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<!-- put more important conclusions in lead -->'''Female Genital Mutilation''' (Arabic: ختان المرأة) is the practice of cutting away and altering the external female genitalia for ritual or religious purposes. Those who practice or defend FGM refer to it as 'Female Circumcision'. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) generally consists one or both of the following procedures: '''Clitoridectomy:''' the amputation of part or all of the clitoris (or the removal of the clitoral prepuce); '''Excision:''' the cutting away of either or both the inner or outer labia. A third procedure, '''Infibulation''', involves the paring back of the outer labia, whose cut edges are then stitched together to form, once healed, a seal that covers both the openings of the vagina and the urethra. Infibulation usually also involves clitoridectomy. Those who engage in FGM consider its primary purpose to be the safeguarding of the purity, virtue and reputation of girls and women. | <!-- put more important conclusions in lead -->'''Female Genital Mutilation''' (Arabic: ختان المرأة) is the practice of cutting away and altering the external female genitalia for ritual or religious purposes. Those who practice or defend FGM refer to it as 'Female Circumcision'. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) generally consists one or both of the following procedures: '''Clitoridectomy:''' the amputation of part or all of the clitoris (or the removal of the clitoral prepuce); '''Excision:''' the cutting away of either or both the inner or outer labia. A third procedure, '''Infibulation''', involves the paring back of the outer labia, whose cut edges are then stitched together to form, once healed, a seal that covers both the openings of the vagina and the urethra. Infibulation usually also involves clitoridectomy. Those who engage in FGM consider its primary purpose to be the safeguarding of the purity, virtue and reputation of girls and women. | ||
[[File:Fgmmuslimmap.jpg|alt=World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|thumb|World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims]] | [[File:Fgmmuslimmap.jpg|alt=World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|thumb|World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims]] | ||
FGM is a practice associated with Islam: about 80% of FGM is attributable to Muslims.<ref>[https://fgmtruth.wordpress.com/what-percentage-of-global-fgm-are-moslems-responsible-for/ What Percentage of Global FGM is done by Moslems ?]</ref> Most of the remaining 20% is attributable to non-Muslims living in FGM-practicing Islamic societies (e.g. the Egyptian Copts<ref>[https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2014/03/12/prevalence-of-and-support-for-female-genital-mutilation-within-the-copts-of-egypt-unicef-report-2013/ Prevalence of and Support for Female Genital Mutilation within the Copts of Egypt: Unicef Report (2013)]</ref>), or to non-Islamic societies that have been hubs of the Islamic slave trade (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea). | FGM is a practice associated with Islam: about 80% of FGM is attributable to Muslims.<ref name=":2">[https://fgmtruth.wordpress.com/what-percentage-of-global-fgm-are-moslems-responsible-for/ What Percentage of Global FGM is done by Moslems ?]</ref> Most of the remaining 20% is attributable to non-Muslims living in FGM-practicing Islamic societies (e.g. the Egyptian Copts<ref>[https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2014/03/12/prevalence-of-and-support-for-female-genital-mutilation-within-the-copts-of-egypt-unicef-report-2013/ Prevalence of and Support for Female Genital Mutilation within the Copts of Egypt: Unicef Report (2013)]</ref>), or to non-Islamic societies that have been hubs of the Islamic slave trade (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea). | ||
Unlike Islamic male circumcision, the nature of which is uniform around the world, the practice of FGM varies greatly from community to community and country to country. This is because the procedure of male circumcision is precisely described (in Genesis). Several hadith report Muhammad approving of FGM, but they give very few clues as to ''the nature'' of that which he was approving. Consequently the practice of FGM varies greatly from community to community and country to country, possibly according to the intensity of anxieties around female sexuality in the community, its proximity to Islamic slave-trade routes (Infibulation is associated with the transportation of slaves), the presiding school of Islam (fiqh), and the nature and degree of historical Christian influence and colonisation. | Unlike Islamic male circumcision, the nature of which is uniform around the world, the practice of FGM varies greatly from community to community and country to country. This is because the procedure of male circumcision is precisely described (in Genesis). Several hadith report Muhammad approving of FGM, but they give very few clues as to ''the nature'' of that which he was approving. Consequently the practice of FGM varies greatly from community to community and country to country, possibly according to the intensity of anxieties around female sexuality in the community, its proximity to Islamic slave-trade routes (Infibulation is associated with the transportation of slaves), the presiding school of Islam (fiqh), and the nature and degree of historical Christian influence and colonisation. | ||
