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As a way of life, there is a lot more to the adherence of [[Islam]] than the Qur'an, and, initially, the Qur'an itself can be hard to comprehend. This page contains easy-to-read summaries of articles discussing Islam and the understanding of its various scriptures and texts.
{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=4|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}Islam acknowledges two primary varieties of '''scripture''', the [[Quran]] and the [[hadith]]. The Quran is believed to be directly spoken, eternal, and yet "uncreated" word of Allah, while the hadith comprise reports of varying authenticity from [[Sahabah|Muhammad's companions (the ''sahabah'')]], transmitted through various members of successive generations regarding specific actions, statements, or 'tacit approvals' of Muhammad. The 'tacit approvals' of Muhammad include any event where Muhammad was present or regarding which Muhammad was aware of or made aware of and against which he did not protest - his silence in these cases is held to count as his approval. [[Textual History of the Qur'an|The textual history of the Quran]] is complex and subject to interminable debate, but it is generally agreed that some final version of the Quran was compiled and authorized by the [[Rashidun Caliphs|''Rashidun'' ("rightly guided") Caliphs]] within a decade of [[Muhammad's Death|Muhammad's death]], with all competing versions being outlawed and destroyed. While a select few hadiths were written down in the first century after Muhammad's death, these were, as a rule, not recorded with their chains of transmission (pl. ''asaneed'', s. ''Isnad''). Vastly more hadiths were compiled in writing in the period 150-200 years following Muhammad's death. While Islamic scholars to this day place great faith in the historicity and preservation of the [[sahih]] ("reliable") hadith and especially the Quran, the traditional narrative regarding the preservation of either has been increasingly challenged by professional historians. The hadith in particular have been subjected to wide-ranging criticism and are said to bear the clear marks of early sectarian influence, hagiographic idealization, and the competing fancies of early scholars of [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)|Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'')]].
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==Qur'an==
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Qur'an (definition)|Qur'an]], See also: [[The Holy Qur'an (Abdullah Yusuf Ali)]]''


The ''Qur'ān'' (القرآن) is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind. They also consider the text in its original Arabic, to be the literal word of Allah<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.023 Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24]</ref> revealed by the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) to Prophet Muhammad over a period of twenty-three years<ref>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,'' Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338,  I.B. Tauris Publishers, </ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.106 Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106]</ref>, and view the Qur'an as God's final revelation.<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/033.qmt.html#033.040 Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40]</ref><ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref>
The two most authoritative, sahih collections of hadith are [[Sahih Bukhari]] and [[Sahih Muslim]].
==The Quran==


===Origins===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Qur'an]]''
:''Main Article:'' ''[[The Origins of the Qur'an]], See also: [[Pagan Origins of Islam]]''


Taken from Ibn Warraq's book ''The Origins of the Koran, Classic Essays on Islam’s Holy Book'', this article discusses the following points:
The ''Qur'ān'' (القرآن) is the central religious text of Islam and is held to be the final and perfect guidance for all of mankind.<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|33|40}} Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40]</ref><ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref> The text in its original Arabic is believed to be the literal word of Allah<ref>[{{Quran-url-only|2|23}} Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24]</ref> revealed by the angel [[Jibreel (Angel Gabriel)|Jibreel (Gabriel)]] to Prophet Muhammad over a period of twenty-three years.<ref>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths,'' Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338,  I.B. Tauris Publishers,</ref><ref>[{{Quran-url-only|17|106}} Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106]</ref>
#How did the Koran come to us.?—That is the compilation and the transmission of the Koran.  
===Textual history of the Quran===
#When was it written, and who wrote it?
{{Main|Textual History of the Qur'an}}The textual integrity of scripture is an important topic in Islamic circles that has been subject to ongoing debate among scholars in both religious and academic circles. Western research on the textual history of the Quran, conducted in the recent past, has reinvigorated these debates and shed unwelcome light on some of the problems inherent in traditional accounts of the Quran's early compilation by bringing details generally ignored by traditional, religious scholarship to the forefront.
#What are the sources of the Koran? Where were the stories, legends, and principles that abound in the Koran acquired?
====Diacritical marks====
#What is the Koran? Since there never was a textus receptus ne varietur of the Koran, we need to decide its authenticity.
{{Main|Diacritical Marks of the Qur'an}}As Arabic writing system was still in development during the time of Muhammad, the Qur'an was originally written without the diacritical and phonetic marks that today appear in virtually all printed versions of the scripture. These markings were added years after 'the final Qur'anic revelation' and Muhammad's death. Historians and critics have continually noted that the late addition of these markings is problematic for a traditional narrative which argues for the preservation of the Quran, since various sets and arrangements of diacritical markings can and do significantly impact the meaning of the Arabic text.
====Organization====
{{Main|Organization of the Quran|l1=Organization of the Qur'an}}Excepting the first surah, [[Al-Fatiha|''al-Fatiha'']] ("The Opener"), the [[Surah|surahs (chapters)]] contained in the Quran are, broadly speaking, arranged in order of diminishing length. The longest sura is surah 2 (''al-Baqarah'', "The Cow") and the (second) shortest is surah 114 (al-Nas, "The People"). While standard prints of the Qur'an make no distinction between passages revealed to the prophet in [[Mecca]] or [[Medina]], Islamic scholarship and professional historians generally agree that a part of the Qur'an was revealed before and a part after the prophet's hijra, or flight, from Mecca to Medina.
====Chronological order====
{{Main|Chronological Order of the Qur'an}}This page lists the chronological (or revelational) order of the Qur'an. Whereas the earlier Meccan verses of the Qur'an focus on matters of belief and general behavior, the later, Medinan verses of the Qur'an, revealed during the prophets political and military campaign in and reign over Arabia, focus a great deal more on matters of Islamic law and jihad. In this order, over time, the revelations also shifted from a poetic and morally exhortative style in Mecca to a more prosaic and often aggressive style in the later years in Medina.
====Abrogation====


===Organization===
{{Main|Organization of the Qur'an}}
Except for the first surah, Al-Fatiha, the Qur'an is organized by descending length of the sura. That is the longest sura is Sura 2 and the shortest is Sura 114. This organization prevents recovery of any chronology by a simple examination of the text. Muslims believe that the Qur'an was revealed in two phases: before and after the Hijrah from Mecca to Medina. Thus, the terms Meccan Surahs and Medinan Surahs arose.
===Chronological Order===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Chronological Order of the Qur'an]], See also: [[Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Jihad#The_Chronological_Shift_from_Pacifism_to_Jihad|The Chronological Shift from Pacifism to Jihad]]''
This page lists the chronological (or revelational) order of the Qur'an. if read in this order, you will notice, over time, the revelations changed style, from a poetic to a more straight forward and aggressive style in the later years.
===Abrogations===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Abrogation (Naskh)]] and [[List of Abrogations in the Qur'an]]''
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Abrogation (Naskh)]] and [[List of Abrogations in the Qur'an]]''


The messages of later Medinan Qur'anic revelations changed and often contradicted earlier Meccan ones. So the Qur'an, when read at face value with its non-chronological organization, can support any number of views on several subjects. However, in Islam there is a method in sorting through the various verses; this is known as the doctrine of ''abrogation'' (Naskh). Some apologists will say that this doctrine does not exist or is not a part of mainstream Islam. However, when you view the chronological order of the revelations, it becomes undeniable. Moreover, Muslims adhere to this doctrine everyday, by prohibiting the consumption of [[alcohol]].
The messages of later Medinan Qur'anic revelations frequently changed, contradicted, and revised earlier Meccan ones. As a result the Qur'an, read in its non-chronological organization, appears at surface-level to support a wide variety of doctrines, many of which are mutually exclusive (such as the complete prohibition of alcohol, partial prohibition of alcohol, and outright praising of wine-producing vineyards). To reconcile these differences, drawing on {{Quran|2|106}} and similar verses, developed the doctrine of Abrogation (''Naskh''). While the specifics and application of the doctrine have been and continue to be widely contested by Islamic scholars, with some denying it outright (including, most recently, Sh. Jasser Auda<ref>{{Citation|author=Jasser Auda|title=A Critique of the Theory of Abrogation|publisher=Kube|year=2019|isbn=978-0860377306}}</ref>), it is accepted by most Islamic scholars as operative at at least some, minimal level, since it is difficult to otherwise justify the contradictory messages found throughout the text.
====Revelational circumstances====


===Revelational Circumstances===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran)]]; See also: [[Convenient Revelations]]''
{{Main|Revelational Circumstances of the Qur'an}}


When discussing the present-day commands of the Qur'an, you will often be told that many of the less agreeable verses apply only to its original revalational circumstance. Although the logic behind this is [[Uswa Hasana|fatally flawed]] (unless you accept that the Qur'an and Islam are both out-dated and no longer relevant to the modern world), it does make for some interesting reading. This in-depth article lists many revelational circumstances behind the Qur'anic verses, as recorded in the major Hadith collections.
When discussing the applicability of the commands of the Qur'an in modern times, some modern Islamic scholars have argued that the less agreeable verses contained in the Quran apply only to their original revalational circumstances. However, such ideas regarding the evolution and changing of Islamic law are generally considered heresy in traditional formulations of orthodox Sunni Islam, which adjudicates that the relevance and applicability of Quranic verses is 'by the generality of the word (''umoom al-lafdh'') and not by the specificity of the circumstance (''khusus al-sabab'')". With more than a millennium of tradition militating against this revisionary perspective, it is perhaps unsurprising that the overwhelming majority of Islamic scholars have been unwelcoming to attempts at historicizing parts of the Quran.
 
