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Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (Supplement)

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Following on from Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature, this supplement contains further parallels beyond what can be accommodated in the main article. This material, drawing heavily on rabbinical commentaries on the bible, and late Syriac Christian thought found in homilies, was created far later than the biblical cannon; no-where near the time of the events that occurred. This suggests the stories were transmitted in an oral millennia along with local Arabian traditions[1] where biblical and much later Jewish and Christian stories could be commonly mixed without the new community realizing.

Shooting Stars and Eavesdropping Satans

Main article: Shooting Stars in the Quran

Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars, And as protection against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing.
Quran 37:6-10

The idea of shooting stars chasing away eavesdropping devils has Zoroastrian, Jewish, and probably Arabian roots. This was noted by Patricia Crone in the commentary published following the 2012-13 Qur'an Seminar (a series of academic conferences).[2] She argues that though the Zoroastrian sources were written after the Quran, their contents date to the Sassanian period, before the rise of Islam. Here the fixed stars and constellations are warriors led by the sun and moon to repel demons represented by moving bodies (planets and comets) from passing to the upper heaven. It is in the Jewish Testament of Solomon (1st to 3rd century CE) where the demons who fly up among the stars are not warriors but rather try to listen into God's decisions about men. Here, people see shooting stars as the exhausted demons falling back to earth. Eavesdropping demons also feature in the Babylonian Talmud.

Every living thing from water

In two verses the Quran states that Allah created every living thing from water:

Have those who disbelieved not considered that the heavens and the earth were a joined entity, and We separated them and made from water every living thing? Then will they not believe?
Quran 21:30
Allah has created every [living] creature from water. And of them are those that move on their bellies, and of them are those that walk on two legs, and of them are those that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills. Indeed, Allah is over all things competent.
Quran 24:45-1

It is significant that the first of the two verses, 21:30, is explicitly about the creation of the world.

The Jewish apocryphal book 2 Esdras (1st / 2nd century CE) contains the same concept when describing the days of creation. It is not quite as general as the later Quranic version, as verse 53 states that on the 6th day cattle, beasts and creeping things were brought forth from the earth.

42 “On the third day thou didst command the waters to be gathered together in the seventh part of the earth; six parts thou didst dry up and keep so that some of them might be planted and cultivated and be of service before thee.

...
47 “On the fifth day thou didst command the seventh part, where the water had been gathered together, to bring forth living creatures, birds, and fishes; and so it was done.

48 The dumb and lifeless water produced living creatures, as it was commanded, that therefore the nations might declare thy wondrous works.
[Esdras 6:42, 47-48]

Reynolds notes another earlier parallel taught by the Syriac church father Ephrem (d. 373 CE). He writes, "[...] Ephrem, who explains that God created everything through water: 'Thus, through light and water the earth brought forth everything.' Ephrem, Commentary on Genesis, 1:1-10)."[3] Ephrem's comment is in the context of the Genesis creation story, much like the first Quranic verse, 21:30. Ephrem says that when heaven and earth were created there were no trees or vegetation as it had not yet rained, so a fountain irrigated the earth. Tafsirs say that when the heaven and earth were separated rain fell so that plants could grow. There is also a similarity with Ephrem in the other verse (24:45), which mentions creatures that move on two, four or no legs. Ephrem explains that as well as the "trees, vegetation and plants", the "Scripture wishes to indicate that all animals, reptiles, cattle and birds came into being as a result of the combining of earth and water".[4]

Jinn created from fire

And the jinn We created before from scorching fire.
Quran 15:27

According to Reynolds, "The idea that God first created the Jinn from fire (v. 27) reflects Christian texts such as the Cave of Treasures that speak of the creation of the devil from fire (and have him already present at the creation of Adam)."[5] See the discussion in the main article on the prostration of Iblis, which quotes the Cave of Treasures where he states that he was created from fire and spirit.

Suckling for two years

Reynolds (2020) notes that the idea that women should suckle their children for two years has a basis in the Talmud (b. Ketubbot 60a).[6]

Mothers shall suckle their children for two full years—that for such as desire to complete the suckling—and on the father shall be their maintenance and clothing, in accordance with honourable norms. No soul is to be tasked except according to its capacity: neither the mother shall be made to suffer harm on her child’s account, nor the father on account of his child, and on the [father’s] heir devolve [duties and rights] similar to that. And if the couple desire to wean with mutual consent and consultation, there will be no sin upon them. And if you want to have your children wet-nursed, there will be no sin upon you so long as you pay what you give in accordance with honourable norms, and be wary of Allah and know that Allah watches what you do.
Quran 2:233


The Queen of Sheba

Qur'anic Account

The story of the Queen of Sheba is an ancient one, dating back to the Old Testament (1 Kgs. 10:1-10 and 2 Chr. 9:1-12). Josephus also makes mention of the Queen of Sheba, as does the Qur'an, which interestingly embellishes the Old Testament account with the episodes of the hoopoe and the Queen of Sheba exposing her legs.

