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In several verses the [[Qur'an]] describes the movement of the sun and moon, a few times mentioning that they travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (fee falakin فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak">Falak [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 2443] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf page 2444] Lane also says that the Arab astronomers said there were seven of these spheres for the sun, moon, and the five visible planets, rotating about the celestial pole. This must reflect the post-Qur'anic influence of Ptolemy, whose astronomical work was translated for the Arabs from the 8th century onwards.</ref>), but does not mention once that the Earth does too. The geocentric (Earth-centered) view was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16th century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. In the Qur'an, the sun's orbit is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (Quran 13:12 being the only exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon, which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and appears, to the unaided eye, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible.  
In several verses the [[Qur'an]] describes the movement of the sun and moon, a few times mentioning that they travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (fee falakin فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak">Falak [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 2443] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf page 2444] Lane also says that the Arab astronomers said there were seven of these spheres for the sun, moon, and the five visible planets, rotating about the celestial pole. This must reflect the post-Qur'anic influence of Ptolemy, whose astronomical work was translated for the Arabs from the 8th century onwards.</ref>), but does not mention once that the Earth does too. The geocentric (Earth-centered) view was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16th century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. In the Qur'an, the sun's orbit is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (Quran 13:12 being the only exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon, which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and appears, to the unaided eye, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible.  
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==


Geocentrism is the notion that the Earth is the (immovable) center of our universe, thus all celestial bodies move around it. The ancient Greeks and the Europeans of the middle ages thought that the celestial bodies (the sun, the moon and the 5 known planets) all moved in celestial spheres around a spherical Earth. These was the theory of Ptolomy, who was followed by [[Islamic_Views_on_the_Shape_of_the_Earth#Greek_and_Indian_astronomical_knowledge|Muslim astronomers from the 8th century CE]], though some started to question his ideas from the 11th century. Aside from notable exceptions such as [[W:Heliocentrism#Aristarchus_of_Samos|Aristarchus of Samos]], heliocentrism was only advocated by occasional figures with small followings and widely rejected before the work of Copernicus.  
Geocentrism is the notion that the Earth is the (immovable) center of our universe, thus all celestial bodies move around it. The ancient Greeks and the Europeans of the middle ages thought that the celestial bodies (the sun, the moon and the 5 known planets) all moved in celestial spheres around a spherical Earth. This was the theory of Ptolemy (d. 170 CE), who was followed by [[Islamic_Views_on_the_Shape_of_the_Earth#Greek_and_Indian_astronomical_knowledge|Muslim astronomers from the 8th century CE]], though some started to question his ideas from the 11th century. Aside from notable exceptions such as [[W:Heliocentrism#Aristarchus_of_Samos|Aristarchus of Samos]], heliocentrism was only advocated by occasional figures with small followings and widely rejected before the work of Copernicus.  