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{{Quote|[https://unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf 'Delinking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam'] by Ibrahim Lethome Asmani & Maryam Sheikh Abdi (2008)|'Shafi’i view it as wajib (obligatory) for both females and males'}} | {{Quote|[https://unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf 'Delinking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam'] by Ibrahim Lethome Asmani & Maryam Sheikh Abdi (2008)|'Shafi’i view it as wajib (obligatory) for both females and males'}} | ||
'Reliance of the Traveller' by by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) is the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law according to Shafi'i School. {{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the clitoris')}} | 'Reliance of the Traveller' by by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) is the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law according to Shafi'i School. {{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the clitoris')}}Nuh Ha Mim Keller's 1991 translation of Reliance of the Traveller is bowdlerised to make its content more acceptable to Western eyes and translates the word 'bazr' ( بَظْرٌ ) as 'clitorial prepuce' instead of simply 'clitoris' (see section [[#Defining Bazr|Defining Bazr)]]. | ||
===Hanbali Madhab=== | ===Hanbali Madhab=== | ||
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'''(2007)''' ''“''[A]''s far as Islam is concerned “we do observe circumcision not mutilation”'' [http://wow.gm/africa/gambia/article/2007/6/7/imam-fatty-rebuts-fgm-claim Gambian imam: Prophet Muhammad spoke well of FGM] | '''(2007)''' ''“''[A]''s far as Islam is concerned “we do observe circumcision not mutilation”'' [http://wow.gm/africa/gambia/article/2007/6/7/imam-fatty-rebuts-fgm-claim Gambian imam: Prophet Muhammad spoke well of FGM] | ||
'''(2008) “'''''The'' [ | '''(2008) “'''''The'' [Muslim] ''Brotherhood'' […] ''opposes banning'' [FGM] ''because it is a tradition that should remain an option for medical reasons and “beautification” purposes.”'' [https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2008/0724/p05s01-wome.html Egypt’s child protection law sparks controversy] the Christian Science Monitor | ||
'''(2009)''' ''“''[The Hadiths] ''require'' […] ''every woman be circumcised, failing which she will be impure and not even able to handle food. Why, moreover, wish to forbid female circumcision in a country made up of 90% | '''(2009)''' ''“''[The Hadiths] ''require'' […] ''every woman be circumcised, failing which she will be impure and not even able to handle food. Why, moreover, wish to forbid female circumcision in a country made up of 90% Muslims?”'' Abou Ly (l’Association des imams et oulémas du Sénégal), quoted and translated from “[https://pointdebasculecanada.ca/quand-les-savants-musulmans-justifient-les-mutilations-genitales-feminines/ Quand les «savants musulmans» justifient les mutilations génitales féminines]” | ||
[[File:Fgmflyer-mozlem-brotherhood.jpg|thumb|Muslim Brotherhood flyer promoting FGM (amongst other medical services)]] | [[File:Fgmflyer-mozlem-brotherhood.jpg|thumb|Muslim Brotherhood flyer promoting FGM (amongst other medical services)]] | ||
'''(2012)''' “''The second strategy of the'' [ | '''(2012)''' “''The second strategy of the'' [Muslim Brotherhood] ''to contest the undesirability of FGM is to present it as a medical operation or procedure. By doing so, they encourage people to go to doctors – rather than midwives – who will perform the “operation” under anaesthesia and in accordance with proper surgical procedures'' […] ''Some people talk about taking their daughters to the doctor to check whether “they need it or not”, as if there is a physiological condition that would justify mutilating a woman’s reproductive organs'' […] ''Some doctors believe that not circumcising females leads to sexual arousal and that this could lead to the committing unlawful acts. So circumcision is a duty for the protection of the honour of the believing woman and for the preservation of her chastity and purit''y […] ''The third strategy deployed by the Brothers to promote FGM is to push for its decriminalization, under the premise that it is a matter that should be left to the personal choice of the girls’ guardians'' […] ''“the decision is up to the guardian and the doctor who decides on the extent to which the girl needs this operation”"'' [https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/mutilating-bodies-muslim-brotherhoods-gift-to-egyptian-women/ Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood’s gift to Egyptian women] | ||