Below is the Quranic account of the story:

And he took attendance of the birds and said, "Why do I not see the hoopoe - or is he among the absent? I will surely punish him with a severe punishment or slaughter him unless he brings me clear authorization." But the hoopoe stayed not long and said, "I have encompassed [in knowledge] that which you have not encompassed, and I have come to you from Sheba with certain news. Indeed, I found [there] a woman ruling them, and she has been given of all things, and she has a great throne. I found her and her people prostrating to the sun instead of Allah, and Satan has made their deeds pleasing to them and averted them from [His] way, so they are not guided, [And] so they do not prostrate to Allah, who brings forth what is hidden within the heavens and the earth and knows what you conceal and what you declare - Allah - there is no deity except Him, Lord of the Great Throne." [Solomon] said, "We will see whether you were truthful or were of the liars. Take this letter of mine and deliver it to them. Then leave them and see what [answer] they will return." She said, "O eminent ones, indeed, to me has been delivered a noble letter. Indeed, it is from Solomon, and indeed, it reads: 'In the name of Allah, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful, Be not haughty with me but come to me in submission [as Muslims].' " She said, "O eminent ones, advise me in my affair. I would not decide a matter until you witness [for] me." They said, "We are men of strength and of great military might, but the command is yours, so see what you will command." She said, "Indeed kings - when they enter a city, they ruin it and render the honored of its people humbled. And thus do they do. But indeed, I will send to them a gift and see with what [reply] the messengers will return." So when they came to Solomon, he said, "Do you provide me with wealth? But what Allah has given me is better than what He has given you. Rather, it is you who rejoice in your gift. Return to them, for we will surely come to them with soldiers that they will be powerless to encounter, and we will surely expel them therefrom in humiliation, and they will be debased." [Solomon] said, "O assembly [of jinn], which of you will bring me her throne before they come to me in submission?" A powerful one from among the jinn said, "I will bring it to you before you rise from your place, and indeed, I am for this [task] strong and trustworthy." Said one who had knowledge from the Scripture, "I will bring it to you before your glance returns to you." And when [Solomon] saw it placed before him, he said, "This is from the favor of my Lord to test me whether I will be grateful or ungrateful. And whoever is grateful - his gratitude is only for [the benefit of] himself. And whoever is ungrateful - then indeed, my Lord is Free of need and Generous." He said, "Disguise for her her throne; we will see whether she will be guided [to truth] or will be of those who is not guided." So when she arrived, it was said [to her], "Is your throne like this?" She said, "[It is] as though it was it." [Solomon said], "And we were given knowledge before her, and we have been Muslims [in submission to Allah]. And that which she was worshipping other than Allah had averted her [from submission to Him]. Indeed, she was from a disbelieving people." She was told, "Enter the palace." But when she saw it, she thought it was a body of water and uncovered her shins [to wade through]. He said, "Indeed, it is a palace [whose floor is] made smooth with glass." She said, "My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself, and I submit with Solomon to Allah, Lord of the worlds."
Quran 27:20-44

Targum Sheni

Regarding the above passage, Reynolds cites the Targum Sheni 1:1-3 (also known as The Second Targum of Esther).[7] The Targums were translations (in this case, Aramaic) of the Hebrew scriptures, often with significant exegesis, paraphrase, or additional tales interwoven with the text.

A few verses earlier, Quran 27:16-17 also has a parallel at the start of the same Targum Sheni passage. Reynolds remarks that "The Qurʾān's declaration that Solomon was taught the 'speech of the birds' (v. 16) and that his army included 'jinn, humans and birds' (v. 17) reflects the Second Targum of Esther (the date of which is disputed, but may date originally from the fourth century AD; On its relationship with the Qurʾān see BEQ, 390-91; 393-98)."[8] However, it must be cautioned that the date of the Targum Sheni (Second Targum of Esther) is extremely uncertain. It has received various datings from the 4th to 11th centuries AD (as Reynolds also mentions), though certainly in its final redaction includes material which post-dates the lower end of that range.[9]

Dozens of details correspond between this passage and the Quranic verses when they are compared:

At another time, when the heart of Solomon was gladdened with wine, he gave orders for the beasts of the land, the birds of the air, the creeping things of the earth, the demons from above and the Genii, to be brought, that they might dance around him, in order that all the kings waiting upon him might behold his grandeur. And all the royal scribes summoned by their names before him; in fact, all were there except the captives and prisoners and those in charge of them. Just then the Red-cock, enjoying itself, could not be found; and King Solomon said that they should seize and bring it by force, and indeed he sought to kill it. But just then the cock appeared in presence of the King, and said: O Lord, King of the earth! having applied thine ear, listen to my words. It is hardly three months since I made a firm resolution within me that I would not eat a crumb of bread, nor drink a drop of water until I had seen the whole world, and over it make my flight, saying to myself, I must know the city and the kingdom which is not subject to thee, my Lord King. Then I found the fortified city Qîtôr in the Eastern lands, and around it are stones of gold and silver in the streets plentiful as rubbish, and trees planted from the beginning of the world, and rivers to water it, flowing out of the garden of Eden. Many men are there wearing garlands from the garden close by. They shoot arrows, but cannot use the bow. They are ruled by a woman, called Queen of Sheba. Now if it please my Lord King, thy servant, having bound up my girdle, will set out for the fort Qîtôr in Sheba; and having "bound their Kings with chains and their Nobles with links of iron," will bring them into thy presence. The proposal pleased the King, and the scribes prepared a despatch, which was placed under the bird's wing, and away it flew high up in the sky. It grew strong surrounded by a crowd of birds, and reached the Fort of Sheba. By chance the Queen of Sheba was out in the morning worshipping the sea; and the air being darkened by the multitude of birds, she became so alarmed as to rend her clothes in trouble and distress. Just then the Cock alighted by her, and she seeing the letter under its wing opened and read it as follows: "King Solomon sendeth to thee his salaam, and saith, The high and holy One hath set me over the beasts of the field, etc.; and the kings of the four Quarters send to ask after my welfare. Now if it please thee to come and ask after my welfare, I will set thee high above them all. But if it please thee not, I will send kings and armies against thee; — the beasts of the field are my people, the birds of the air my riders, the demons and genii thine enemies, — to imprison you, to slay and to feed upon you." When the Queen of Sheba heard it, she again rent her garments, and sending for her Nobles asked their advice. They knew not Solomon, but advised her to send vessels by the sea, full of beautiful ornaments and gems, together with 6000 boys and girls in purple garments, who had all been born at the same moment; also to send a letter promising to visit him by the end of the year. It was a journey of seven years but she promised to come in three. When at last she came, Solomon sent a messenger shining in brilliant attire, like the morning dawn, to meet her. As they came together, she stepped from her carriage. "Why dost thou thus?" he asked. "Art thou not Solomon?" she said. "Nay, I am but a servant that standeth in his presence." The queen at once addressed a parable to her followers in compliment to him, and then was led by him to the Court. Solomon hearing she had come, arose and sat down in the Palace of glass. When the Queen of Sheba saw it, she thought that the glass floor was water, and so in crossing over lifted up her garments. When Solomon seeing the hair about her legs, cried out to her: Thy beauty is the beauty of women, but thy hair is as the hair of men; hair is good in man, but in woman it is not becoming. On this she said: My Lord, I have three enigmas to put to thee. If thou canst answer them, I shall know that thou art a wise man: but if not thou art like all around thee. When he had answered all three, she replied, astonished: Blessed be the Lord thy God, who hath placed thee on the throne that thou mightest rule with right and justice. And she gave to Solomon much gold and silver; and he to her whatsoever she desired.
Targum Sheni 1:1-3[10]

One cannot be too dogmatic about this parallelism, as the dating of Targum Sheni is not beyond doubt. Nevertheless, it is likely that the story of the Queen of Sheba pre-dates the Qur'an as the Targum is mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud. It is also clear that the post-Quranic dates often ascribed to Targum Sheni are that of the final redaction and not necessarily that of the Queen of Sheba myths.

Jacob tells his sons to not enter through one gate

And he said, "O my sons, do not enter from one gate but enter from different gates; and I cannot avail you against [the decree of] Allah at all. The decision is only for Allah; upon Him I have relied, and upon Him let those who would rely [indeed] rely."
Quran 12:67

According to Reynolds, Jacob's instruction to his sons to enter through different gates rather than one is a Midrashic tale found in Genesis Rabbah 91:6 "Do not enter through one gate."[11]

Moses, Aaron and the Samiri

Neuwirth (2024) notes on the following verses that when Moses grabs Aaron’s beard, it may symbolize a challenge to Aaron’s priestly dignity, an idea rooted in Jewish and Christian traditions.[12] And Aaron’s defense — that the people should not be divided — is not found in the Bible’s account in Exodus 32:22–24, but appears only in later rabbinical debates.[12]