Geocentrism is not to be confused with the idea that the [[Flat Earth and the Quran|Earth is flat]]. However, while those who believe in geocentrism do not always hold the Earth to be flat, those who hold the Earth to be flat almost invariably believe in geocentrism.
Geocentrism is not to be confused with the idea that the [[Flat Earth and the Quran|Earth is flat]]. However, while those who believe in geocentrism do not always hold the Earth to be flat, those who hold the Earth to be flat almost invariably believe in geocentrism.
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#The courses taken by both the sun and moon are visible to the people addressed in the Qur'an.
#The courses taken by both the sun and moon are visible to the people addressed in the Qur'an.
#The Qur'an says that the moon follows the sun. The floating/swimming (the verb جري) of the sun is always mentioned with that of the moon, and in these verses they are nearly always mentioned in the context of night and day.<ref>21:33, 39:40, 31:29, 35:13, and 39:5; the exception being 13:2. See also 14:33, though note that the word translated "constant in their courses" is daibayni, which is simply a verb meaning to strive, toil, labour, hold on or continue. Ref: dal-alif-ba [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000005.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 106]</ref>
#The Qur'an says that the moon follows the sun. The floating/swimming (the verb جري) of the sun is always mentioned with that of the moon, and in these verses they are nearly always mentioned in the context of night and day.<ref>21:33, 39:40, 31:29, 35:13, and 39:5; the exception being 13:2. See also 14:33, though note that the word translated "constant in their courses" is daibayni, which is simply a verb meaning to strive, toil, labour, hold on or continue. Ref: dal-alif-ba [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000005.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 106]</ref>
#<p>Qur'an 36:37-40 is a passage about night and day.<ref>"''And a Sign for them is the Night: We withdraw therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in darkness; And the sun runs his course for a period determined for him: that is the decree of (Him), the Exalted in Might, the All-Knowing. And the Moon,- We have measured for her mansions (to traverse) till she returns like the old (and withered) lower part of a date-stalk. It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).''" - {{cite Quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}</ref> Right after describing the change from day to night it says that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (see footnotes regarding the Arabic word here, which differs from similar verses<ref>A few translations use instead, "appointed term", though in nearly all other verses where we find  mustaqarrin (qaf-ra-ra قرر [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000029.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 2501]) as a participle they translate it as a place of settlement or an abode or resting place. There are other verses (35:13, 31:29, 39:5, 13:2) that mention the sun and moon floating/swimming (with the same verb as is translated "run" in 36:38) for a term appointed, but these use the words لِأَجَلٍ مُّسَمًّى which do indeed mean a term appointed, but note that mustaqarrin مُسْتَقَرٍّ in 36:38 is a different word.</ref>). There are also sahih hadith that use the same Arabic word as in verse 36:38 to mean a resting place as part of the sun's daily cycle.<ref>{{Muslim|1|297}}. For the Arabic of this hadith, see [http://sunnah.com/muslim/1/306 here]</ref>. </p><p>The alternative view was that it refers to the sun's final resting on the last day. Another similar sahih hadith probably supports this view.<ref>With a different ending indicating that the مُسْتَقَرٍّ (resting place) in 36:38 refers to the end of the world when the sun is asked to rise from its setting place (مِنْ مَغْرِبِهَا). Ref: {{Bukhari|9|93|520}}. For the Arabic see [http://sunnah.com/bukhari/97/52 here]</ref> Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.</p>
#<p>Qur'an 36:37-40 is a passage about night and day.<ref>"''And a Sign for them is the Night: We withdraw therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in darkness; And the sun runs his course for a period determined for him: that is the decree of (Him), the Exalted in Might, the All-Knowing. And the Moon,- We have measured for her mansions (to traverse) till she returns like the old (and withered) lower part of a date-stalk. It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law).''" - {{cite Quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}</ref> Right after describing the change from day to night it says that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (see footnotes regarding the Arabic word here, which differs from similar verses<ref name="mustaqarrin">A few translations use instead, "appointed term", though in nearly all other verses where we find  mustaqarrin (qaf-ra-ra قرر [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000029.pdf Lane's Lexicon Volume 1 page 2501]) as a participle they translate it as a place of settlement or an abode or resting place. There are other verses (35:13, 31:29, 39:5, 13:2) that mention the sun and moon floating/swimming (with the same verb as is translated "run" in 36:38) for a term appointed, but these use the words لِأَجَلٍ مُّسَمًّى which do indeed mean a term appointed, but note that mustaqarrin مُسْتَقَرٍّ in 36:38 is a different word.</ref>). There are also sahih hadith that use the same Arabic word as in verse 36:38 to mean a resting place as part of the sun's daily cycle.<ref>{{Muslim|1|297}}. For the Arabic of this hadith, see [http://sunnah.com/muslim/1/306 here]</ref>. </p><p>The alternative view was that it refers to the sun's final resting on the last day. Another similar sahih hadith probably supports this view.<ref>With a different ending indicating that the مُسْتَقَرٍّ (resting place) in 36:38 refers to the end of the world when the sun is asked to rise from its setting place (مِنْ مَغْرِبِهَا). Ref: {{Bukhari|9|93|520}}. For the Arabic see [http://sunnah.com/bukhari/97/52 here]</ref> Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.</p>
#The sun and moon each float in an orbit (verses 21:33 and 36:40), or more precisely, each in a "falak", a word with various meanings related to the celestial sphere or dome-shaped things, as described in Lane's lexicon of classical arabic<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak"></ref>. His main definition is the place of the revolving of the stars, the celestial sphere, generally imagined to be a hemisphere by the Arabs, or the pole of the heavens. The more common English translations, 'orbit', or 'rounded course', seem to be based on the meanings related to roundness or circling. Ibn 'Abbas is recorded in the tafasir (commentaries) of al-Tabari and of ibn Kathir explaining that the sun and moon swimming in a falak means 'in a whirl (whorl), like the whirl of a spindle' (a hemisphere-shaped object)<ref>The Arabic reads:فِي فَلْكَة كَفَلْكَةِ الْمِغْزَل fee falka, ka-falkati almighzal - at-Tabari and ibn Kathir on 36:40 [http://quran.al-islam.com/Loader.aspx?pageid=215 quran.al-islam.com] (select the tafsir, surah and ayah). Similarly for 21:33 in ibn Kathir, "Ibn Abbas said, 'Spinning like as spins the spindle in a whirl'". Lane translates the exact same words attributed to ibn 'Abbas as "the whirl of a spindle...thus called because of its roundness...it is a piece of wood, generally of hemispherical form, or nearly so, through the middle of which the upper part of the spindle-pin is inserted" (see link to his lexicon page 2444 in an earlier footnote for falak above).</ref>. It may also be based on another ibn 'Abbas comment, as noted by ibn Kathir, that the sun runs in its falak in the sky / heaven during the day, and when it sets, it runs at night in its falak underneath the Earth until it rises in the east.<ref>{{Quote|1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1784 Tafsir ibn Kathir for Qur'an 31:29]|2=Ibn Abi Hatim recorded that Ibn `Abbas said, "The sun is like flowing water, running in its course [falakha] in the sky [alssama] during the day. When it sets, it travels [at night - bi al-layli (omitted in the translation)] in its course [falakha] beneath the earth until it rises in the east.'' He said, "The same is true in the case of the moon.'' Its chain of narration is Sahih.}}<BR>For the Arabic, see [http://quran.al-islam.com/Page.aspx?pageid=221&BookID=11&Page=1 quran.al-islam.com]</ref>Al-Tabari further mentions other opinions, such as that it means the pole of the heavens, and similarly, the shape of an iron [axis of a?] millstone.
#The sun and moon each float in an orbit (verses 21:33 and 36:40), or more precisely, each in a "falak", a word with various meanings related to the celestial sphere or dome-shaped things, as described in Lane's lexicon of classical arabic<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak"></ref>. His main definition is the place of the revolving of the stars, the celestial sphere, generally imagined to be a hemisphere by the Arabs, or the pole of the heavens. The more common English translations, 'orbit', or 'rounded course', seem to be based on the meanings related to roundness or circling. Ibn 'Abbas is recorded in the tafasir (commentaries) of al-Tabari and of ibn Kathir explaining that the sun and moon swimming in a falak means 'in a whirl (whorl), like the whirl of a spindle' (a hemisphere-shaped object)<ref>The Arabic reads:فِي فَلْكَة كَفَلْكَةِ الْمِغْزَل fee falka, ka-falkati almighzal - at-Tabari and ibn Kathir on 36:40 [http://quran.al-islam.com/Loader.aspx?pageid=215 quran.al-islam.com] (select the tafsir, surah and ayah). Similarly for 21:33 in ibn Kathir, "Ibn Abbas said, 'Spinning like as spins the spindle in a whirl'". Lane translates the exact same words attributed to ibn 'Abbas as "the whirl of a spindle...thus called because of its roundness...it is a piece of wood, generally of hemispherical form, or nearly so, through the middle of which the upper part of the spindle-pin is inserted" (see link to his lexicon page 2444 in an earlier footnote for falak above).</ref>. It may also be based on another ibn 'Abbas comment, as noted by ibn Kathir, that the sun runs in its falak in the sky / heaven during the day, and when it sets, it runs at night in its falak underneath the Earth until it rises in the east.<ref>{{Quote|1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1784 Tafsir ibn Kathir for Qur'an 31:29]|2=Ibn Abi Hatim recorded that Ibn `Abbas said, "The sun is like flowing water, running in its course [falakha] in the sky [alssama] during the day. When it sets, it travels [at night - bi al-layli (omitted in the translation)] in its course [falakha] beneath the earth until it rises in the east.'' He said, "The same is true in the case of the moon.'' Its chain of narration is Sahih.}}<BR>For the Arabic, see [http://quran.al-islam.com/Page.aspx?pageid=221&BookID=11&Page=1 quran.al-islam.com]</ref>Al-Tabari further mentions other opinions, such as that it means the pole of the heavens, and similarly, the shape of an iron [axis of a?] millstone.
#It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, though on the last day they will be joined together, which is rather suggestive of them orbiting the same body at a similar distance from us.
#It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, though on the last day they will be joined together, which is rather suggestive of them orbiting the same body at a similar distance from us.
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The words 'and that' (wa anna) towards the end of the verse indicates that "Do you not see" applies to the entire verse, and leaves no doubt that not just the day and night, but also the running of the sun and moon were things that the 7<sup>th</sup> century listeners of the Qur'an were expected to know; they could 'see' the night turn into day and vice versa, they could see the sun and the moon running their courses around the earth. The people could see Allah's signs, and Allah could see them.
The words 'and that' (wa anna) towards the end of the verse indicates that "Do you not see" applies to the entire verse, and leaves no doubt that not just the day and night, but also the running of the sun and moon were things that the 7<sup>th</sup> century listeners of the Qur'an were expected to know; they could 'see' the night turn into day and vice versa, they could see the sun and the moon running their courses around the earth. The people could see Allah's signs, and Allah could see them.