'''(2013)''' ''“The Indonesian Council of Ulema (MUI) is in favour of female circumcision (and men) that, although it can not be considered mandatory, it is still “morally recommended.” Kiai Hajj Amin Ma’ruf'' [the head of the council]'', pointed out that it is an “advisable practise on moral grounds”, at the same time, he rejects any attempt to declare this practice illegal or contrary to the principles. It comes under the sphere of “human rights,” said the Islamist leader, and is “guaranteed by the Constitution.””'' [http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Indonesian-Ulema-in-favour-of-female-circumcision:-a-human-right-26948.html Indonesian Ulema in favour of female circumcision: a “human right”] | '''(2013)''' ''“The Indonesian Council of Ulema (MUI) is in favour of female circumcision (and men) that, although it can not be considered mandatory, it is still “morally recommended.” Kiai Hajj Amin Ma’ruf'' [the head of the council]'', pointed out that it is an “advisable practise on moral grounds”, at the same time, he rejects any attempt to declare this practice illegal or contrary to the principles. It comes under the sphere of “human rights,” said the Islamist leader, and is “guaranteed by the Constitution.””'' [http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Indonesian-Ulema-in-favour-of-female-circumcision:-a-human-right-26948.html Indonesian Ulema in favour of female circumcision: a “human right”] | ||
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The 'FGM as un-Islamic' narrative is bolstered by the fact that it is a minority of Muslims that practice FGM. And that most Muslims who migrate to the West come from non-practicing schools and traditions - and Muslims from the Maghreb, and Muslims from Pakistan and Turkey, who belong to the Hanafi school of fiqh, The Hanafi school is the school of Islam under which there is the least incidence of FGM. | The 'FGM as un-Islamic' narrative is bolstered by the fact that it is a minority of Muslims that practice FGM. And that most Muslims who migrate to the West come from non-practicing schools and traditions - and Muslims from the Maghreb, and Muslims from Pakistan and Turkey, who belong to the Hanafi school of fiqh, The Hanafi school is the school of Islam under which there is the least incidence of FGM. | ||
However, Islam’s response to FGM is reminiscent of that of a burglar who, after having practiced his trade with impunity for a life-time, has a sudden access of guilt and repentance on his first appearance before a judge. One suspects his distress is more at being found out than guilt or repentance. Muslims, when discussing FGM, are more concerned with showing that FGM is un-Islamic than with condemning it or with protecting potential victims. This is comes from a obligation to prevent Islam's notional perfection from being sullied by its association with a practice | However, Islam’s response to FGM is reminiscent of that of a burglar who, after having practiced his trade with impunity for a life-time, has a sudden access of guilt and repentance on his first appearance before a judge. One suspects his distress is more at being found out than guilt or repentance. Muslims, when discussing FGM, are generally more concerned with showing that FGM is un-Islamic than with condemning it or with protecting potential victims. This is comes from a obligation to prevent Islam's notional perfection from being sullied by its association with a practice perceived to be barbaric. The protection of girls and women from FGM often appears not to be a priority at all, indeed it is not infrequent to hear the argument that 'FGM is nothing to do with Islam, but it should be legal'. | ||
This results in arguments being used to de-link FGM from Islam that are, by Western standards of critical thinking, are particularly weak and incoherent. The following section addresses some of the principal arguments used. | This results in arguments being used to de-link FGM from Islam that are, by Western standards of critical thinking, are particularly weak and incoherent. The following section addresses some of the principal arguments used. | ||
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===Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam=== | ===Arguments de-linking FGM from Islam=== | ||