====Parallelism with Extra-Biblical stories====
===Purpose===
{{Main|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature}}The thematic and narrative contents of Islamic scripture (and hence Islam) draw heavily on the Abrahamic tradition as it existed in and around Arabia in late antiquity. Where the contents of scripture diverge from or even directly contradict (at times pointing out the disagreement) this heritage, Islamic scholars hold that this is due to the [[Corruption of Previous Scriptures|corruption of the previous scriptures]] which Muhammad's revelation only seeks to correct. Historians, however, do not see the Islamic scriptures as in any way correcting the biblical narratives so as to make them more historically accurate (Indeed, the stories that comprise the Abrahamic tradition are, for the most part, of very limited historical merit to begin with). Instead, historians hold that Quran makes use of relatively late extra-Biblical sources (stories found in Judeo-Christian apocrypha and legends, the Talmud and Mishnah, and Syriac Christian homilies), adaptating them to the theological stance of its author.
{{Main|The Ultimate Message of the Qur'an}}
 
Chapter 9 of the Qur'an- ''Al Taubah'' (Repentance) is considered to be the closing remarks of Muhammad’s god. The only Sura (chapter‎) said to have been revealed after this is ''Al Nasr'' (Victory), which consists of only a few verses. Considering the apparent militant disposition of Islam; it should not come as a big surprise to learn that this final chapter is not at all about making peace among the people, but is a double edged sword, causing a rift in humanity; dividing it into the domain of believers (Dar al-Islam) and unbelievers (dar al-kufr) with the aim of preserving endless enmity between the two. For non-Muslims who would like to discover what Islam’s god commands of Muslims in their affairs, this chapter can be a touchstone, provided it is read in context.
 
==Qur'an (Criticism)==
 
===Corruption===
:''Main Articles:'' ''[[Corruption of the Qur'an]] and [[Preservation of the Qur'an]]''
 
Muslims say the Qur'an has been perfectly preserved, but is this claim true? The textual integrity of scripture is an important topic in Muslim circles and will be brought up by both Islamic scholars and non-scholars alike. Muslims claim the text of the Qur'an today is identical to that received by Muhammad. However, there are many problems with this argument making it an untenable position.
 
===Parallelism===
{{Main|Parallelism Between the Qur'an and Judeo-Christian Scriptures}}
 
The similarities between the Qur'an and previous scriptures has been noted since the beginning of Islam. However, the Judeo-Christian tales and their Qur'anic counterparts do not always match. There are three explanations for this:
# The original Judeo-Christian scriptures have been corrupted (as Muslims like to claim).
# Muhammad imperfectly borrowed from the Judeo-Christian scriptures.
# The Qur'an has been corrupted.
 
It is an epistemological argument to which of the three is correct. The Qur'an’s assertion that the Judeo-Christian scriptures have been corrupted is mere accusation devoid of evidence.
This thirteen-page long in-depth study looks at the following parallelisms between the Qur'an and Judeo-Christian Scriptures:
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*Talking baby Jesus
*Mary daughter of Amran & sister of Aaron
*Sanhedrin 37a
*the raven and the burial of Abel
*Mary, Jesus and the Trinity
*Jesus and the clay birds
{{col-break}}
*Mary’s upbringing & her relationship with Zachariah
*Mary, Jesus & the palm tree
*Satan’s refusal to prostrate to Adam
*the Queen of Sheba
*the wealth of Korah
*and Abraham & the idols.  
{{col-end}}


Specific items that appear in the Quran which draw on and develop what is covered in the extra-Biblical sources include: the story of Satan's refusal to prostrate before Adam, the boiling waters of Noah's flood, the story of the Abraham and the idols, the story of Jesus and the clay birds, and the story of Mary delivering Jesus involving a palm tree.
===Contents of the Quran===
====Al-Fatiha====
{{Main|Al-Fatiha}}The most recognizable and most often recited chapter, or ''surah'', of the Quran is the first chapter which is entitled ''al-Fatiha'', or the Opener. Muslims are required to recite the chapter seventeen times a day (over 5,000 times a year) at the opening of every unit of the daily prayers. The chapter is very brief and reads as follows:
{{Quote|{{quran-range|1|1|7}}|In (the) name (of) Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. All praises and thanks (be) to Allah, the Lord of the universe The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. (The) Master (of the) Day (of the) Judgment. You Alone we worship, and You Alone we ask for help. Guide us (to) the path, the straight. (The) path (of) those You have bestowed (Your) Favors on them, not (of) '''those who earned (Your) wrath on themselves''' and not (of) '''those who go astray'''.}}
The final portion of the surah is also the most controversial, as hadith literature has traditionally held Muhammad to interpret the group described as 'having earned God's wrath' as referring to the Jews and the group described as 'having gone astray' as referring to the Christians. Some contemporary translations, such as that of Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali go so far as to incorporate this explanation into the text itself, writing, "''Guide us to the Straight Way. The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger (such as the Jews), nor of those who went astray (such as the Christians).''" In recent times, a few modern Islamic scholars have felt troubled by this interpretation and have suggested de-emphasizing the hadith-based interpretations, which implicate the Jews as objects of God's wrath and the Christians as being misguided, in favor of a more generic and thus less hostile reading.
====Child marriage====
{{Main|Child Marriage in the Qur'an}}The Quran, in laying out the rules of divorce, provides also the procedure for divorcing pre-pubescent girls and in doing so affirms the hadith accounts and near-universal formulations of Islamic law which endorse child marriage and permit the [[Rape in Islamic Law|marital rape]] and [[Wife Beating in the Qur'an|beating]] of child brides. The relevant verse is {{Quran|65|4}}.{{Quote|{{Quran|65|4}}|And (as for) those of your women who have despaired of menstruation, if you have a doubt, their prescribed time shall be three months, '''and of those too who have not had their <i>courses</i>'''; and (as for) the pregnant women, their prescribed time is that they lay down their burden; and whoever is careful of (his duty to) Allah He will make easy for him his affair.}}The verse discusses the ''Iddat'' (العدة‎), which is a waiting period a female must observe before she can remarry. According to this verse, the stipulated waiting period for a divorced girl who has not yet menstruated is three months.
====Muqatta'at====
{{Main|Muqatta'at}}''Muqatta`āt'' (Arabic): مقطعات, are unique letter combinations that begin certain chapters of the Quran. Muqatta`āt, literally, means abbreviated or shortened. They are also known as ''Fawātih'' (فواتح) or openers as they form the opening verse of the respective chapters. In Arabic language, these letters are written together like a word, but each letter is pronounced separately. While the letters appear joined together in print, they do not form a meaningful Arabic word, and are held by traditional Islamic scholars as having a metaphysical meaning 'beyond human comprehension' and which therefore serve as reminders of human ignorance. Historians have generally found these arguments unconvincing and have advanced a variety of (as yet inconclusive) alternative hypotheses. ''Muqatta'at'' have been and continue to be a topic of intense research and academic discussions in Islamic literature and Quranic studies.
====The final message of the Quran====
Chapter 9 of the Qur'an - a''l-Taubah'' (Repentance) - is considered to be the final substantive revelation contributed to the Quran. The only surah (chapter‎) said to have been revealed after this is a''l-Nasr'' (Victory), which consists of only three short verses and says nothing new in terms of doctrine or law. That chapter 9 is openly militant and contains what are arguably the most controversial verses regarding Jihad in the Quran, while also being something to the effect of "God's closing statement, has served as an explanation for the expansionist and imperial form that Islam finally took by the time Muhammad died. The develops the narrative whereby the world is divided into the domain of believers (''Dar al-Islam'') and unbelievers (''dar al-kufr'') or war (''dar al-harb''), the latter of which must ultimately be conquered and transformed into the former. Modern Islamic movements that have emphasized the militant and imperial elements in Islam have drawn heavily on the 'conclusive' ideas presented in this Surah. Traditional scholars, while operating in a different context, also read the chapter in a similar way and generally agreed that it's expansionist/imperial message could be taken as abrogating any other verses in the Quran which can be taken to advance a non-expansionist/imperial ideal.
==Criticism of the Quran==
===Contradictions===
===Contradictions===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Contradictions in the Qur'an]]''
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|82}}|"Why don't they contemplate upon the Qur'an? Had it been originated from anyone besides God, then it would have been abundant with inconsistencies and contradictions"}}
This section deals with contradictions in the Qur'an. It is no secret that the Qur'an contains contradictions, as Islamic scholars are familiar with the Abrogation laws within Islam. Below, you will find a large amount of discrepancies. Even when compared with the alleged discrepancies within the Bible, the list is huge. This is especially apparent when you consider the Qur'an is less than a third of the size, and is supposed to have been narrated by a single individual, rather than be a collection of several books authored by various individuals, and compiled over the course of many years.
===Misquotations===
{{Main|Misquoting Jesus and Others in the Qur'an}}
"O Jesus son of Mary!" said the disciples, or so claims the Qur'an in surah 5:112. On the surface this quote from one of Jesus' (Isa's) disciples may seem unextraordinary, but there is a subtle error here that few ever notice. However, once it is noticed, few will ever forget. This article will show beyond a doubt that Muhammad was putting words into other people's mouths and fabricating quotes so that he could artificially create reinforcement and confirmation of the points he was trying to make, which is that Jesus was not the Son of God and Muhammad is Allah's prophesied final Messenger. It was by Muhammad's good fortune that he was such a great military leader, for as a playwright he would have been sorely lacking.