It could be argued that "don't you see" (Alam Tara أَلَمْ تَرَ<ref>ra-alif-ya راي [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000164.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 998</ref>) means "don't you know" or "aren't you aware". Of course this does not make much of a difference. In this case, the Qur'an clearly reinforces the common but incorrect beliefs of the time, and further uses these erroneous beliefs to support the existence of Allah.
The words "don't you see" (Alam Tara أَلَمْ تَرَ<ref>ra-alif-ya راي [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000164.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 998</ref>) may be interpreted in the sense of "don't you know" or "aren't you aware", though nevetheless is an appeal to common knowledge, which erroneous perceptions it thereby reinforces.


The word translated "running" (yajree يَجْرِىٓ<ref>jiim-ra-ya جرى [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000051.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 415</ref>) in this and the next few verses quoted below was used for the physical travelling of heavenly bodies along their courses, and in general means to run, or to flow like water. It is used two verses later for the sailing of ships ({{Quran|31|31}}).
The word translated "running" (yajree يَجْرِىٓ<ref>jiim-ra-ya جرى [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000051.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 415</ref>) in this and the next few verses quoted below was used for the physical travelling of heavenly bodies along their courses, and in general means to run, or to flow like water. It is used two verses later for the sailing of ships ({{Quran|31|31}}).


The following verse says that the sun and moon running their courses are signs (ayaat) to mankind and thus they must be visible (or known) to a 7th century Arab audience. It says they are explained in detail in the Qur'an to strengthen the faith of Muslims. Yet the modern galactic orbit explanation requires outside knowledge and recent science, and seems to a pose a challenge to faith rather than encouraging it.
The following verse says that the sun and moon running their courses are signs (ayaat) to mankind and thus they must be visible (or known) to a 7th century Arab audience. It says they are explained in detail in the Qur'an to strengthen the faith of its listeners, which again seems problematic for the galactic orbit interpretation, since for forteen centuries they had no option but to interpret the words geocentrically.


{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}| […] '''He has subjected the sun and the moon! Each one runs for a term appointed'''. He regulates the matter, '''explaining the signs in detail''', so you can be certain of meeting with your Lord.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}| […] '''He has subjected the sun and the moon! Each one runs for a term appointed'''. He regulates the matter, '''explaining the signs in detail''', so you can be certain of meeting with your Lord.}}
''yudabbiru (he arranges / regulates) al amra (the matter) yufassilu (he explains in detail) al ayaat (the signs) la allakum (so you may) biliqai (meeting) rabbikum (with your Lord) tūqinūna (be certain)''
''yudabbiru (he arranges / regulates) al amra (the matter) yufassilu (he explains in detail) al ayaat (the signs) la allakum (so you may) biliqai (meeting) rabbikum (with your Lord) tūqinūna (be certain)''


In the following verses the Qur'an clearly states that the sun follows a daily cycle, which ends every night when the sun goes to its resting place (ِمُسْتَقَرٍّ See the footnotes for the Primary Evidence section regarding this word). As usual in the Qur'an (13:2 being the only exception), the sun's movement is mentioned in the context of night and day.
In the following verses the Qur'an states that the sun follows a daily cycle, which ends every night when the sun goes to its resting place (ِمُسْتَقَرٍّ)<ref name="mustaqarrin" />. As usual in the Qur'an (13:2 being the only exception), the sun's movement is mentioned in the context of night and day.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}| A token unto them is night. '''We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness and the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him.''' That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}  
{{Quote|{{cite quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}| A token unto them is night. '''We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness and the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him.''' That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}  


Waalshshamsu (and the sun) tajree (runs) limustaqarrin (a resting point) laha (of it). Notice how the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day.
Waalshshamsu (and the sun) tajree (runs) limustaqarrin (a resting point) laha (of it).


