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Female Genital Mutilation in Islamic Law

Female Genital Mutilation (Arabic: ختان المرأة) is the practice of cutting away and altering the external female genitalia for ritual or religious purposes. Those who practice FGM refer to it as 'Female Circumcision'. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) generally consists one or both of the following procedures: the amputation of part or all of the clitoris, or the removal of the clitoral prepuce (Clitoridectomy) and the cutting away of either or both the inner or outer labia (Excision). A third procedure, Infibulation, involves the paring away of the outer labia, whose cut edges are stitched together to form, once healed, a seal that covers both the openings of the vagina and the urethra. Infibulation usually also involves clitoridectomy. Those who engage in FGM consider its primary purpose to be the safeguarding of the purity, virtue and reputation of girls and women.

FGM is a practice associated with Islam: about 80% of FGM is attributable to Muslims.^[1] Most of the remaining 20% is attributable to non-Muslims living in FGM-practicing Islamic societies (e.g. the Egyptian Copts^[2]), or to non-Isamic societies that have been hubs of the Islamic slave trade (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea).

The disposition of Islamic law towards FGM is determined by its status in the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Sharia), and on how that status is interpreted by Islamic jurists and scholars (fiqh). Shariah derives directly from the Qur'an and the Sunnah (which consists of the Hadith and Sira). Shariah has the status of divine revelation, and is unchanging and unchangeable. Fiqh is the process whereby Islamic jurists and scholars make the divine principles of Shariah applicable to human beings in the form of laws, beliefs and observances.^[3]

FGM is mentioned (at least) seven times in the Hadith. Four hadith report Muhammad approving of FGM. Two other hadith report Sahabah (Muhammad's companions) openly participating in FGM. These have less doctrinal authority than the hadith featuring Muhammad. The remaining, seventh, hadith mentions FGM, but neither approves or disapproves of it.

There is no explicit mention of FGM in the Qur'an. However, a hadith in which Muhammad approves of FGM explains and supports a Quranic verse, and is therefore specially authoritative.

There exist numerous fatwas supporting and commanding the practice. However, over the past half century there has been a growing unease in the Islamic world concerning the practice. The earliest fatwa that is clearly critical of FGM appears to have been issued in 1984.^[4]

FGM in the Hadith

Hadith: Muhammad

This section contains the hadith in which Muhammad pronounces on FGM. All use khitan (or inflections of it) for 'circumcision'. It is often claimed that khitan refers only to (male) circumcision. But several of the following hadith refer unambiguously to women or girls undergoing khitan.

The fitrah is five things, including circumcision

Hadith methodology dictates that if it is not mentioned specifically or if the pronouns do not point to a certain gender, then the hadith is valid for both sexes. Hence, the following hadith is applicable for both men and women.

A preservation of honor for women

Do not cut "severely"

Note that the judgement concerning what is severe is relative.

When the circumcised parts touch each other

To 'sit amidst four parts of a woman' is a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

Other Evidence in the Hadith

The following three hadith touch on FGM. Because they do not involve Muhammad they have less doctrinal authority than the hadith in the previous section. However, they offer useful historical, anthropological and linguistic evidence.

One Who Circumcises Other Ladies

This hadith includes an exchange of insults prior to the battle of Uhud. Hamza, a companion of Muhammad, taunts Siba', a warrior from Muhammad's native tribe - the Meccan Banu Quraysh. Hamza compares Siba' to a notorious 'circumciser' of girls - Ibn Um Anmar. Hamza uses the phrase 'muqteh al-basr‘ – ‘one who cuts clitorises' - rather than the usual khitan.

From this it can be deduced that clitoridectomy was practiced by the Quraysh. The fact that a 'circumciser of [...] ladies' could be famous (or notorious) also suggests that it was an established practice with the Meccan Quraysh. Furthermore, the taunt could only be effective if it humiliated Siba' in the eyes of both his fellow Meccan warriors and his Muslim foe. This implies that members of both camps had knowledge of the practice and a shared culture of clitoridectomy.

In Bukhari's al-Adab al-Mufrad

The following two hadiths come from Al-Adab Al-Mufrad. This is a collection of hadith about the manners of Muhammad and his companions, compiled by the Islamic scholar al-Bukhari. It contains 1,322 hadiths, most of which focus on Muhammad's companions rather than Muhammad himself. Al-Bukhari's evaluation of the hadiths within al-Adab al-Mufrad was not as rigorous as for his best-known collection - Sahih Bukhari. However, scholars have ruled most of the hadith in the collection as being sahih (authentic) or hasan (sound).

Someone to Amuse Them

The word used for 'circumcised' uses the root khitan.

Go and Circumcise Them and Purify Them

In this hadith, Uthman, one of Muhammad's closest companions, appears to be treating 'circumcision' as part of the initiation ritual for females newly-converted to Islam. The word used for 'circumcise' in this hadith is khaffad, not khitan. Khaffad translates as 'trim them' or 'reduce them'.

The 'circumcision' in the above two hadiths is being performed openly and in an unembarrassed manner - and by Muhammad's favourite wife (Aisha) and by one of his closest companions (Uthman). It seems unlikely that Muhammad's closest companions would engage in 'circumcision' against Muhammad's wishes.

Qur'an

There is no explicit reference to Female Genital Mutilation in the Qur'an.

However, the following Quranic verse requires Muslims to 'adhere to the fitrah'. This is the word's only appearance in the Qur'an, and it is left unexplained.

To know what fitrah means, traditional scholars turn to the hadith. Several hadith use the word fitrah. The hadith which gives the clearest explanation is the one mentioned above ('The fitrah is five things, including circumcision'), which uses the Arabic word khitan for 'circumcision'. That khitan originally referred to Female Genital Mutilation as well as (male) circumcision is shown by the usage of the word in the other hadith mentioned in the above sections.

Thus, according to traditional interpretive methodology, in requiring one to 'adhere to the fitrah' the Qur'an indirectly advocates FGM.

In Islamic law

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is obligatory in the Shafi'i madhab^[5] and encouraged by the remaining three madhabs, namely the Hanafi, Hanbali, and Maliki. Salafi scholars also encourage the practice. In universally conceiving of FGM as being either an obligatory or favorable practice, the schools of Islamic law agree that prohibiting FGM altogether would not be acceptable, as this would be tantamount to contravening God's laws and preferences. Views on the specific type of FGM required or permitted vary within and between the madhhabs. Some prominent modern Islamic scholars have dissented from the otherwise favorable consensus of the Islamic tradition and ruled it to be unlawful.

The Islamic legal tradition, while differing on its implementation, embraced FGM wholeheartedly, and, In the hadith literature, Muhammad is recorded as: tacitly approving of the practice (Sahih Muslim 3:684), prescribing circumcision in general without specifying the requirements thereof per gender (Sahih Bukhari 7:72:777), and commenting generically on its implementation (Sunan Abu Dawud 41:5251). No where is Muhammad recorded prohibiting the practice.

In the modern Islamic world

In 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood worked to decriminalize FGM. According to Mariz Tadros (a reporter),"the Muslim Brotherhood have offered to circumcise women for a nominal fee as part of their community services, a move that threatens to reverse decades of local struggle against the harmful practice [...] Many of the Brothers (and Salafis) argue that while it is not mandatory, it is nevertheless mukarama  (preferable, pleasing in the eyes of God)."^[7]

See Also

• Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Female Genital Mutilation

References