{{anchor|equivocation}} | {{anchor|equivocation}} | ||
====FGM not required by Islam==== | ====FGM is not required by Islam==== | ||
- ' | - The Shafi'i school of Islam and some Hanbali scholars have ruled FGM obligatory. The Maliki school recommends it, and the Hanafi school allows it. | ||
- Not all Islamic practices are obligatory: whilst a Muslim | - 'Not obligatory', 'allowed' or 'tolerated' are no more acceptable legal or ethical positions for a practice such as FGM than they would be for murder, child sexual abuse or rape. | ||
- Not all Islamic practices are obligatory: whilst a Muslim must complete 5 prayers a day, there are optional (nawafil) prayers which confer additional rewards. Fasting outside of the month of Ramadhan, or giving sadaqah (voluntary charity) are also optional. | |||
- Since the 1990s Islamic scholars, clerics and other sources have issued fatwas and statements that appear to criticise, condemn and even forbid FGM. However, a critical reading of these reveals that they virtually all engage in some form of equivocation (deliberate use of ambiguous or equivocal language) in order to appear to be more critical of FGM than they are. Probably the most cited instance of this is a fatwa issued by Dr Ahmed Talib, the former Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious university for Sunni Islamic learning. | - Since the 1990s Islamic scholars, clerics and other sources have issued fatwas and statements that appear to criticise, condemn and even forbid FGM. However, a critical reading of these reveals that they virtually all engage in some form of equivocation (deliberate use of ambiguous or equivocal language) in order to appear to be more critical of FGM than they are. Probably the most cited instance of this is a fatwa issued by Dr Ahmed Talib, the former Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious university for Sunni Islamic learning. | ||
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====there is no FGM in the Qur'an==== | ====there is no FGM in the Qur'an==== | ||
- see '''[[#quran|FGM in the Qur'an]]''' | - Whilst it is true that there is no mention of FGM in the Qur'an, according to traditional interpretive methodology, Qur'an 30:30 by requiring one to ''<nowiki/>'adhere to the fitrah''' indirectly, but ineluctably, advocates FGM (see '''[[#quran|FGM in the Qur'an)]]'''. | ||
- Most of what constitutes Islam is found not in the Qur'an but in the Sunnah. The Qur'an has 91 verses commanding to follow Muhammad's example to the last detail. However, whilst verses in the Qur'an can be assigned to certain events in Muhammad's biography, Muslims can only know what those events were by turning to the Sunnah (the Sirat and the Hadith). None of the Five Pillars of Islam are explained in | - Most of what constitutes Islam is found not in the Qur'an but in the Sunnah. The Qur'an has 91 verses commanding to follow Muhammad's example to the last detail. However, whilst verses in the Qur'an can be assigned to certain events in Muhammad's biography, Muslims can only know what those events were by turning to the Sunnah (the Sirat and the Hadith). None of the Five Pillars of Islam are explained in the Qur'an, which, for example, tells Muslims to pray, but not ''how'' to pray. | ||
{{anchor|before}} | {{anchor|before}} | ||
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The underlying assumption of this argument is that ''if a practice existed before Islam then it can not be Islamic''. | The underlying assumption of this argument is that ''if a practice existed before Islam then it can not be Islamic''. | ||
FGM did indeed exist before Islam. However, if this disqualified FGM from being Islamic then monotheism, male circumcision, pilgrimage to Mecca, the veneration of the kaaba, abstention from pork, giving to charity, interdictions on lying and murder, and much more would also be un-Islamic since previous religions and societies have held these beliefs and practices. Indeed, if Islam were only that which was completely original to Islam almost nothing that has been considered Islamic over the last 1400 would remain. | FGM ''did'' indeed exist before Islam (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM before Islam|FGM before Islam]]). However, if this disqualified FGM from being Islamic then monotheism, male circumcision, pilgrimage to Mecca, the veneration of the kaaba, abstention from pork, giving to charity, interdictions on lying and murder, and much more would also be un-Islamic since previous religions and societies have held these beliefs and practices. Indeed, if Islam were only that which was completely original to Islam almost nothing that has been considered Islamic over the last 1400 would remain. | ||