The 225 million year galactic orbit interpretation would have no relevance to human timescales, nor would it be "a token" or sign for 7<sup>th</sup> century listeners, nor would it make sense in the context about the night-day cycle.  
The 225 million year galactic orbit interpretation would have no relevance to human timescales, nor would it be "a token" or sign for 7<sup>th</sup> century listeners, nor would it make sense in the context about the night-day cycle.  


Moreover, saying that it is not for the sun to overtake the moon in verse 40 is a very strange thing to say unless speaking from the 7<sup>th</sup> century human perspective where they orbit the same world, and indeed, will one day be joined together (see below). The word translated 'for' in the phrase 'It is not for the sun...' in verse 36:40 is يَنۢبَغِى yanbaghee, which means is fit, suitable, or proper, or behoves, or is right and allowable, or good, or facilitated or easy, or practicable or manageable<ref>ba-ghayn-ya [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000269.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 233]</ref> and the word translated 'overtake' is تُدْرِكَ tudrika, which means catches up and comes upon<ref>dal-ra-kaf [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000039.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 873]</ref>)
The words phrase "it is not for the sun to overtake the moon" in verse 40 seems awkward from a heliocentric perspective, though quite natural from a 7<sup>th</sup> century perspective where the sun and moon were believed to orbit the same world, and indeed, will one day be joined together (see below). The word translated 'for' in the phrase 'It is not for the sun...' in verse 36:40 is يَنۢبَغِى yanbaghee, which means is fit, suitable, or proper, or behoves, or is right and allowable, or good, or facilitated or easy, or practicable or manageable<ref>ba-ghayn-ya [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000269.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 233]</ref> and the word translated 'overtake' is تُدْرِكَ tudrika, which means catches up and comes upon<ref>dal-ra-kaf [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000039.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 873]</ref>)


In the following verse the Qur'an tells of an indirect observation of the sun's movement.
In the following verse the Qur'an tells of an indirect observation of the sun's movement.
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الشَّمسَ عَلَيهِ دَلِيل = ash shamsa (the sun) `alayhi (for it) dalilaan (a guide / an indication)
الشَّمسَ عَلَيهِ دَلِيل = ash shamsa (the sun) `alayhi (for it) dalilaan (a guide / an indication)


Aside from other light sources, shadows on Earth require the sun to exist, but it seems that for them to lengthen rather than being stationary requires the sun to guide them according to this verse. Yet if the Earth did not rotate (so shadows were stationary) and then the Earth was made to rotate (so that they could lengthen and draw in) the sun would not need to be made to do anything different in either case. Thus the most likely explanation is that the verse represents a geocentric worldview where the sun moves across the sky, guiding the shadows.  
Aside from other light sources, shadows on Earth are produced when the sun's light is obstructed. The Earth's rotation causes these shadows to change size and lengthen. The above verses state that the reason shadows fluctuate in size rather than being stationary is because Allah has made the sun their guide. This appears to confirm the geocentric outlook widely evidenced elsewhere in the Qur'an, for it is only on a geocentric view that shadows would be of fixed length if the sun (rather than the Earth) were not made to do something.  


Interestingly, the length of the shadow cast by the sun is also used to determine the start of the Asr prayer time; the apparent movement of the sun is still used by Muslims as a clock of sorts.
Interestingly, the length of the shadow cast by the sun is also used to determine the start of the Asr prayer time; the apparent movement of the sun is still used by Muslims as a clock of sorts.
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===The course of the sun in relation to the course of the moon===
===The course of the sun in relation to the course of the moon===


The courses of the sun and the moon are also a pair of sorts, according to the Qur'an.
The courses of the sun and the moon are also a pair of sorts, always mentioned together in the Qur'an.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|91|1|end=2|style=ref}}|By the sun and his brightness, And the moon when she followeth him}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|91|1|end=2|style=ref}}|By the sun and his brightness, And the moon when she followeth him}}
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''Waalshshamsi (and the sun) waduhaha (and its brightness) Waalqamari (and the moon) itha talaha (when it follows it)''
''Waalshshamsi (and the sun) waduhaha (and its brightness) Waalqamari (and the moon) itha talaha (when it follows it)''


This indicates that the sun takes a path or action similar to that of the moon (which does indeed go around the earth once per month, and to an ancient person seems to do so on a nightly basis). The word translated "follow" is used many other places to mean recite, but is primarily defined as to follow, go or walk behind, follow in way of imitation, of action etc., and is often used for animals like camels following behind each other.  <ref>Ta-Lam-Waw [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000350.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 313]</ref> Yet the Moon does not follow behind the sun's movement, nor does it provide its own light like the sun. It might merely seem to a naive observer to do these things.
This indicates that the sun takes a path or action similar to that of the moon (which does indeed go around the earth once per month, and to an ancient person seems to do so on a nightly basis). The word translated "follow" is used many other places to mean recite, but is primarily defined as to follow, go or walk behind, follow in way of imitation, of action etc., and is often used for animals like camels following behind each other.  <ref>Ta-Lam-Waw [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000350.pdf Lane's Lexicon Book 1 page 313]</ref> The Moon does not follow behind the sun's movement, nor does it provide its own light like the sun. It might merely seem to a scientifically naive observer to do these things.