But (Moses) said: "O Aaron, when you saw that they had gone astray, what hindered you from following me? Did you disobey my command?’ He said, ‘O son of my mother! Do not grab my beard or my head! I feared lest you should say, ‘‘You have caused a rift among the Children of Israel and did not heed my word [of advice].’’’
Quran 20:92-94

She also notes a possible parallel in this story Quran 20:95-96 in the brief description of how the calf was made may relate to scriptural magic described in Exodus Rabba 41:10, though this view contrasts with Paret, who follows Yahuda and relies on a later Midrash that is hard to date.[12] And in Quran 20:97-98 the Samiri / 'al-Sāmirī' is condemned in the Qur’an to live as a leper, symbolizing lifelong impurity — echoing the Bible's Leviticus 13:45; though his expulsion and the warning of future punishment parallel the story of Iblīs, showing that al-Sāmirī plays a Satan-like role in the Qur’anic narrative, which, similarly, rabbinic tradition also links Satan to the golden calf incident.[12]

Mary before the birth of Jesus

And mention in the Book Maryam, when she withdrew from her family (to) a place eastern. Then she took from them a screen. Then We sent to her Our Spirit then he assumed for her the likeness (of) a man well-proportioned.
Quran 19:16-17

Neuwirth (2024) notes we also find other details in the birth story, such as Mary withdrawing to 'an Eastern place', which had many allegorical meanings in post-biblical traditions connecting Mary with the church in late antiquity, and the screen itself, not contained in the bible, seemingly 'de-allegorised' in the Qur'an as simple details in the story.[13] It is not known if these de-allegorisation readings were meant to superimpose any contemporary allegory or if they were simply circulating in a story or stories already detached from their deeper meanings.[13]

The detail of the curtain is also reminiscent of a symbolic apocryphal story about Mary (see TUK_0035). According to the account of the Protevangelium of James (Protev 10) already used by Bell (1937), but especially by Tannous (2019), Mary is chosen by lot to weave purple and scarlet for the temple curtain (see KKK, 323)—whose color unmistakably anticipates her son’s passion. In view of the passion story not appearing in the Qurʾan, it is not surprising that in the Qur’an the important curtain is downgraded to a rather marginal accessory, a partition protecting Mary’s private space. As in the case of the “eastern place,” so also in the case of the curtain, an image used allegorically in the Christian tradition is ‘deallegorized’; both symbolic details appear again in the qurʾanic version as everyday realities...
Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (Kindle Edition. pp. 386). Yale University Press.

The term sakīnah

The term sakīnah is a Rabbinic rather than a biblical one[14] describing the physical manifestation of God on Earth.[15]

This Rabbinic Hebrew/Aramaic term appears as a Qur'anic noun six times. Most Qur’anic references to sakīnah describe God giving believers tranquility and reassurance in times of opposition.[15] One exception is Q2:247–48, where the ark is called a “sakīnah from your Lord,” echoing Jewish or Christian ideas of God’s shekīnah presence linked to the Ark of the Covenant, however, the Qur’an itself does not associate sakīnah with divine presence.[15] Instead, the term, which resembles the Hebrew/Aramiac word phonologically, was absorbed into Arabic and generally means “tranquility” or “reassurance”, so not semantically matching. Durie (2018) notes in this sense, sakīnah in Q2:248 may be a "linguistic fossil"; borrowed from earlier traditions without being understood, so reinterpreted with a new, purely Arabic meaning based on the root (s-k-n (“rest, stationary, still”)) in that language.[15]

Sinai (2023) sums up:

..Etymologically, the word is descended from rabbinic Hebrew shәkinah or its Aramaic equivalent (WMJA 53–55; NB 24–25; JPND 208–209; CQ 21; FVQ 174; Stewart 2021, 42–54), which in targumic and rabbinic texts designate God’s “dwelling” or “presence” in the world and can on occasion appear as a downright hypostasis of the deity (see DTTM 1573 and DJBA 1145 as well as the overview in Unterman et al. 2007). The Qur’anic use of sakīnah, a word that was presumably adopted from the language of the Medinan Jews, is an evident case in which the semantics of a loanword underwent far-reaching adjustment in accordance with the meaning of its Arabic root s-k-n, conveying rest and calmness. As a result, the Qur’anic sakīnah, though explicitly identified as being God’s, has a distinctly psychological slant and does not convey the presence of God at a particular place, as does the rabbinic concept (Durie 2018, 178–179). One may surmise that the Jews of Medina employed the word sakīnah to describe God’s presence in the ark of the covenant (Q 2:248). This would be in line with God’s statement in Exod 25:8 that he will “dwell” in the Israelites’ sanctuary, which the Targum Onqelos renders, “And I shall cause my presence (shkinti) to dwell among them.” The Qur’an, by contrast, integrates the term into the theme of God’s reassuring impact on the believers’ hearts, into which the sakīnah is sent down according to Q 48:4 (see AHW 67 and under → qalb). Thus, while the concept’s original doctrinal context was a theology of God’s presence at particular places and times (see Durie 2018, 179), in its Qur’anic reception it is absorbed into what one might call the Islamic scripture’s theology of divine fortification: the prime arena in which God can be experienced as present, above and beyond his universal role as the world’s creator and sustainer (→ khalaqa), is the human heart.
sakīnah | composure, tranquillity Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 391). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.