Mohammed took a localized tradition and sacralised it, thus guaranteeing that it would exist and flourish wherever, and for as long as, Islam existed. In the normal process of history FGM would have died out as more advanced Graeco-Roman and Christian conceptions of society and humanity (not least normative monogamy) spread and prevailed. Footbinding, sati, slavery, child marriage and non-Islamic FGM have all been eliminated or curtailed where the West has had influence. | |||
{{anchor|african}} | {{anchor|african}} | ||
====FGM is an African practice==== | ====FGM is an African practice==== | ||
[[File:Indonesia-religion-fgm-map-reworked.jpg|thumb| | [[File:Indonesia-religion-fgm-map-reworked.jpg|thumb|Maps showing the correlation between Islam and FGM in Indonesia: the first map shows the distribution and prevalence of FGM in Indonesia; the second map shows the distribution of religions in Indonesia:|alt=]] | ||
It is true that FGM existed in parts of Africa before the invention of Islam – notably Egypt and the West coast of the Red Sea (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#Non-Islamic sources|FGM before Islam: non-Islamic Sources]]). But the hadith report that FGM was also practiced in Arabia before the invention of Islam, not least by Mohammed's tribe – the Banu Quraysh. | It is true that FGM existed in parts of Africa before the invention of Islam – notably Egypt and the West coast of the Red Sea (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#Non-Islamic sources|FGM before Islam: non-Islamic Sources]]). But the hadith report that FGM was also practiced in Arabia before the invention of Islam, not least by Mohammed's tribe – the Banu Quraysh. It should also be noted that: | ||
#most of Africa does not practice FGM, | #most of Africa does not practice FGM, | ||
# | #about 40% of FGM happens outside of Africa, in South Asia in particular.<ref name=":2" /> | ||
It appears to have been the Islam's | It appears to have been the Islam's plundering of Africa for sex slaves that spread FGM to its current extent (which closely coincides with that of Islam). It is also well documented that FGM was brought to Indonesia by Muslim traders and conquerors in the 13<sup>th</sup> Century. Indonesia is of the Shaafi school (the madhab that makes FGM obligatory) and has +90% rates of FGM amongst its Muslims. | ||
{{Quote|William G. Clarence-Smith (Professor of the Economic History of Asia and Africa at SOAS, University of London) in ‘Self-Determination and Women’s Rights in Muslim Societies’ Ed. Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine|'The Southeast Asian case undermines a widespread notion that female circumcision is a pre-Islamic custom that has merely been tolerated by the newer faith. In contrast to other regions, female circumcision seems to have been introduced into Southeast Asia as part of the inhabitants’ conversion to Islam from the thirteenth century on. Indeed, for Tomás Ortiz, writing about the southern Philippines in the early eighteenth century, female circumcision was not only a Muslim innovation, but also one that had spread to some degree to non-Muslims.'}} | {{Quote|William G. Clarence-Smith (Professor of the Economic History of Asia and Africa at SOAS, University of London) in ‘Self-Determination and Women’s Rights in Muslim Societies’ Ed. Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine|'The Southeast Asian case undermines a widespread notion that female circumcision is a pre-Islamic custom that has merely been tolerated by the newer faith. In contrast to other regions, female circumcision seems to have been introduced into Southeast Asia as part of the inhabitants’ conversion to Islam from the thirteenth century on. Indeed, for Tomás Ortiz, writing about the southern Philippines in the early eighteenth century, female circumcision was not only a Muslim innovation, but also one that had spread to some degree to non-Muslims.'}} | ||
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The underlying assumption of this argument is that ''if Christians engage in a practice then it can not be Islamic.'' This would imply that what Christians do (or don't do) determines what is 'Islamic' - something that Muslims would undoubtedly reject. | The underlying assumption of this argument is that ''if Christians engage in a practice then it can not be Islamic.'' This would imply that what Christians do (or don't do) determines what is 'Islamic' - something that Muslims would undoubtedly reject. | ||