There are many more verses where the sun and moon are paired:
There are many more verses where the sun and moon are paired:
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{{Quote|{{cite quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness and the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|36|37|end=40|style=ref}}|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness and the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}


Notice also in the above verse that the sun's movement (as well as day and night) are a token, or sign, that the hearers can readily observe.
In the above verse, the sun's movement (as well as day and night) is a token, or sign, that the hearers can readily observe. Many other verses mention the sun and moon together.


{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They all float in rounded courses.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They all float in rounded courses.}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|41|37}}|Among His Signs are the Night and the Day, and the Sun and the Moon. [...]}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|37}}|Among His Signs are the Night and the Day, and the Sun and the Moon. [...]}}
Here, again: heavens and earth, night and day, sun and moon.


{{Quote|{{Quran|39|5}}| He created the heavens and the earth in true (proportions): He makes the Night overlap the Day, and the Day overlap the Night: He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His law): Each one follows a course for a time appointed. Is not He the Exalted in Power - He Who forgives again and again? }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|39|5}}| He created the heavens and the earth in true (proportions): He makes the Night overlap the Day, and the Day overlap the Night: He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His law): Each one follows a course for a time appointed. Is not He the Exalted in Power - He Who forgives again and again? }}


Again: the Qur'an explains, not only are humans created in pairs (male and female), so are the two bodies of flowing waters (one salt and one sweet), and the night and the day and the sun and the moon.  
The Qur'an explains that not only are humans created in pairs (male and female), but so are the two bodies of flowing waters (one salt and one sweet), and the night and the day and the sun and the moon.  


{{Quote|{{cite quran|35|11|end=13|style=ref}}|[…]1 And Allah did create you from dust; then from a sperm-drop; then He made you in pairs. And no female conceives, or lays down (her load), but with His knowledge. Nor is a man long-lived granted length of days, nor is a part cut off from his life, but is in a Decree (ordained). All this is easy to Allah.  Nor are the two bodies of flowing water alike,- the one palatable, sweet, and pleasant to drink, and the other, salt and bitter. Yet from each (kind of water) do ye eat flesh fresh and tender, and ye extract ornaments to wear; and thou seest the ships therein that plough the waves, that ye may seek (thus) of the Bounty of Allah that ye may be grateful. He merges Night into Day, and he merges Day into Night, and he has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law): each one runs its course for a term appointed. Such is Allah your Lord: to Him belongs all Dominion.}}  
{{Quote|{{cite quran|35|11|end=13|style=ref}}|[…]1 And Allah did create you from dust; then from a sperm-drop; then He made you in pairs. And no female conceives, or lays down (her load), but with His knowledge. Nor is a man long-lived granted length of days, nor is a part cut off from his life, but is in a Decree (ordained). All this is easy to Allah.  Nor are the two bodies of flowing water alike,- the one palatable, sweet, and pleasant to drink, and the other, salt and bitter. Yet from each (kind of water) do ye eat flesh fresh and tender, and ye extract ornaments to wear; and thou seest the ships therein that plough the waves, that ye may seek (thus) of the Bounty of Allah that ye may be grateful. He merges Night into Day, and he merges Day into Night, and he has subjected the sun and the moon (to his Law): each one runs its course for a term appointed. Such is Allah your Lord: to Him belongs all Dominion.}}  
Notice how frequently the sun and the moon are mentioned together as a pair. Its clearly implied that the sun and the moon are a pair of sorts, just like (according to the Qur'an) the heavens and the earth or the night and the day. In Qur'an 36:36 and 35:11-35:13 this belief is expressly stated. The sun and the moon (along with their courses) are mentioned amongst a range of other things that are created in pairs.


===The shape of the sun's course===
===The shape of the sun's course===
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''Husban'' can mean a number of things: definite reckoning, appointed courses, numbering, revolving firmament, running appointed and scheduled course. In many English translations  we see the word 'course' or 'celestial sphere' but note that the word 'falak' isn't mentioned here; this verse only indicates that the sun and the moon behave in a calculated / scheduled / appointed manner.  
''Husban'' can mean a number of things: definite reckoning, appointed courses, numbering, revolving firmament, running appointed and scheduled course. In many English translations  we see the word 'course' or 'celestial sphere' but note that the word 'falak' isn't mentioned here; this verse only indicates that the sun and the moon behave in a calculated / scheduled / appointed manner.  


There is a reason why this is important: the sun's daily cycle and the moons monthly cycle are used for timekeeping in Islam.
This is further evidence towards a geocentric interpretation since the sun's daily cycle and the moon's monthly cycle have timekeeping purposes such as prayer and fasting times in Islam (see next section).
 
===The movement of the sun and timekeeping===
===The movement of the sun and timekeeping===


In the days of Muhammad it was common practice to use the sun for timekeeping, so there is little wonder that the Qur'an claims the supposed course of the Sun is regulated / scheduled (see previous section) and a sign from Allah to keep track of the time of day (and likewise the course of the moon is a monthly calendar)
In Muhammad's lifetime it was common practice to use the sun and moon for timekeeping, which provides a ready explanation for the emphasis in the Qur'an on the regulated / scheduled nature of the courses of the sun and moon as a sign from Allah and as a monthly calendar (see previous section).