The term khalāq

Sinai (2023 notes the Qur’an uses khalāq (“share, portion”) in verses threatening that some will have “no share in the hereafter” (e.g., Q 2:102, 2:200, 3:77).[16] Unlike the usual Arabic root kh-l-q (“to create”), khalāq seems to be a loanword, likely from Hebrew ḥēleq or Aramaic ḥulaqa, both meaning “share” or “allotted fate.”[16] This phrasing strongly resembles rabbinic expressions about having (or lacking) a “share in the world to come,” widely attested in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, and Midrash.[16] The Qur’an’s diction thus reflects Rabbinical Jewish idiom, likely adopted in a Medinan context, making khalāq, like ummī (“scriptureless”) and baraʾa (“to create”) etc. an example of Jewish terminology integrated into Qur’anic usage.[16]

Some are not exact matches but very similar, showing potential influence if not direct copies of these texts.

See Also

References

  1. ↑ Bannister, Andrew G.. An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an (Kindle Location 249-259 in Chapter 1.2 The Biblicist Roots of the Iblis and Adam Story). Bloomsbury Publishing. Kindle Edition. ..When the Qur’an emerged in the seventh-century, it did so in an oral culture in which Biblicist traditions were freely circulating and thus there existed a large pool of commonly known stories and traditions to fish from; a pool in which stories could cross-fertilize and influence one another. 23 It is this, more than direct borrowing that perhaps best explains stories like Iblis and Adam as well as other qur’anic tellings of older tales, such as the Seven Sleepers (Q. 18: 9– 25) 24 and the Legend of Alexander (Dhu al-Qarnayn, Q. 18: 83– 101). 25 The Qur’an originates from a milieu in which Biblicist material was well-known to the first audience of the Qur’an; even a simple allusion to a story was often enough to trigger a connection for the hearer. 26 That Biblicist material has been filtered through storytelling rather than simply copied from a written text is further suggested by what the Qur’an leaves out; no minor prophets are referenced, probably because almost no Old Testament narratives feature them nor did the rabbinic literature weave lengthy tales about them. 27 The exception which proves the rule is Jonah (Q. 21: 87– 88; 37: 139– 148; 68: 48– 50), whose short but dramatic story was extremely popular in both Jewish and Christian contexts.28.. And: Bannister, Andrew G.. An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an (Kindle Locations 1391-1392. Chapter 2.3 The Islamic Tradition and Orality). Bloomsbury Publishing. Kindle Edition.
  2. ↑ Patricia Crone's comments in The Qur’an Seminar Commentary: A Collaborative Study of 50 Qur’anic Passages De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 305-312
  3. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p. 553. This is regarding Quran 24:45, though on p. 508 Reynolds cross references the same parallel regarding the other verse, Quran 21:30, which is more clearly a statement in the context of the Genesis creation story, like Ephrem's comment.
  4. ↑ Ephrem's commentary on Genesis - Faber Institute.com
  5. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qurʾān and Bible p. 407
  6. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", pp.631-pp.632. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018.
  7. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qurʾān and Bible pp. 585-6
  8. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qurʾān and Bible p. 524
    The BEQ reference in the quote is to H. Speyer Die biblischen Erzahtungen im Qoran 1931, reprint 1961
  9. ↑ Targum Sheni - Encyclopedia.com (originally from the Encyclopaedia Judaica)
  10. ↑ William St. Clair Tisdall, The Sources of Islam translated and abridged by William Muir, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1901, pp. 26-27
  11. ↑ Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qurʾān and Bible p. 377
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect. Kindle Edition: pp. 209.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (Kindle Edition. pp. 385-386). Yale University Press.
  14. ↑ Bible Hub - Shekinah
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Durie, Mark. The Qur'an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.177-178. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 khalāq | share Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 281-282). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.
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