On the map showing the prevalence of Female Genital Cutting many Western Christian countries are assigned the rubric ''<nowiki/>'rare or limited to particular ethnic minority enclaves'.'' This does not indicate that Christians in those countries engage in FGM, but rather reflects the presence of FGM-practicing immigrants.[[File:Infibmap correct20111.jpg|thumb|the prevalence of Female Genital Cutting|alt=|left]] | On the map showing the prevalence of Female Genital Cutting many Western Christian countries are assigned the rubric ''<nowiki/>'rare or limited to particular ethnic minority enclaves'.'' This does not indicate that Christians in those countries engage in FGM, but rather reflects the presence of FGM-practicing immigrants, who are almost entirely Muslim.[[File:Infibmap correct20111.jpg|thumb|the prevalence of Female Genital Cutting|alt=|left]] | ||
However, | However, about 20% of gloabl FGM is attributable to non-Muslims, for the most part Christians.<ref name=":2" /> But the Christians who practice FGM are nearly all living as isolated and persecuted minorities living within a dominant Islamic FGM-practicing culture. FGM is both an islamic purity practice, and within FGM-practicing societies girls who are not cut are considered impure, and any contact or proximity with them, or sharing of objects will be considered as contaminating. This means that individuals, families and communities that do not observe to the dominant culture's purity observances are perceived as gravely threatening the spiritual and religious lives of that community since, for example, a Muslim's prayers will be rendered invalid if he is inadvertently contaminated, and will continue to be invalid until he correctly purifies himself. | ||
This means that in such Islamic communities, non- | This means that in such Islamic communities, non-Muslims who do not follow the communities purity observances are shunned, stigmatised, discriminated against and persecuted. An example of this recently occurred in Pakistan when a Christian woman, Asia Bibi, drank from a Muslim's cup - and brought upon herself, her family and her community much violence, hatred and persecution.<ref>[https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/the-aasiya-noreen-story/ The Story of Asia Bibi]</ref> | ||
Hence, non- | Hence, non-Muslims come under great pressure to adopt the dominant Islamic purity practices in order to minimise persecution. The Copts are Christian and make up 10 to 15% of the population of Egypt. Copts practice FGM at about a 74% (compared to 92% Muslims). Copts acknowledge that they practice FGM in order to minimise persecution. It is Christian minorities such as the Copts who appear to be the most ready to abandon FGM when it becomes safe and possible to do so.<ref>[https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2014/03/12/prevalence-of-and-support-for-female-genital-mutilation-within-the-copts-of-egypt-unicef-report-2013/ Prevalence of and support for Female Genital Mutilation within the Copts of Egypt: INICEF report (2013)]</ref> | ||
There are however three countries where FGM appears to be practiced by Christian majorities – Ethiopia, Eritrea and Liberia. The FGM in Liberia is practiced as part of the initiation into secret women's societies. FGM in Ethiopia and Eritrea is due to a combination of historical factors, that surrounding Islamic states for centuries kept them isolated from mainstream Christianity, and that they were the hubs of the Islamic slave trade, where slave girls captured in West Africa were infibulated to guarantee their virginity and thus raise their price, in preparation for the slave markets of the Islamic Middle East. This Islamic practice, associated with slavery, was adopted by the locals, and has persisted. | There are however three countries where FGM appears to be practiced by Christian majorities – Ethiopia, Eritrea and Liberia. The FGM in Liberia is practiced as part of the initiation into secret women's societies. FGM in Ethiopia and Eritrea is due to a combination of historical factors, that surrounding Islamic states for centuries kept them isolated from mainstream Christianity, and that they were the hubs of the Islamic slave trade, where slave girls captured in West Africa were infibulated to guarantee their virginity and thus raise their price, in preparation for the slave markets of the Islamic Middle East. This Islamic practice, associated with slavery, was adopted by the locals, and has persisted. | ||
The following graphs (adapted from | The following graphs (adapted from graphs found at https://www.28toomany.org/research-resources/) combine rates of decline of FGM practice in a variety of African countries with (in green and red) the proportion of the population that is Muslim. They suggest that the lower the proportion of the nation that is Muslim, the lower the incidence of FGM and the steeper rate of decline of FGM-practice. <gallery perrow="10" mode="slideshow" caption="rates of decline of FGM in African countries with (in green and red) the proportion of the population that is Muslim"> | ||
File:Somaliland-1.jpg|Somaliland | File:Somaliland-1.jpg|Somaliland | ||
File:Sudan prevalence graph-1.jpg|Sudan | File:Sudan prevalence graph-1.jpg|Sudan | ||