{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|He it is that cleaves the day-break (from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquility and '''the sun and moon for the reckoning [of time]''')}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|96}}|He it is that cleaves the day-break (from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquility and '''the sun and moon for the reckoning [of time]''')}}
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{{Quote|{{Quran|17|12}}|And We have made the night and the day two signs, then We have made the sign of the night to pass away and We have made the sign of the day manifest, so that you may seek grace from your Lord, and '''that you might know the numbering of years and the reckoning'''; and We have explained everything with distinctness.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|12}}|And We have made the night and the day two signs, then We have made the sign of the night to pass away and We have made the sign of the day manifest, so that you may seek grace from your Lord, and '''that you might know the numbering of years and the reckoning'''; and We have explained everything with distinctness.}}


The moon (the sign of the night) is to be used to count the years (12 [[Islamic Lunar Calendar|lunar months]] make up the Islamic year) and the sun is to be used to keep track of time. The only solar movement Muslims use for timekeeping is the apparent daily course of the Sun (from east up and then down to the west). To this very day, Muslims use the (far less precise and, according to some interpretations, entirely unpredictable) lunar calender, and the waqt (prescribed time) of their daily [[Salah|salats]] (prayers) is determined by the position of the Sun along it’s apparent course.
The moon (the sign of the night) is used to count the years, which comprise 12 [[Islamic Lunar Calendar|lunar months]] making up the Islamic year, and the sun is to be used to keep track of time. The only solar movement Muslims use for timekeeping is the apparent daily course of the Sun (from east up and then down to the west). To this very day, Muslims use the (far less precise and, according to some interpretations, entirely unpredictable) lunar calender, and the waqt (prescribed time) of their daily [[Salah|salats]] (prayers) is determined by the position of the Sun along its apparent course.


'''Daily salats:'''
'''Daily salats:'''
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#Salat Al Isha'a – at night, between sunset and sunrise. (Mentioned in {{Quran|11|114}}, {{Quran|17|79}}, and {{Quran|20|130}})
#Salat Al Isha'a – at night, between sunset and sunrise. (Mentioned in {{Quran|11|114}}, {{Quran|17|79}}, and {{Quran|20|130}})


The apparent daily course of the sun dictates the time of each and every daily prayer and the only examples of the sun being used for timekeeping in the Qur'an employs the sun's daily movement along the sky.
The apparent daily course of the sun dictates the time of each and every daily prayer and the only examples of the sun being used for timekeeping in the Qur'an employ the sun's apparent daily movement along the sky.


===Counter-arguments===
===Counter-arguments===


Despite all the verses discussed above that strongly indicate a geocentric worldview, some present a few counter arguments to try to prove heliocentricism in the Qur'an. We saw above that the galactic orbit interpretation for the sun's falak does not stand up to scrutiny. In the same section above we also saw that 36:40 ('it is not for the sun to overtake the moon...') is evidence of geocentrism rather than heliocentrism. Two other verses are sometimes used to try to demonstrate knowledge that the Earth rotates on its axis.
Despite all the verses discussed above that strongly indicate a geocentric worldview, a few counter arguments are sometimes used to support a heliocentric interpretation of the Qur'an. The galactic orbit interpretation for the sun's falak is discussed above. Verse 36:40 ('it is not for the sun to overtake the moon...') is sometimes offered as evidence for heliocentrism, and is also discussed above. Two other verses are sometimes used to try to demonstrate knowledge that the Earth rotates on its axis.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|91|1|end=4|style=ref}}|By the sun and his brightness, And the moon when she followeth him, And the day when it revealeth him, And the night when it enshroudeth him}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|91|1|end=4|style=ref}}|By the sun and his brightness, And the moon when she followeth him, And the day when it revealeth him, And the night when it enshroudeth him}}
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At first it seems that 'day' and 'night' here may refer to the process of the Earth's rotation revealing and obstructing the view of the sun (though the verse also fits with a geocentric view where 'day' and 'night' are processes when the sun is above or below the horizon). But the verses apparent alignment with heliocentrism seems less concrete when the verses detailed below are considered. For the Earth is actually a globe, and there are no specific times 'when' (itha) the day reveals the sun or the night conceals it. Rather at all times half the Earth is in daytime and half in nighttime, so the sun is at all times both revealed and concealed. This problem wouldn't arise if the word 'when' (itha) was absent in these verses.
At first it seems that 'day' and 'night' here may refer to the process of the Earth's rotation revealing and obstructing the view of the sun (though the verse also fits with a geocentric view where 'day' and 'night' are processes when the sun is above or below the horizon). But the verses apparent alignment with heliocentrism seems less concrete when the verses detailed below are considered. For the Earth is actually a globe, and there are no specific times 'when' (itha) the day reveals the sun or the night conceals it. Rather at all times half the Earth is in daytime and half in nighttime, so the sun is at all times both revealed and concealed. This problem wouldn't arise if the word 'when' (itha) was absent in these verses.


There are other verses that mention the night covering (with the same Arabic verb as 91.4), which show that the verb in this context does not simply mean the body of the earth blocking the line of sight to something. Verses 92:1-2 use identical words as 91:3-4, but without the pronoun suffix at the end. So the night is when things generally are covered, not just the sun on the other side of the Earth, and the day is when things generally are revealed. Clearly the verbs are meant in a poetic sense.
There are other verses that mention the night covering (with the same Arabic verb as 91.4), which show that the verb in this context does not simply mean the body of the earth blocking the line of sight to something. Verses 92:1-2 use identical words as 91:3-4, but without the pronoun suffix at the end. So the night is when things generally are covered, not just the sun on the other side of the Earth, and the day is when things generally are revealed. It seems that the verbs are meant in a poetic sense.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|92|1|end=2|style=ref}}|By the night enshrouding, And the day resplendent}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|92|1|end=2|style=ref}}|By the night enshrouding, And the day resplendent}}
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Waalnnahari (and the day) itha (when) tajalla (it displays)
Waalnnahari (and the day) itha (when) tajalla (it displays)


