Quran many words, phrases, and references whose original 7th century Arabic meaning, being unrecorded, has been entirely lost to history or, in some cases, has remained subject to inconclusive debates. Consequently, while Muslims are obligated to pray and recite the Quran in Arabic, it is only a small proportion of the Muslim population that can claim to have some sense of what they recite on a daily basis. These circumstances are difficult to reconcile with the Quran's assertion that the Quran was 'revealed in Arabic so that people may understand it'.

We have made it a Qur'an in Arabic, that ye may be able to understand (and learn wisdom).

Miracles and myths

Humans turned apes

The Qur'an records a miraculous event where Sabbath breakers are transformed into apes. There is, however, no scientific evidence that humans were ever transformed into apes.

And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected."

Mooing statue

The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.

So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.

Hordes trapped by iron wall

The Quran states that two massive tribes of beasts (Gog and Magog) were and will continue until the Day of Judgement to be trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhul-Qarnayn. According to the Qur'an, these two tribes were trapped by Dhul-Qarnayn behind this metal wall and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery.

Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.

Supernatural food

The Qur'an states Mary received food sent down from heaven. There have, however, never been any scientifically verified accounts of food descending from heaven.

Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us, for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers.

Stick turned serpent

The Quran states that Moses' staff transformed into a serpent. There is no scientific evidence that suggests such a transformation would be possible.

Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)!

Army of genies and birds

A story in the Qur'an, drawing on Jewish folklore, states that Solomon commanded a massive army comprised of 'Jinns and men and birds'. Solomon is described as speaking with a Hoopoe bird and thereafter desiring to execute the bird when it is tardy to his assembly. The Hoopoe bird, it is then revealed, was only delayed because it had been spying on a beautiful female ruler, Queen Sheba, who Solomon subsequently insists is misguided and must be conquered. At this point, Solomon assigns a Jinn from his assembly the task of stealing Queen Sheba's magnificent throne. There is, however, no scientific evidence that Jinn exist, that birds can be commanded as soldiers, or that birds can engage in elaborate conversations with humans.

And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts― of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks.
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence).
I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.

Living inside a big fish

The Quran presents a version of the Biblical tale in which Jonah is swallowed by a whale ('the big Fish') and then lives in the whale for some time while praying. Scientific research, however, suggests that a person could not persist long inside a whale's digestive tract and, if not crushed by the whale or by water pressure, would almost immediately suffocate.

Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah, He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth, on the naked shore in a state of sickness

Buraq, the winged horse

While it took one week to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem (the location of the alleged 'farthest Mosque') by camel, the Qur'an states that a magical winged horse, called the Buraq, transported Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem in a matter of minutes. While creatures like the Buraq were common characters in near Easter myths, scientific research has not found any evidence that flying horses exist.

Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things).

Speaking body parts

The Quran states that human organs will, on the Day of Judgement, testify against their own persons. Scientific research does not suggest that this is possible.

On the Day when their tongues, their hands, and their feet will bear witness against them as to their actions.

Sea split in half

The Quran present a version of the story where Moses splits the sea and crosses it with the Israelites. Scientific research does not suggest that this is possible.

And remember We divided the sea for you and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight.

Manipulating the wind

The Quran says that Solomon had the power to control the wind and traditional sources elaborate that Solomon could use this wind to fly upon a gigantic wooden carpet to wherever he pleased. Scientific research does not suggest that this is possible. Historical research also fails to find any real record of a king traveling the earth upon a m flying carpet.

Then We subjected the wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, Whithersoever he willed
A flying carpet made from wood, on top of which he could carry everything in his kingdom including chairs, to wherever Solomon wants to go, whilst flocks of birds would fly over to give shade
Tafsir Ibn-Kathir on 21:81

Testimony of a dead man

The Quran states that Allah instructed a group of people to strike a murdered man with a piece of a heifer (young female cow that has not yet borne a calf) in order to temporarily resurrect him and discover the identity of the murderer. Scientific research does not suggest that this is possible.

And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand.

Mountains and birds sing psalms

The Qur'an states that hills and birds would sing the psalms with David. Scientific research does not suggest that hills can sing, and no birds living the proximity of David were or are capable of imitating human sounds.

And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him

Other

Nonmathematical hereditary laws

4.11: Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise.

4.12: In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to any one). Thus is it ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Most Forbearing.

The shares of inheritance outlined in the Quran do not add up to one, and there is no way to reconcile the shares presented.[31] By contrast, the Quran states that the rules it contains are perfect.

  • Wife: 1/8 = 3/24,
  • Daughters: 2/3 = 16/24,
  • Father: 1/6 = 4/24,
  • Mother: 1/6 = 4/24,
  • Total = 27/24=1.125

Lying forelocks

The Quran describes liars as possessing 'lying, sinful forelocks'. The forelock, however, is not a part of brain and hosts no neural activity. While some Muslim scholars have argued that this is a prophetic reference to the prefrontal cortex, the verse does not appear to be describing the individual's brain, but rather appears to make metaphorical metonymic use of the word 'forelock' to refer to the 'lying, sinful' person themselves.

Let him beware! If he desist not, We will drag him by the forelock. A lying, sinful forelock.

See Also

References

  1. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. (17th ed. ed.). New York [etc.]: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 2339–2346. ISBN 978-0-07-147693-5, 2008. 
  2. Lane's Lexicon p. 2321 ف
  3. Lane's Lexicon p. 220 بطن
  4. Lane's Lexicon p. 1357 سُطِحَ
  5. Lane's Lexicon p. 204 بِسَاطًا
  6. Lane's Lexicon p. 2371 فِرَٰشًا
  7. Lane's Lexicon p. 2739 مَهْدًا
  8. Lane's Lexicon p. 2695 مدد
  9. Lane's Lexicon p. 187 بَارِزَةً
  10. Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 2994 قَاعًا, Lane's Lexicon p. 1694 صَفْصَفًا
  11. Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ
  12. Tafsir al-Jalalayn 24:43
  13. Tafsir Ibn Kathir 24:43
  14. Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3035 أَنْعَٰمِ
  15. Lane's Lexicon p. 1266 أَزْوَٰجٍ
  16. Richard A. Gabriel, The ancient world, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79
  17. Robinson, H. R., Oriental Armour, New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12
  18. Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ
  19. Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ, Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ
  20. Lane's Lexicon p. 629 حلقة
  21. Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for 34:11 (Arabic)
  22. Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ) - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)
  23. al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document p.36 (includes detailed site description)
  24. History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia - Arabnews.com
  25. Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت
  26. Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن
  27. biblehub.com
  28. Lane's Lexicon p. 318 تَّنُّورُ
  29. Lane's Lexicon p. 2457 فور
  30. Mora, C. (August 23, 2011). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLoS Biology 9: e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMID 21886479. PMC:3160336. 
  31. http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Contra/i001.html

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