===Pedophilia===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Contradictions in the Quran]]''
{{Main|Pedophilia in the Qur'an}}
The Qur'an permits pedophilia. The following Qur'anic verse allows sex with pre-pubescent girls who have not yet menstruated.


{{Quote|{{Quran|65|4}}|And (as for) those of your women who have despaired of menstruation, if you have a doubt, their prescribed time shall be three months, '''and of those too who have not had their <i>courses</i>'''; and (as for) the pregnant women, their prescribed time is that they lay down their burden; and whoever is careful of (his duty to) Allah He will make easy for him his affair.}}
While the Quran straightforwardly states that it consistent to a degree that evidences its own divinity, critics have argued argued otherwise, pointing out a large number of what would, in absence of extremely creative exegetical interpretations, appear to be contradictions that suggest a non-divine origin of the Quran. A large, polemical discourse has emerged around these and similar proposed contradictions which primarily takes the form of online articles, online videos, and Islamic evangelical preaching.{{Quote|{{Quran|4|82}}|"Why don't they contemplate upon the Qur'an? Had it been originated from anyone besides God, then it would have been abundant with inconsistencies and contradictions"}}
===Scientific errors===
{{Main|Scientific Errors in the Quran}}A common criticism of the [[Quran]], [[Scientific Errors in the Hadith|as with the Hadith]], is that it contains numerous [[Islam and Science|scientific]] and historical errors, with no obvious attempts to differentiate its understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7<sup>th</sup> century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or [[w:Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological]] interpretations of such verses. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to avoid statements in the Quran that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.
===Misrepresentations of the Quran in English===
{{Main|Misrepresentations of Islamic Scripture (English)}}Critics have argued that interpretations of the Quran in English in general, and particularly in evangelical and interfaith contexts, have distorted the plain meaning of the most controversial and troubling verses in the Quran while at the same time idealizing those verse which, when read a certain way, appeal to modern values, presumably to make it appear more acceptable to a Western audience.  


What is being discussed is the Iddat (العدة‎), which is a waiting period a female must observe before she can remarry. According to this verse, the stipulated waiting period for a divorced girl who has not yet menstruated is three months.
Academic and Islamic modernist scholars have argued on the other hand that medieval Islamic scholars sometimes misinterpreted the original meaning of certain verses or claimed that they had been abrogated in order to fit the imperial political context of the emerging empire.


===Diacritical Marks===
Verses most often claimed to be misused or misrepresented include {{Quran|5|32}} (which regards murder), {{Quran|2|256}} (which regards religious tolerance), {{Quran|2|195}} (which regards participation in Jihad), {{Quran|8|61}} (which regards military reconciliation), {{Quran|2|79}} (which regards the 'corruption of previous scriptures'), {{Quran|4|3}} (which regards the treatment of wives and orphans), {{Quran|2|190}} (which regards defensive Jihad), {{Quran|4|129}} (which regards the treatment of wives), {{Quran-range|109|1|6}} (which regards pluralism), {{Quran|2|62}} (which regards the salvation of 'people of the book'), and {{Quran|2|62}} (which regards the extent of Jihad).{{Quote|Qur'an as sometimes paraphrased<ref>Jacob Bender - [http://www.theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/print/jewish_muslim_dialogue_and_the_value_of_peace/ Jewish-Muslim Dialogue and the Value of Peace] - The American Muslim, July 19, 2007</ref>|“If anyone slays a person, it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people.”}}{{Quote|{{Quran|5|32}}|On that account: We ordained for the Children of Israel that if anyone slew a person - unless it be in retaliation for murder or for spreading mischief in the land - it would be as if he slew all mankind: and if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of all humanity. }}
{{Main|Diacritical Marks of the Qur'an}}
===Mistranslations of the Quran in English===
{{Main|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}}In some cases, published English translations of the Quran have opted for incorrect translations. Critics have suggested that this is for the same evangelical and interfaith-based reasons for which the scripture is often misrepresented in the first place. Translations with apparently deliberate errors include well known editions, such as the Yusuf Ali, Rashad Khalifa, and Muhammad Asad translations. Whereas scripture, critics argue, is frequently misrepresented in various contexts in the name of various levels of expedience, published mistranslations tend to deliberately err only in those instances where the original text poses a very acute challenge to Western values and sensibilities, particularly with respect to human rights and science. The verses most often distorted in published translations include {{Quran|4|34}} (which regards wife-beating), {{Quran|67|5}} (which regards the nature of stars, meteors, and/or comets), {{Quran|86|7}} (which regards the origin of semen), {{Quran|21|91}} & {{Quran|66|12}} (which regard the birth of Jesus), {{Quran|3|52}} (which describes Allah as 'the best deceiver'), and the various verses which employ the word ''qatal'', which means 'kill', 'massacre', or 'slaughter'.
The pages listed below cover some of these mistranslations individually:{{col-float|width=25em}}


We would like to enlighten our readers on grammatical problems in the Arabic Qur'an, mainly diacritical marks. The Arabic writing system was still in development during the time of Muhammad, so the Qur'an was originally written without today's diacritical marks. These were added years after the final Qur'anic revelation and Muhammad's subsequent death. The problem with this is the addition or subtraction of diacritical marks radically alter the meaning of Arabic text, thereby potentially altering Allah’s book. In this article we examine the use of diacritical marks and the problems they posed when they were added to the Qur'an.
*[[Wife Beating in the Qur'an]]


===Misinterpreted Verses===
*[[Mistranslations_of_Islamic_Scripture_(English)#.2867:5.29_Shooting_stars|Mistranslations of Qur'an 67:5]]
{{Main|Misinterpreted Qur'anic Verses}}


Many Muslims and apologists use mis-interpreted and/or misleading paraphrased Qur'anic verses to propagate Islam to the West. Below is one example.
*[[Quran and Semen Production|Qur'an and Semen Production (Qur'an 86:7)]]


{{Quote|Qur'an|“If anyone slays a person, it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people.”<ref>Jacob Bender - [http://www.theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/print/jewish_muslim_dialogue_and_the_value_of_peace/ Jewish-Muslim Dialogue and the Value of Peace] - The American Muslim, July 19, 2007</ref>}}
{{col-float-break|width=25em}}


{{Quote|{{Quran|5|32}}|On that account: '''We ordained for the Children of Israel''' that if anyone slew a person - unless it be in retaliation for murder or for spreading mischief in the land - it would be as if he slew all mankind: and if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of all humanity. }}
*[[The Meaning of Qatal|When Fight Means Murder (Qur'an various)]]