Indeed, in the verse below the night's cover (same verb as 91:4) can apply to anything, not just the sun, so how can night covering the sun in 91.4 literally mean the body of the earth covering the sun on the other side? (The word "pieces" in the translation means portion or piece cut off from the whole<ref>qaf-taa-ayn [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000244.pdf Lane's Lexicon Suppliment page 2990]</ref>).
In the verse below, the night's cover (the same verb as in versie 91:4) can apply to anything, not just the sun, so it may seem difficult to interpret the night covering the sun in 91.4 as literally meaning that the body of the earth covers the sun on its other side. The word "pieces" in the translation means portion or piece cut off from the whole<ref>qaf-taa-ayn [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000244.pdf Lane's Lexicon Suppliment page 2990]</ref>.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|10|27|style=ref}}|they will have no one to save them from Allah; as if their faces are covered with pieces of the dark night}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|10|27|style=ref}}|they will have no one to save them from Allah; as if their faces are covered with pieces of the dark night}}


With the same Arabic word for cover yet again in verse 7:54, this time it is the day doing the covering, or possibly the other way round (the Arabic is ambiguous and translations differ, while tafsirs take the view that it means both) and it is quite a stretch if not impossible to interpret this as the rotating Earth blocking the night (whatever this might mean) in analogy to their interpretation of 91:4. Rather it seems that the day and night are active entities in the Qur'an.
The same Arabic word for cover appears yet again in verse 7:54, where this time it is the day doing the covering, or possibly the other way round (the Arabic is ambiguous and translations differ, while tafsirs take the view that it means both). It seems far from clear how this could be interpreted as the rotating Earth blocking the night (whatever this might mean) in analogy to the  heliocentric interpretation of verse 91:4. Rather it seems that the day and night are active entities in the Qur'an.


{{Quote|{{cite quran|7|54|style=ref}}|He covereth the night with the day, which is in haste to follow it}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|7|54|style=ref}}|He covereth the night with the day, which is in haste to follow it}}


The other verse used as evidence of heliocentrism is 39:5. Here the word translated wraps (kawwara, as with a turban, for example) supposedly indicates the rotation of the Earth.   
The other verse used as evidence of heliocentrism is 39:5. Here the word translated wraps (kawwara, as with a turban, for example) is claimed to indicate the rotation of the Earth.   


{{Quote|{{cite quran|39|5|style=ref}}|He created the heavens and earth in truth. He wraps the night over the day and wraps the day over the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term.}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|39|5|style=ref}}|He created the heavens and earth in truth. He wraps the night over the day and wraps the day over the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term.}}


But as with 7:54 mentioned above and the verses where the day and night (as well as the sun and moon) have a falak<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak"></ref>, it actually indicates that the night and day are active entities rather than any sign that the Earth revolves. You could reasonably describe the Earth as passing through night and day. Perhaps, at a stretch, you could even say that night and day wrap around the earth as you could spin an item in order to wrap it with something. But it would be very difficult to describe what really happens by saying that the the day or night wrap each other, for they are always present on opposite sides of the Earth.  
As with 7:54 mentioned above and the verses where the day and night (as well as the sun and moon) have a falak<ref name="LanesLexiconFalak"></ref>, the night and day are referred to as active entities, and there is no suggestion that the Earth revolves. It would be quite reasonable to describe the Earth as passing through night and day, or perhaps even to say that night and day wrap around the earth as you could spin an item in order to wrap it with something. But the Qur'an just says that the day or night wrap each other. The night and day are always present on opposite sides of the Earth.  


To try to make it work you would have to suppose that 'day' means the half of the Earth that is currently sunward, and 'night' means the shadow of the Earth cast by the sun, but then to make the next phrase work you have to suppose that 'night' means the half of the Earth that is currently opposite the sun, and that 'day' means the light from the sun. So at the halfway point in the sentence you have to change your definition of the word 'day' and the definition of 'night' to make it fit the real situation!
One solution may be to suppose that 'day' means the half of the Earth that is currently sunward, and 'night' means the shadow of the Earth cast by the sun, but then to make the next phrase work the 'night' would instead have to mean the half of the Earth that is currently opposite the sun, and the 'day' would have to mean the light from the sun.


A common claim by some of those who believe that 39:5 is a reference to the Earth's rotation is that this phrase is the most perfect that Allah could use without causing 7th century Arabs to dismiss Muhammad as a lunatic. Yet the Qur'an itself records that Muhammad was much mocked anyway by those who disbelieved what he said, and the Qur'an contains many claims that sounded absurd even to many of his contemporaries, so it would seem reasonable to ask why the Qur'an could not give even some vague indication that the earth itself is revolving or that it has an orbit.
A common claim by some of those who believe that 39:5 is a reference to the Earth's rotation is that this phrase is the most perfect that Allah could use without causing 7th century Arabs to dismiss Muhammad's message. Yet the Qur'an itself records that Muhammad was much mocked anyway by those who disbelieved what he said, and the Qur'an contains many claims that sounded absurd even to many of his contemporaries, so critics tend to criticise the Qur'an for not giving even some vague indication that the earth itself is revolving or that it has an orbit.