These pages discuss a few of the more popular ones, and provides you with their correct meanings.
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*[[Corruption of Previous Scriptures (Qur'an 2:79)]]
*[[Dealing Justly with Wives and Orphans (Qur'an 4:3)]]
*[[Unjust Treatment of Wives (Qur'an 4:129)]]
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*[[Allah Forbids You Not (Qur'an 60:8)]]
*[[If Anyone Slew a Person (Qur'an 5:32)]]
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===Mistranslated Verses===
{{Main|Mistranslated Qur'anic Verses}}
In Al-Hijr (15:9) Allah declared that the Qur'an is his revelation and he promised to preserve it and protect it from corruption. In An-Nahl (16:103), Al-Dokhan (44:58) and Al-Qamar (54:22, 32, 40), it is emphasized that the Qur'an was revealed in straight forward, easy to understand, and pure Arabic. It would seem, this promise of preservation does not extend to the English translations, as most prominent and officially recognized interpreters like Yusuf Ali, Dr. Rashad Khalifa and Muhammad Asad have not honored the integrity of translation and were involved in deception in interpreting the Qur'an. The reasons were not due to the difficulty of the verses themselves or the so-called "complexity" of the Arabic language, but due to the embarrassment to tell the truth to English readers, especially those who already believe in the validity of Islam.
These pages discuss a few of the more popular ones in detail, and provides you with the correct translations.
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*[[Beat your Wives or "Separate from Them"? (Qur'an 4:34)]]
*[[Deceptive Translations of Qur'an 67:5]]
*[[Qur'an and Semen Production (Qur'an 86:7)]]
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*[[The Meaning of Qatal|When Fight Means Murder (Qur'an various)]]
*[[Allah the Best Deceiver|Allah the Best Deceiver (Qur'an various)]]
*[[Allah the Best Deceiver|Allah the Best Deceiver (Qur'an various)]]


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*[[Virgin Conception of Jesus in the Qur'an|Virgin Conception of Jesus in the Qur'an (Qur'an 21:91 & 66:12)]]


===Scientific Errors===
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{{Main|Scientific Errors in the Qur'an}}
==The hadith==


This page lists various types of scientific errors found in the Qur'an. The subjects of these errors include; Evolution, Astronomy, Biology, Geology, Zoology and many others which are often confirmed by the hadith.
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Hadith|Hadith]]''


===Al-Fatiha===
The ''Hadith'' (الحديث ahadith, plural) are traditions of Muhammad which provide information about him and his life. They are usually narrations about a certain incident in which he said, did, or tacitly approved of something. Unlike the Qur'an, the books that contain them are usually arranged in some logical fashion. The majority of Islamic law and belief derives from the hadiths. The hadith are said to be of varying authenticity according to the Islamic tradition, with some considered to be so reliable that to reject them would be tantamount to disbelief. Historians are less certain about the reliability of the hadith, as they were supposedly transmitted orally and written down, for the most part, some 150-200 years after Muhammad's death.
{{Main|Al-Fatiha}}
===Quranism and the importance of hadith===
{{Main|Quranism}}The Qur'an, often presented as the exclusive domain of God's commands, also contains numerous injunctions from Muhammad himself, and indeed commands obedience of Muhammad. Traditionally, therefore, the hadiths have been viewed as an Islamic scripture of fundamental importance, without which Islam as it is known could not exist, since the Quran contains a relatively paltry amount of legal, ritual, and doctrinal content when compared to the hadith literature.{{Quote|{{Quran|4|80}}|'''He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah''': But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).}}In recent times, a small minority of Islamic thinkers and modernists identifying as 'Quranists' have tried to reinterpret Islam from the ground up relying only on the Quran while at the same time disqualifying the hadith effectively wholesale, either on the basis of their historical questionability or on the basis of their at times troubling content. This has vexed traditionalist scholars, who consider the hadith to be of fundamental importance and without which, they point out, Muslims would have no solid epistemological grounding for such integral items as the rituals of the daily Islamic prayer, among other things.


The best-known chapter of the Qur'an is al-Fatiha ‘The Opening’. This surah is recited as part of all the mandatory daily prayers and repeated within each prayer. A faithful Muslim who said all their prayers would recite this surah at least seventeen times a day, and over five thousand times a year. The hadith literature make negative references to the Jews and Christians in connection with this surah. Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali incorporate this within their translation. Ayah 6-7 thus reads; ''"Guide us to the Straight Way. The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger (such as the Jews), nor of those who went astray (such as the Christians)."'' It is remarkable that the daily prayers of every Muslim, part of the core of Islam, include a rejection of Christians and Jews as misguided and objects of Allah’s wrath.
===Uswa hasana===


===Muqatta'at===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Uswa Hasana]], See also [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad|Muhammad's Sunnah]]''
{{Main|Muqatta'at}}
 
''Muqatta`āt'' (Arabic): مقطعات ,are unique letter combinations that begin certain chapters of the Quran. Muqatta`āt literally means abbreviated or shortened. They are also known as ''Fawātih'' (فواتح) or openers as they form the opening verse of the respective chapters. In Arabic language, these letters are written together like a word, but each letter is pronounced separately. None of these combinations actually form a meaningful Arabic word. These letters appear joined together. Muqatta'at have been and continue to be a topic of intense research and academic discussions in Islamic literature and Quranic studies.
{{Template:Random hadith quotes}}
==Hadith==
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Hadith (definition)|Hadith]]''
 
The ''Hadith'' (الحديث ahadith, plural) are traditions of Muhammad, giving us important information about him and his life. They are usually narrations about a certain incident in which he said or did something. Unlike the Qur'an, they typically follow a chronological order, and most of them are compiled by category (i.e. Jihad, Nikah, etc.) The Hadith is where Muslims determine the ''Sunnah'' (or way‎) of the prophet, which is Muhammad's words, actions, and practices. This is key to Islam since Muslims are commanded, by the Qu'ran, to obey and emulate him, so even the most insignificant of actions on his part have a drastic effect upon the doctrines and laws of Islam.


In the mainstream theology of Sunni Islam, the Prophet Muhammad is known as ''al-Insān al-Kāmil'' (lit. "the perfect human") and ''uswa hasana'' (lit. "an excellent model"). This is taken to mean that his conduct in all things, from how he prayed, how he conducted himself in business and in war, his sexual relations with his wives, slaves and concubines, and even how he cleaned himself after defecation and urination is an exemplar and model for all humans to follow at all times, regardless of historical circumstance and independent of culture. This conception of Muhammad as the perfect man is the basis upon which the hadith, which describe his life, are used to formulate Islamic law and doctrine.
===Sahih===
{{Main|Sahih}}''Sahih'' (صَحِيْح) is an Arabic word that means genuine/authentic/sound. It is used in classification of ahadith and is the highest level of authenticity given to a narration that passes the highest level of traditional methods of authentication. Therefore, in orthodox Islam, when refusing to accept the content of a narration, one must generally prove that a sahih hadith is in fact inauthentic in order to reject it, since rejection based on a dislike for the attested actions/statements of the prophet is not considered a rigorous, consistent, or reliable basis for rejection. Historians assessments of hadiths follow a different methodology and cannot be predicted reliably based on the traditional authentication given to a hadith alone, although this can be a factor (often indirectly) in their analysis.
===Daleel===
===Daleel===
{{Main|Daleel}}
{{Main|Daleel}}Daleel (دليل, pl. ''adillah'') is an Arabic word meaning evidence or proof, and in the terminology of [[Islamic jurisprudence]], the word refers to anything that is used to deduce and justify a ruling or [[fatwa]] from the [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shariah]], or [[Islamic Law]]. While there exist numerous specific types of daleels arranged in a hierarchy, as understood variously by the different schools of Islamic law, all generally agree today that among the most important daleels are, in order, the [[Qur'an]], [[Hadith]], Ijma (consensus of Islamic scholars or [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), and some form of Qiyas (analogical reasoning).
 
''Daleel'' (دليل) is an Arabic word meaning ''evidence''. In regards to Islamic hadith, Daleel can either be Maudu (fabricated), Da`if (weak), Hasan (good), or Sahih (authentic). Generally in Islam, only the authentic (sahih) and good (hasan) hadiths are used in deriving the rules. The weak (da`if) hadiths have no value for the purpose of formulating sharia, and the fabricated (Maudu) narrations are not even considered to be hadith at all.
 
===Sahih===
{{Main|Sahih}}
 
''Sahih'' (صَحِيْح) is an Arabic word that means genuine/authentic/sound. It is used in classification of ahadith and is the highest level of authenticity given to a narration that passes all of Imam Bukhari's criteria for classification as a sahih hadith. When dealing with ahadith, a sahih narration is the closest you can get to: "yes this incident definitely happened." Therefore, when refusing to accept the content of a narration, the onus is on the Muslim to use his own criteria to disqualify the narration and not on the opponent to prove it is authentic.
 
===The Importance of Hadith===
{{Main|Qur'an Only Islam - Why it is Not Possible}}
 
The Qur'an alleges that it is entirely composed of Allah’s commands, not Muhammad’s, yet the Qur'an itself orders Muslims to obey the Messenger.
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|80}}|'''He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah''': But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).}}
If you do not know what the Messenger had ordered, then this is impossible. Most non-Muslims are unaware of the hadith collections and their importance within Islam. Incredibly, four out of five of Islam’s Pillars would not exist without the Hadith.
 
===Uswa Hasana===
:''Main Article:'' ''[[Uswa Hasana]], See also [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad|Muhammad's Sunnah]] and [[Muhammad: The Example of Ethical Behavior]]''
 
In Islam, Muhammad is known as ''uswa hasana, al-Insān al-Kāmil''. It is an Arabic phrase loosely translated, meaning, the "''perfect human''. We find in the Hadith, Muhammad repeatedly told his followers to follow his Sunnah (example) and in the Qur'an we see that Allah even asserts his morality as being “sublime” (68:4), therefore this particular Islamic doctrine encourages Muslims to emulate Muhammad and his (7th century) actions as closely as they can, as a form of devotion to Allah.
 
==Hadith (Criticism)==
 
===Weak and Fabricated Hadith===
{{Main|List of Fabricated Hadith}}
 
Some apologists have started to reject sahih (authentic) hadith, in favour of maudu (fabricated) or da`if (weak) ones. Some of these hadith are obvious fabrications which do not have any scriptural sources.
 
===Absurdities===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Islamic Silliness}}
 
This page lists some of the most humorous narrations that are found in Hadith collections.
 
{{Quote|{{Muslim|30|5654}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying : I recognise the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}
 
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|58|188}}|Narrated 'Amr bin Maimun: During the pre-lslamic period of ignorance I saw a she-monkey surrounded by a number of monkeys. They were all stoning it, because it had committed illegal sexual intercourse. I too, stoned it along with them.}}


In regards to Islamic hadith, Daleel can either be Maudu (fabricated), Da`if (weak), Hasan (good), or Sahih (authentic). Generally in Islam, only the authentic (sahih) and good (hasan) hadiths are used in deriving the rules. The weak (da`if) hadiths are of much lesser value for the purpose of formulating sharia, and the fabricated (Maudu) narrations are not even considered to be hadith at all (but can sometimes be useful as representatives of common perspectives circulating at the time of the fabricated hadith's origination).
==Criticism of the hadith==
===Weak and fabricated hadith===
{{Main|Mawdu' (Fabricated Hadith)}}While traditional Islamic scholars have generally disallowed the very weak and fabricated hadiths from playing any role whatsoever in the formation of doctrine and law, many of them have, in varying capacities, permitted the use of unreliable hadiths in preaching, particularly where the hadith regards a topic without legal or doctrinal consequence. Examples of this include hadiths which give details about stories regarding the lives of other prophets, stories without legal consequence having to do with the life of Muhammad, and hadiths which comment on the merit or dis-merit of some deed and what its consequences will be in the hereafter. An example of the second of these three common genres is the story regarding Muhammad visiting the vicious Jew he had for a neighbor while she was sick. The last of these three genres most very often feature hadiths which say something to the effect of how many good deeds or heavenly rewards a believer gets if they recite some prayer or set of verses a given number of times.
===Contradictions===
===Contradictions===
{{Main|Contradictions in the Hadith}}
{{Main|Contradictions in the Hadith}}While the sheer vastness of the hadith literature coupled with the large percentage of it that is admittedly inauthentic virtually necessitates the presence of contradictions, critics and historians have pointed out that even among those limited number of traditions graded as very reliable by Muslim scholars, there exist contradictions which can only be resolved through the most inventive hermeneutical techniques, which, needless to say, strain credulity. Historians have referenced these contradictions to argue that traditional system whereby Islamic scholars have tried to ascertain the reliability of hadiths is itself not reliable.{{Quote|{{Muslim|41|7005}}|
 
This page lists some of the contradictions that are found in Hadith collections.


{{Quote|{{Muslim|41|7005}}|
Ibn Umar reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). made a mention of Dajjil in the presence of the people and said: Allah is not one-eyed and behold that Dajjal is blind of the right eye and his eye would be like a floating grape.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim|41|7010}}|
Ibn Umar reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). made a mention of Dajjil in the presence of the people and said: Allah is not one-eyed and behold that Dajjal is blind of the right eye and his eye would be like a floating grape.}}


{{Quote|{{Muslim|41|7010}}|
Hudhalfa reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: Dajjal is blind of left eye with thick hair and there would be a garden and fire with him and his fire would be a garden and his garden would be fire.}}
Hudhalfa reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: Dajjal is blind of left eye with thick hair and there would be a garden and fire with him and his fire would be a garden and his garden would be fire.}}
 
===Scientific errors===
===Scientific Errors===
{{Main|Scientific Errors in the Hadith}}A common criticism of the [[Hadith]], [[Scientific Errors in the Quran|as with the Quran]], is that they contain numerous [[Islam and Science|scientific]] and historical errors, with no obvious attempts to differentiate their understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7<sup>th</sup> century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or phenomenological interpretations of such hadiths. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to guide the avoidance of statements in the Hadith that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.
{{Main|Scientific Errors in the Hadith}}
===Absurdities===
 
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Remarkable and Strange Islamic Traditions}}The Islamic tradition is truly vast, and covers an impressive number of different topics, often including surprising stories, anecdotes and injunctions. Some of these traditions are truly strange or noteworthy in their own right. As with contradictions, historians and critics (who also cite the scientific errors), have argued that the presence of absurd anecdotes among those hadiths that have been graded very reliable by traditional scholars directly undermines the traditional method of grading hadiths.{{Quote|{{Muslim|30|5654}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying : I recognise the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|5|58|188}}|Narrated 'Amr bin Maimun: During the pre-lslamic period of ignorance I saw a she-monkey surrounded by a number of monkeys. They were all stoning it, because it had committed illegal sexual intercourse. I too, stoned it along with them.}}
This page lists various types of scientific errors found within the Hadith. The subjects of these errors include; Astronomy, Biology, Geology, Zoology and many others which often refute the erroneous claims of science in the Qur'an by explaining the true meanings behind some of the more abstract or distorted Qur'anic verses.
==Other important texts==
{{Template:Random scholar quotes}}
==Other Text==
 
===Tafsirs===
===Tafsirs===
{{Main|Tafsir}}
{{Main|Tafsir}}Tafsirs are commentaries written by scholars, generally relying on the hadith collections, to explain the meanings of verses in the Qur'an (as the Qur'an itself does not provide the context of its verses). The most respected and widely used being the ''Tafsir ibn Kathir''. Modern Islamic scholars often deflect criticism from the Qur'an by arguing that it must be read in conjunction with an authoritative tafsir. Critics have argued, in response, that referencing traditional and authoritative tafsirs often renders the passages of the Quran an even less acceptable light.
 
Tafsirs are commentaries written by scholars, using the hadith collections to explain the meanings of verses in the Qur'an (as the Qur'an is largely without context). The most respected and widely used being the ''Tafsir ibn Kathir''. Many Muslims who deny the more unsavory aspects of Islam will attempt to deflect criticism away from the Qur'an by claiming it can only be correctly understood when read in conjunction with an authoritative tafsir. However, more often than not, the tafsirs confirm the views of the critics.
 
===Sira===
===Sira===
{{Main|Sirat Rasul Allah}}
{{Main|Sirat Rasul Allah}}Sirat Rasul Allah (<small>Arabic: سيرة رسول الله, Romanization: ''Sīrat Rasūl-Allāh,'' Abv: ''Sirat''</small>), or Biography of the Prophet of Allah, refers to the collected biographies of [[Muhammad]]. It is also the title of one of the most important early Siras, namely that of Ibn Ishaq. In addition to the [[hadith]] (oral account of [[Muhammad]]'s statements and actions), the Sirat provides an integral foundation to the [[sunnah]] (example, customs, and practices) set forth by [[Muhammad]]. Throughout Islamic history, the Siras and [[Sunnah]] have established the foundation of much of [[Islamic Law|Islamic Law (Shariah)]] and [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)|Jurisprudence (Fiqh)]], including but not limited to the [[Five Pillars of Islam|Five Pillars of Islam]], societal code, and dietary standards. The biggest contribution of the Siras to the hadith is in their serving as a reference point whereby an attempt can be made to chronologize the events reported piecemeal in the hadiths.
 
===Books of fiqh===
The ''Sirat Rasul Allah'' (Life of the Messenger of Allah), by ibn Ishaq. A collection of hadith that is arranged in chronological order, forming the earliest biography of Muhammad. This, along with the Qur'an and hadith, are sometimes referred to as the [http://www.cspipublishing.com/ Trilogy of Islam], as all major doctrines are found within these three texts. The sira and hadith collectively form Muhammad's [[Sunnah]], and with the Qur'an, they form what we know as the [[shariah|Shari'ah]].
{{Main|Fiqh}}Books of Islamic jurisprudence (فقه‎ Fiqh) are complimentary expansions of the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah), written by Islamic jurists (experts on Islamic law). ''Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law'' (''Umdat Al-Salik''), for instance, is the traditional handbook on Shafi'i law. Translations of these texts in English have been problematic, as translators have often mistranslated the texts where the prove objectionable to modern sensibilities.<ref>An example of such a mistranslation is argued for [http://www.answering-islam.org/Sharia/fem_circumcision.html here], which should be read alongside the full entry for بَظْرٌ in Lane's lexicon available [http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/02_b/137_bZr.html here].</ref>
 
==Muhammad in other scriptures==
===Books of Fiqh===
{{Main|Muhammad in Other Scriptures}}The figure of Muhammad and the religion he founded is often depicted negatively in religious scriptures that post date him.
{{Main|Fiqh}}
 
Books of Islamic jurisprudence (فقه‎ Fiqh) are complimentary expansions of the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah), written by Islamic jurists (experts on Islam). ''Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik'' is just one example of many. However, these books are often watered-down in translation for Western consumption. An example of this can be found [http://www.answering-islam.org/Sharia/fem_circumcision.html here].  
 