There are also two nearly identical verses to 39.5. These are 31:29 and 35:13 (also with the similar phrase are 3:27 22:61 and 57:6) where instead of 'he wraps', the verb 'he causes to enter' (yooliju) is used. Together, along with 7:54 where the day covers and chases the night (or vice versa), they present a picture of the day and night successively wrapping across each other and in so doing covering the other and entering into it, though the night never outruns (sabiqu) the day (36:40).
There are also two nearly identical verses to 39.5. These are 31:29 and 35:13 (also with the similar phrase are 3:27 22:61 and 57:6) where instead of 'he wraps', the verb 'he causes to enter' (yooliju) is used. Together, along with 7:54 where the day covers and chases the night (or vice versa), they present a picture of the day and night successively wrapping across each other and in so doing covering the other and entering into it, though the night never outruns (sabiqu) the day (36:40).
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===Ancient and modern-day Muslim astronomers===
===Ancient and modern-day Muslim astronomers===


Muslims living in Muhammad’s day universally accepted the Qur'an's geocentric cosmology. References in the Hadith of any of the ansari or others in Muhammad's environment arguing about this point with their prophet or among themselves are unknown. Famous Muslim astronomers (people who certainly read, and knew the Qur'an) like the Arab astronomer ''Ibn al-Shatir'' and the Persian ''Nasir al-Din al-Tusi'' used Greek (geocentric) astronomy to create complex models of our ‘universe’ (basically only our solar system, which they believed constituted the entire universe) that were geocentric just like the Qur'an.  
Muslims living in Muhammad’s day universally accepted the Qur'an's geocentric cosmology. References in the Hadith of any of the ansari or others in Muhammad's environment arguing about this point with their prophet or among themselves are unknown. Famous Muslim astronomers (people who certainly read, and knew the Qur'an) like the Arab astronomer ''Ibn al-Shatir'' and the Persian ''Nasir al-Din al-Tusi'' used Greek (geocentric) astronomy to create complex models of our ‘universe’ (only our solar system, which they believed constituted the entire universe) that were geocentric.  


In a televised debate aired on Iraqi Al-Fayhaa TV (October 31, 2007), Muslim Researcher on Astronomy ''Fadhel Al-Sa'd'' also declared :
In a televised debate aired on Iraqi Al-Fayhaa TV (October 31, 2007), Muslim Researcher on Astronomy ''Fadhel Al-Sa'd'' also declared :
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===Muslims around the time of Muhammad===
===Muslims around the time of Muhammad===


In the Hadiths we read Muhammad's own words, and they clearly paint the same picture: the sun moves around the earth and goes to "its resting place" at night, and will one day be told to go to "the place of your setting".
In the Hadiths we read that the sun moves around the earth and goes to "its resting place" at night, and will one day be told to go to "the place of your setting".


{{Quote|{{Muslim|1|297}}|It is narrated on the authority of Abu Dharr that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) one day said: Do you know where the Sun goes? They replied: Allah and His Apostle know best. He (the Holy Prophet) observed: Verily it (the Sun) glides till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it falls prostrate and remains there until it is asked: Rise up and go to the place whence you came, and it goes back and continues emerging out from its rising place and then glides till it reaches its place of rest under the Throne and falls prostrate and remains in that state until it is asked: Rise up and return to the place whence you came, and it returns and emerges out from it rising place and the it glides (in such a normal way) that the people do not discern anything (unusual in it) till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it would be said to it: Rise up and emerge out from the place of your setting, and it will rise from the place of its setting. The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said. Do you know when it would happen? It would happen at the time when faith will not benefit one who has not previously believed or has derived no good from the faith.}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim|1|297}}|It is narrated on the authority of Abu Dharr that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) one day said: Do you know where the Sun goes? They replied: Allah and His Apostle know best. He (the Holy Prophet) observed: Verily it (the Sun) glides till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it falls prostrate and remains there until it is asked: Rise up and go to the place whence you came, and it goes back and continues emerging out from its rising place and then glides till it reaches its place of rest under the Throne and falls prostrate and remains in that state until it is asked: Rise up and return to the place whence you came, and it returns and emerges out from it rising place and the it glides (in such a normal way) that the people do not discern anything (unusual in it) till it reaches its resting place under the Throne. Then it would be said to it: Rise up and emerge out from the place of your setting, and it will rise from the place of its setting. The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said. Do you know when it would happen? It would happen at the time when faith will not benefit one who has not previously believed or has derived no good from the faith.}}
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{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|53|353}}|…So, the prophet carried out the expedition and when he reached that town at the time or nearly at the time of the ‘Asr prayer, he said to the sun, ‘'''O sun!''' You are under Allah’s Order and I am under Allah’s Order O Allah! '''Stop it (i.e. the sun) from setting.’''' It was stopped till Allah made him victorious…}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|4|53|353}}|…So, the prophet carried out the expedition and when he reached that town at the time or nearly at the time of the ‘Asr prayer, he said to the sun, ‘'''O sun!''' You are under Allah’s Order and I am under Allah’s Order O Allah! '''Stop it (i.e. the sun) from setting.’''' It was stopped till Allah made him victorious…}}


Even though these Hadiths are all deemed '[[sahih]]' (authentic) according to Islamic scholars, some will deny them based purely on their apparent disagreement with science. Of course the Hadiths, at the very least, indicate what Muslims around the time of Muhammad (or not long after his demise) believed about the sun and thus prove useful in helping interpret the intended meaning of the Qur'an.
These Hadiths are all deemed '[[sahih]]' (authentic) according to Islamic scholars, but even if inauthentic, they at least indicate what Muslims around the time of Muhammad (or not long after his demise) believed about the sun and thus prove useful in interpreting the intended meaning of the Qur'an, which appeals to the common knowledge of its listeners.
 
==Conclusion==
 
A lot of details about the sun’s movement are contained within the Qur'an.
 
According to the Qur'an, the supposed course of the sun:
 
#is seen by 7th century listeners without knowledge of galactic orbits.
#is (almost always) compared to the Moon's course.
#is followed by the moon
#will on the last day be physically joined to the moon
#is almost always mentioned with that of the moon in the context of night and day.
#is to be used by the Muslims for timekeeping.
#has setting and rising places. Allah brings it from the east, it goes up high, then goes down, and it has a resting place.
 
In addition to all these facts; great ancient (and even some modern-day) Muslim astronomers agree that the Qur'anic cosmology is geocentric, and the Hadiths also affirm this geocentric cosmology (so Muhammad or at least the people around him appear to agree with it).


==See Also==
==See Also==
Lightyears
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