==Miscellaneous==
 
===Statistical Analysis===
{{Main|Muslim Statistics (Scripture)}}
 
This page quotes statistical analyses of Muslim scriptures from various sources. A few examples of the statistics include:


#There are 164 Jihad verses in the Qur'an and nearly 500 verses (roughly 1 out of every 12) that speak of Hell.
In the Bhavishya Purana, one of the eighteen major Hindu Puranas, Muhammad is depicted as a reincarnated demon, Islam as a demonic religion, and its followers as "the corrupters of religion".
#Practicing Muslims recite anti-Semitic and anti-Christian rhetoric at least 17 times a day, and over 5,000 times a year.
#122 peaceful Qur'anic verses have been abrogated by the Sword verse (9:5) and Fighting verse (9:29).  


==See Also==
In the Haran Gawaitha, a Mandaean text which tells the history of the Mandaeans and their arrival in Iraq as Nasoreans from Jerusalem, Muhammad is referred to as "the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab", "the most degraded of false prophets", "the Seal of prophets of the Lie", who "converted people to himself by the sword".


'''Articles'''
And in the Kālachakra Tantra, a ninth century Tibetan Buddhist text, Muhammad is referred to as a demonic incarnation and a "false impostor". Muslims are described as invading "barbarians", bringing with them the barbarian religion ("mleccha-dharma"), a religion of violence ("himsa-dharma") that also advocates savage behavior ("raudra-karman").
==See also==


* [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars]] - ''This section of WikiIslam lists quotations from the Qur'an, Hadith and Islamic Scholars''
*[[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars]] - ''This section of WikiIslam lists quotations from the Qur'an, Hadith and Islamic Scholars''
* [[Muhammad in Other Scriptures]] ''- A hub page that leads to other articles related to Muhammad in Other Scriptures''
* [[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]
* [[The History of al-Tabari]]


'''Other Core Articles'''
*[[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]


''Core articles contain an overview of other articles related to a specific issue, and serve as a starting point for anyone wishing to learn about Islam:''
*[[The History of al-Tabari]]
* [[Islam and Apostasy]]
* [[Islam and Homosexuality]]
* [[Islam and Miracles]]
* [[Islam and Pedophilia]]
* [[Islam and Propaganda]]
* [[Islam and Science]]
* [[Islam and the People of the Book]]
* [[Islam and Women]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Core Article]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
__NOEDITSECTION__
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Qur'anic textual history]]
[[Category:Tafsir]]
[[Category:Traditional Scholars]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]

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Islam acknowledges two primary varieties of scripture, the Quran and the hadith. The Quran is believed to be directly spoken, eternal, and yet "uncreated" word of Allah, while the hadith comprise reports of varying authenticity from Muhammad's companions (the sahabah), transmitted through various members of successive generations regarding specific actions, statements, or 'tacit approvals' of Muhammad. The 'tacit approvals' of Muhammad include any event where Muhammad was present or regarding which Muhammad was aware of or made aware of and against which he did not protest - his silence in these cases is held to count as his approval. The textual history of the Quran is complex and subject to interminable debate, but it is generally agreed that some final version of the Quran was compiled and authorized by the Rashidun ("rightly guided") Caliphs within a decade of Muhammad's death, with all competing versions being outlawed and destroyed. While a select few hadiths were written down in the first century after Muhammad's death, these were, as a rule, not recorded with their chains of transmission (pl. asaneed, s. Isnad). Vastly more hadiths were compiled in writing in the period 150-200 years following Muhammad's death. While Islamic scholars to this day place great faith in the historicity and preservation of the sahih ("reliable") hadith and especially the Quran, the traditional narrative regarding the preservation of either has been increasingly challenged by professional historians. The hadith in particular have been subjected to wide-ranging criticism and are said to bear the clear marks of early sectarian influence, hagiographic idealization, and the competing fancies of early scholars of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).

The two most authoritative, sahih collections of hadith are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.

The Quran

Main Article: Qur'an

The Qur'ān (القرآن) is the central religious text of Islam and is held to be the final and perfect guidance for all of mankind.[1][2] The text in its original Arabic is believed to be the literal word of Allah[3] revealed by the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) to Prophet Muhammad over a period of twenty-three years.[4][5]

Textual history of the Quran

The textual integrity of scripture is an important topic in Islamic circles that has been subject to ongoing debate among scholars in both religious and academic circles. Western research on the textual history of the Quran, conducted in the recent past, has reinvigorated these debates and shed unwelcome light on some of the problems inherent in traditional accounts of the Quran's early compilation by bringing details generally ignored by traditional, religious scholarship to the forefront.

Diacritical marks

As Arabic writing system was still in development during the time of Muhammad, the Qur'an was originally written without the diacritical and phonetic marks that today appear in virtually all printed versions of the scripture. These markings were added years after 'the final Qur'anic revelation' and Muhammad's death. Historians and critics have continually noted that the late addition of these markings is problematic for a traditional narrative which argues for the preservation of the Quran, since various sets and arrangements of diacritical markings can and do significantly impact the meaning of the Arabic text.

Organization

Excepting the first surah, al-Fatiha ("The Opener"), the surahs (chapters) contained in the Quran are, broadly speaking, arranged in order of diminishing length. The longest sura is surah 2 (al-Baqarah, "The Cow") and the (second) shortest is surah 114 (al-Nas, "The People"). While standard prints of the Qur'an make no distinction between passages revealed to the prophet in Mecca or Medina, Islamic scholarship and professional historians generally agree that a part of the Qur'an was revealed before and a part after the prophet's hijra, or flight, from Mecca to Medina.

Chronological order

This page lists the chronological (or revelational) order of the Qur'an. Whereas the earlier Meccan verses of the Qur'an focus on matters of belief and general behavior, the later, Medinan verses of the Qur'an, revealed during the prophets political and military campaign in and reign over Arabia, focus a great deal more on matters of Islamic law and jihad. In this order, over time, the revelations also shifted from a poetic and morally exhortative style in Mecca to a more prosaic and often aggressive style in the later years in Medina.

Abrogation

Main Article: Abrogation (Naskh) and List of Abrogations in the Qur'an

The messages of later Medinan Qur'anic revelations frequently changed, contradicted, and revised earlier Meccan ones. As a result the Qur'an, read in its non-chronological organization, appears at surface-level to support a wide variety of doctrines, many of which are mutually exclusive (such as the complete prohibition of alcohol, partial prohibition of alcohol, and outright praising of wine-producing vineyards). To reconcile these differences, drawing on Quran 2:106 and similar verses, developed the doctrine of Abrogation (Naskh). While the specifics and application of the doctrine have been and continue to be widely contested by Islamic scholars, with some denying it outright (including, most recently, Sh. Jasser Auda[6]), it is accepted by most Islamic scholars as operative at at least some, minimal level, since it is difficult to otherwise justify the contradictory messages found throughout the text.

Revelational circumstances

Main Article: Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran); See also: Convenient Revelations

When discussing the applicability of the commands of the Qur'an in modern times, some modern Islamic scholars have argued that the less agreeable verses contained in the Quran apply only to their original revalational circumstances. However, such ideas regarding the evolution and changing of Islamic law are generally considered heresy in traditional formulations of orthodox Sunni Islam, which adjudicates that the relevance and applicability of Quranic verses is 'by the generality of the word (umoom al-lafdh) and not by the specificity of the circumstance (khusus al-sabab)". With more than a millennium of tradition militating against this revisionary perspective, it is perhaps unsurprising that the overwhelming majority of Islamic scholars have been unwelcoming to attempts at historicizing parts of the Quran.

Parallelism with Extra-Biblical stories

The thematic and narrative contents of Islamic scripture (and hence Islam) draw heavily on the Abrahamic tradition as it existed in and around Arabia in late antiquity. Where the contents of scripture diverge from or even directly contradict (at times pointing out the disagreement) this heritage, Islamic scholars hold that this is due to the corruption of the previous scriptures which Muhammad's revelation only seeks to correct. Historians, however, do not see the Islamic scriptures as in any way correcting the biblical narratives so as to make them more historically accurate (Indeed, the stories that comprise the Abrahamic tradition are, for the most part, of very limited historical merit to begin with). Instead, historians hold that Quran makes use of relatively late extra-Biblical sources (stories found in Judeo-Christian apocrypha and legends, the Talmud and Mishnah, and Syriac Christian homilies), adaptating them to the theological stance of its author.

Specific items that appear in the Quran which draw on and develop what is covered in the extra-Biblical sources include: the story of Satan's refusal to prostrate before Adam, the boiling waters of Noah's flood, the story of the Abraham and the idols, the story of Jesus and the clay birds, and the story of Mary delivering Jesus involving a palm tree.

Contents of the Quran

Al-Fatiha

The most recognizable and most often recited chapter, or surah, of the Quran is the first chapter which is entitled al-Fatiha, or the Opener. Muslims are required to recite the chapter seventeen times a day (over 5,000 times a year) at the opening of every unit of the daily prayers. The chapter is very brief and reads as follows:

In (the) name (of) Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. All praises and thanks (be) to Allah, the Lord of the universe The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. (The) Master (of the) Day (of the) Judgment. You Alone we worship, and You Alone we ask for help. Guide us (to) the path, the straight. (The) path (of) those You have bestowed (Your) Favors on them, not (of) those who earned (Your) wrath on themselves and not (of) those who go astray.

The final portion of the surah is also the most controversial, as hadith literature has traditionally held Muhammad to interpret the group described as 'having earned God's wrath' as referring to the Jews and the group described as 'having gone astray' as referring to the Christians. Some contemporary translations, such as that of Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali go so far as to incorporate this explanation into the text itself, writing, "Guide us to the Straight Way. The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger (such as the Jews), nor of those who went astray (such as the Christians)." In recent times, a few modern Islamic scholars have felt troubled by this interpretation and have suggested de-emphasizing the hadith-based interpretations, which implicate the Jews as objects of God's wrath and the Christians as being misguided, in favor of a more generic and thus less hostile reading.

Child marriage

The Quran, in laying out the rules of divorce, provides also the procedure for divorcing pre-pubescent girls and in doing so affirms the hadith accounts and near-universal formulations of Islamic law which endorse child marriage and permit the marital rape and beating of child brides. The relevant verse is Quran 65:4.

And (as for) those of your women who have despaired of menstruation, if you have a doubt, their prescribed time shall be three months, and of those too who have not had their courses; and (as for) the pregnant women, their prescribed time is that they lay down their burden; and whoever is careful of (his duty to) Allah He will make easy for him his affair.

The verse discusses the Iddat (العدة‎), which is a waiting period a female must observe before she can remarry. According to this verse, the stipulated waiting period for a divorced girl who has not yet menstruated is three months.

Muqatta'at

Muqatta`āt (Arabic): مقطعات, are unique letter combinations that begin certain chapters of the Quran. Muqatta`āt, literally, means abbreviated or shortened. They are also known as Fawātih (فواتح) or openers as they form the opening verse of the respective chapters. In Arabic language, these letters are written together like a word, but each letter is pronounced separately. While the letters appear joined together in print, they do not form a meaningful Arabic word, and are held by traditional Islamic scholars as having a metaphysical meaning 'beyond human comprehension' and which therefore serve as reminders of human ignorance. Historians have generally found these arguments unconvincing and have advanced a variety of (as yet inconclusive) alternative hypotheses. Muqatta'at have been and continue to be a topic of intense research and academic discussions in Islamic literature and Quranic studies.

The final message of the Quran

Chapter 9 of the Qur'an - al-Taubah (Repentance) - is considered to be the final substantive revelation contributed to the Quran. The only surah (chapter‎) said to have been revealed after this is al-Nasr (Victory), which consists of only three short verses and says nothing new in terms of doctrine or law. That chapter 9 is openly militant and contains what are arguably the most controversial verses regarding Jihad in the Quran, while also being something to the effect of "God's closing statement, has served as an explanation for the expansionist and imperial form that Islam finally took by the time Muhammad died. The develops the narrative whereby the world is divided into the domain of believers (Dar al-Islam) and unbelievers (dar al-kufr) or war (dar al-harb), the latter of which must ultimately be conquered and transformed into the former. Modern Islamic movements that have emphasized the militant and imperial elements in Islam have drawn heavily on the 'conclusive' ideas presented in this Surah. Traditional scholars, while operating in a different context, also read the chapter in a similar way and generally agreed that it's expansionist/imperial message could be taken as abrogating any other verses in the Quran which can be taken to advance a non-expansionist/imperial ideal.

Criticism of the Quran

Contradictions

Main Article: Contradictions in the Quran

While the Quran straightforwardly states that it consistent to a degree that evidences its own divinity, critics have argued argued otherwise, pointing out a large number of what would, in absence of extremely creative exegetical interpretations, appear to be contradictions that suggest a non-divine origin of the Quran. A large, polemical discourse has emerged around these and similar proposed contradictions which primarily takes the form of online articles, online videos, and Islamic evangelical preaching.

"Why don't they contemplate upon the Qur'an? Had it been originated from anyone besides God, then it would have been abundant with inconsistencies and contradictions"

Scientific errors

A common criticism of the Quran, as with the Hadith, is that it contains numerous scientific and historical errors, with no obvious attempts to differentiate its understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7th century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or phenomenological interpretations of such verses. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to avoid statements in the Quran that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.

Misrepresentations of the Quran in English

Critics have argued that interpretations of the Quran in English in general, and particularly in evangelical and interfaith contexts, have distorted the plain meaning of the most controversial and troubling verses in the Quran while at the same time idealizing those verse which, when read a certain way, appeal to modern values, presumably to make it appear more acceptable to a Western audience.

Academic and Islamic modernist scholars have argued on the other hand that medieval Islamic scholars sometimes misinterpreted the original meaning of certain verses or claimed that they had been abrogated in order to fit the imperial political context of the emerging empire.

Verses most often claimed to be misused or misrepresented include Quran 5:32 (which regards murder), Quran 2:256 (which regards religious tolerance), Quran 2:195 (which regards participation in Jihad), Quran 8:61 (which regards military reconciliation), Quran 2:79 (which regards the 'corruption of previous scriptures'), Quran 4:3 (which regards the treatment of wives and orphans), Quran 2:190 (which regards defensive Jihad), Quran 4:129 (which regards the treatment of wives), Quran 109:1-6 (which regards pluralism), Quran 2:62 (which regards the salvation of 'people of the book'), and Quran 2:62 (which regards the extent of Jihad).

“If anyone slays a person, it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people.”
Qur'an as sometimes paraphrased[7]
On that account: We ordained for the Children of Israel that if anyone slew a person - unless it be in retaliation for murder or for spreading mischief in the land - it would be as if he slew all mankind: and if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of all humanity.

Mistranslations of the Quran in English

In some cases, published English translations of the Quran have opted for incorrect translations. Critics have suggested that this is for the same evangelical and interfaith-based reasons for which the scripture is often misrepresented in the first place. Translations with apparently deliberate errors include well known editions, such as the Yusuf Ali, Rashad Khalifa, and Muhammad Asad translations. Whereas scripture, critics argue, is frequently misrepresented in various contexts in the name of various levels of expedience, published mistranslations tend to deliberately err only in those instances where the original text poses a very acute challenge to Western values and sensibilities, particularly with respect to human rights and science. The verses most often distorted in published translations include Quran 4:34 (which regards wife-beating), Quran 67:5 (which regards the nature of stars, meteors, and/or comets), Quran 86:7 (which regards the origin of semen), Quran 21:91 & Quran 66:12 (which regard the birth of Jesus), Quran 3:52 (which describes Allah as 'the best deceiver'), and the various verses which employ the word qatal, which means 'kill', 'massacre', or 'slaughter'. The pages listed below cover some of these mistranslations individually:

The hadith

Main Article: Hadith

The Hadith (الحديث ahadith, plural) are traditions of Muhammad which provide information about him and his life. They are usually narrations about a certain incident in which he said, did, or tacitly approved of something. Unlike the Qur'an, the books that contain them are usually arranged in some logical fashion. The majority of Islamic law and belief derives from the hadiths. The hadith are said to be of varying authenticity according to the Islamic tradition, with some considered to be so reliable that to reject them would be tantamount to disbelief. Historians are less certain about the reliability of the hadith, as they were supposedly transmitted orally and written down, for the most part, some 150-200 years after Muhammad's death.

Quranism and the importance of hadith

The Qur'an, often presented as the exclusive domain of God's commands, also contains numerous injunctions from Muhammad himself, and indeed commands obedience of Muhammad. Traditionally, therefore, the hadiths have been viewed as an Islamic scripture of fundamental importance, without which Islam as it is known could not exist, since the Quran contains a relatively paltry amount of legal, ritual, and doctrinal content when compared to the hadith literature.

He who obeys the Messenger, obeys Allah: But if any turn away, We have not sent thee to watch over their (evil deeds).

In recent times, a small minority of Islamic thinkers and modernists identifying as 'Quranists' have tried to reinterpret Islam from the ground up relying only on the Quran while at the same time disqualifying the hadith effectively wholesale, either on the basis of their historical questionability or on the basis of their at times troubling content. This has vexed traditionalist scholars, who consider the hadith to be of fundamental importance and without which, they point out, Muslims would have no solid epistemological grounding for such integral items as the rituals of the daily Islamic prayer, among other things.

Uswa hasana

Main Article: Uswa Hasana, See also Muhammad's Sunnah

In the mainstream theology of Sunni Islam, the Prophet Muhammad is known as al-Insān al-Kāmil (lit. "the perfect human") and uswa hasana (lit. "an excellent model"). This is taken to mean that his conduct in all things, from how he prayed, how he conducted himself in business and in war, his sexual relations with his wives, slaves and concubines, and even how he cleaned himself after defecation and urination is an exemplar and model for all humans to follow at all times, regardless of historical circumstance and independent of culture. This conception of Muhammad as the perfect man is the basis upon which the hadith, which describe his life, are used to formulate Islamic law and doctrine.

Sahih

Sahih (صَحِيْح) is an Arabic word that means genuine/authentic/sound. It is used in classification of ahadith and is the highest level of authenticity given to a narration that passes the highest level of traditional methods of authentication. Therefore, in orthodox Islam, when refusing to accept the content of a narration, one must generally prove that a sahih hadith is in fact inauthentic in order to reject it, since rejection based on a dislike for the attested actions/statements of the prophet is not considered a rigorous, consistent, or reliable basis for rejection. Historians assessments of hadiths follow a different methodology and cannot be predicted reliably based on the traditional authentication given to a hadith alone, although this can be a factor (often indirectly) in their analysis.

Daleel

Daleel (دليل, pl. adillah) is an Arabic word meaning evidence or proof, and in the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence, the word refers to anything that is used to deduce and justify a ruling or fatwa from the Shariah, or Islamic Law. While there exist numerous specific types of daleels arranged in a hierarchy, as understood variously by the different schools of Islamic law, all generally agree today that among the most important daleels are, in order, the Qur'an, Hadith, Ijma (consensus of Islamic scholars or Muhammad's companions), and some form of Qiyas (analogical reasoning).

In regards to Islamic hadith, Daleel can either be Maudu (fabricated), Da`if (weak), Hasan (good), or Sahih (authentic). Generally in Islam, only the authentic (sahih) and good (hasan) hadiths are used in deriving the rules. The weak (da`if) hadiths are of much lesser value for the purpose of formulating sharia, and the fabricated (Maudu) narrations are not even considered to be hadith at all (but can sometimes be useful as representatives of common perspectives circulating at the time of the fabricated hadith's origination).

Criticism of the hadith

Weak and fabricated hadith

While traditional Islamic scholars have generally disallowed the very weak and fabricated hadiths from playing any role whatsoever in the formation of doctrine and law, many of them have, in varying capacities, permitted the use of unreliable hadiths in preaching, particularly where the hadith regards a topic without legal or doctrinal consequence. Examples of this include hadiths which give details about stories regarding the lives of other prophets, stories without legal consequence having to do with the life of Muhammad, and hadiths which comment on the merit or dis-merit of some deed and what its consequences will be in the hereafter. An example of the second of these three common genres is the story regarding Muhammad visiting the vicious Jew he had for a neighbor while she was sick. The last of these three genres most very often feature hadiths which say something to the effect of how many good deeds or heavenly rewards a believer gets if they recite some prayer or set of verses a given number of times.

Contradictions

While the sheer vastness of the hadith literature coupled with the large percentage of it that is admittedly inauthentic virtually necessitates the presence of contradictions, critics and historians have pointed out that even among those limited number of traditions graded as very reliable by Muslim scholars, there exist contradictions which can only be resolved through the most inventive hermeneutical techniques, which, needless to say, strain credulity. Historians have referenced these contradictions to argue that traditional system whereby Islamic scholars have tried to ascertain the reliability of hadiths is itself not reliable.

Ibn Umar reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). made a mention of Dajjil in the presence of the people and said: Allah is not one-eyed and behold that Dajjal is blind of the right eye and his eye would be like a floating grape.
Hudhalfa reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: Dajjal is blind of left eye with thick hair and there would be a garden and fire with him and his fire would be a garden and his garden would be fire.

Scientific errors

A common criticism of the Hadith, as with the Quran, is that they contain numerous scientific and historical errors, with no obvious attempts to differentiate their understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7th century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or phenomenological interpretations of such hadiths. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to guide the avoidance of statements in the Hadith that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.

Absurdities

The Islamic tradition is truly vast, and covers an impressive number of different topics, often including surprising stories, anecdotes and injunctions. Some of these traditions are truly strange or noteworthy in their own right. As with contradictions, historians and critics (who also cite the scientific errors), have argued that the presence of absurd anecdotes among those hadiths that have been graded very reliable by traditional scholars directly undermines the traditional method of grading hadiths.

Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying : I recognise the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.
Narrated 'Amr bin Maimun: During the pre-lslamic period of ignorance I saw a she-monkey surrounded by a number of monkeys. They were all stoning it, because it had committed illegal sexual intercourse. I too, stoned it along with them.

Other important texts

Tafsirs

Tafsirs are commentaries written by scholars, generally relying on the hadith collections, to explain the meanings of verses in the Qur'an (as the Qur'an itself does not provide the context of its verses). The most respected and widely used being the Tafsir ibn Kathir. Modern Islamic scholars often deflect criticism from the Qur'an by arguing that it must be read in conjunction with an authoritative tafsir. Critics have argued, in response, that referencing traditional and authoritative tafsirs often renders the passages of the Quran an even less acceptable light.

Sira

Sirat Rasul Allah (Arabic: سيرة رسول الله, Romanization: Sīrat Rasūl-Allāh, Abv: Sirat), or Biography of the Prophet of Allah, refers to the collected biographies of Muhammad. It is also the title of one of the most important early Siras, namely that of Ibn Ishaq. In addition to the hadith (oral account of Muhammad's statements and actions), the Sirat provides an integral foundation to the sunnah (example, customs, and practices) set forth by Muhammad. Throughout Islamic history, the Siras and Sunnah have established the foundation of much of Islamic Law (Shariah) and Jurisprudence (Fiqh), including but not limited to the Five Pillars of Islam, societal code, and dietary standards. The biggest contribution of the Siras to the hadith is in their serving as a reference point whereby an attempt can be made to chronologize the events reported piecemeal in the hadiths.

Books of fiqh

Books of Islamic jurisprudence (فقه‎ Fiqh) are complimentary expansions of the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah), written by Islamic jurists (experts on Islamic law). Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law (Umdat Al-Salik), for instance, is the traditional handbook on Shafi'i law. Translations of these texts in English have been problematic, as translators have often mistranslated the texts where the prove objectionable to modern sensibilities.[8]

Muhammad in other scriptures

The figure of Muhammad and the religion he founded is often depicted negatively in religious scriptures that post date him.

In the Bhavishya Purana, one of the eighteen major Hindu Puranas, Muhammad is depicted as a reincarnated demon, Islam as a demonic religion, and its followers as "the corrupters of religion".

In the Haran Gawaitha, a Mandaean text which tells the history of the Mandaeans and their arrival in Iraq as Nasoreans from Jerusalem, Muhammad is referred to as "the Son-of-Slaughter, the Arab", "the most degraded of false prophets", "the Seal of prophets of the Lie", who "converted people to himself by the sword".

And in the Kālachakra Tantra, a ninth century Tibetan Buddhist text, Muhammad is referred to as a demonic incarnation and a "false impostor". Muslims are described as invading "barbarians", bringing with them the barbarian religion ("mleccha-dharma"), a religion of violence ("himsa-dharma") that also advocates savage behavior ("raudra-karman").

See also

References

  1. Qur'an, Chapter 33, Verse 40
  2. Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 0-340-58795-4
  3. Qur'ān, Chapter 2, Verses 23-24
  4. Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338,  I.B. Tauris Publishers,
  5. Qur'an, Chapter 17, Verse 106
  6. Jasser Auda, A Critique of the Theory of Abrogation, Kube, ISBN 978-0860377306, 2019 
  7. Jacob Bender - Jewish-Muslim Dialogue and the Value of Peace - The American Muslim, July 19, 2007
  8. An example of such a mistranslation is argued for here, which should be read alongside the full entry for بَظْرٌ in Lane's lexicon available here.