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FGM is found only in or adjacent to Islamic groups<ref name=":0" />. The 20% of FGM attributable to non-Muslims occurs in communities living in FGM-practicing Islamic societies (e.g. the Egyptian Copts<ref>[http://archive.today/2021.04.09-040655/https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2014/03/12/prevalence-of-and-support-for-female-genital-mutilation-within-the-copts-of-egypt-unicef-report-2013/ Prevalence of and Support for Female Genital Mutilation within the Copts of Egypt: Unicef Report (2013)]</ref>), or to non-Islamic societies that have been hubs of the Islamic slave trade (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea<ref>[https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/A-Profile-of-FGM-in-Ethiopia_2020.pdf A Profile of Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia]</ref>). About one in eighty (1.28%) non-Muslim women are genitally mutilated world-wide. [[File:Fgmmuslimmap.jpg|alt=World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|thumb|World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|left|350x350px]]FGM predates Islam. The [[Banu Qurayza|Banu Quraysh]], Muhammad's native tribe, appear to have engaged in the practice (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM before Islam|FGM before Islam]]). Muhammad maintained the practice after migrating to Medina and is recorded as approving of the practice in four hadith. Two other hadith record the [[sahabah]] (Companions of Mohammed) engaging in the practice. (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM%20in%20the%20Hadith|FGM in the Hadith]]) | FGM is found only in or adjacent to Islamic groups<ref name=":0" />. The 20% of FGM attributable to non-Muslims occurs in communities living in FGM-practicing Islamic societies (e.g. the Egyptian Copts<ref>[http://archive.today/2021.04.09-040655/https://copticliterature.wordpress.com/2014/03/12/prevalence-of-and-support-for-female-genital-mutilation-within-the-copts-of-egypt-unicef-report-2013/ Prevalence of and Support for Female Genital Mutilation within the Copts of Egypt: Unicef Report (2013)]</ref>), or to non-Islamic societies that have been hubs of the Islamic slave trade (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea<ref>[https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/A-Profile-of-FGM-in-Ethiopia_2020.pdf A Profile of Female Genital Mutilation in Ethiopia]</ref>). About one in eighty (1.28%) non-Muslim women are genitally mutilated world-wide. [[File:Fgmmuslimmap.jpg|alt=World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|thumb|World maps comparing distributions of FGM and of Muslims|left|350x350px]]FGM predates Islam. The [[Banu Qurayza|Banu Quraysh]], Muhammad's native tribe, appear to have engaged in the practice (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM before Islam|FGM before Islam]]). Muhammad maintained the practice after migrating to Medina and is recorded as approving of the practice in four hadith. Two other hadith record the [[sahabah]] (Companions of Mohammed) engaging in the practice. (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM%20in%20the%20Hadith|FGM in the Hadith]]) | ||
The Qur'an contains no explicit mention of FGM. However, | The Qur'an contains no explicit mention of FGM. However, Qur'an 30:30, by exhorting Muslims to ''<nowiki/>'adhere to the fitrah''' indirectly, but ineluctably exhorts Muslims to engage in FGM. (see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM in the Qur.27an|FGM in the Qur'an]]) | ||
The FGM hadith give very few clues as to ''the nature'' of the practice they approve. Hence the nature, incidence and distribution of FGM varies between countries and communities. The most significant determining factor appears to be the presiding school of Islam (fiqh). Other factors include the culture's level of anxiety around female sexuality, its proximity to Islamic slave-trade routes (Infibulation is associated with the transportation of slaves), and the nature and degree of Christian influence ( see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM%20in%20Islamic%20law|FGM in Islamic law]]). | The FGM hadith give very few clues as to ''the nature'' of the practice they approve. Hence the nature, incidence and distribution of FGM varies between countries and communities. The most significant determining factor appears to be the presiding school of Islam (fiqh). Other factors include the culture's level of anxiety around female sexuality, its proximity to Islamic slave-trade routes (Infibulation is associated with the transportation of slaves), and the nature and degree of Christian influence ( see [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox#FGM%20in%20Islamic%20law|FGM in Islamic law]]). | ||
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However, as the section [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#FGM before Islam|FGM before Islam]] demonstrates, FGM existed before Islam, and there is no evidence that pre-Islamic FGM was religiously-motivated. Thus FGM can not solely a religious practice - there must have been other reasons for its existence in pre-Islamic societies. | However, as the section [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#FGM before Islam|FGM before Islam]] demonstrates, FGM existed before Islam, and there is no evidence that pre-Islamic FGM was religiously-motivated. Thus FGM can not solely a religious practice - there must have been other reasons for its existence in pre-Islamic societies. | ||
It is all too natural to consider FGM as nothing more than an arbitrarily misogynistic practice. However, it is actually a solution to certain social problems - albeit problems that not all societies suffer from, and that no society ''need'' suffer from. The section [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#The origins of FGM|the origins of FGM]] will consider what these 'problems' are, and why they arise in some societies. The next section ([[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#Islamic Doctrine that creates social conditions favourable to FGM|Islamic Doctrine that creates social conditions favourable to FGM]]) shows how Islam doctrine reproduces the very factors that ''made'' FGM useful or necessary in some pre-Islamic societies. A | It is all too natural to consider FGM as nothing more than an arbitrarily misogynistic practice. However, it is actually a solution to certain social problems - albeit problems that not all societies suffer from, and that no society ''need'' suffer from. The section [[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#The origins of FGM|the origins of FGM]] will consider what these 'problems' are, and why they arise in some societies. The next section ([[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#Islamic Doctrine that creates social conditions favourable to FGM|Islamic Doctrine that creates social conditions favourable to FGM]]) shows how Islam doctrine reproduces the very factors that ''made'' FGM useful or necessary in some pre-Islamic societies. A final section ([[User:Flynnjed/Sandbox2#The functions of FGM|Functions of FGM]]) considers how the social purposes of FGM is realised through the experience of the individual child undergoing FGM. | ||
==FGM in the Qur'an and Hadith== | ==FGM in the Qur'an and Hadith== | ||
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However, FGM ''does'' share one characteristic with Rites of Passage - they both involve a deliberate ordeal, a 'destructive nature', which brings about permanent physical and psychological changes. | However, FGM ''does'' share one characteristic with Rites of Passage - they both involve a deliberate ordeal, a 'destructive nature', which brings about permanent physical and psychological changes. | ||
This is most clearly reflected in the fact that anaesthetics are generally not used, even when available. [[File:Indonesia - susanfemalecircumcision-1.jpg|thumb|Medicalised FGM in Indonesia - note the apparent lack of anaesthesia (see also [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation] The Guardian 2012) |alt=]]{{Quote|[http://archive.today/2021.04.27-044528/https://www.unfpa.org/pcm/node/9481 Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions, UNFPA (2020)]|'''Anaesthetic and antiseptics are generally not used''' unless the procedure is carried out by medical practitioners.}}{{Quote|[https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/81227.Infidel p32 'Infidel' by Ayaan Hirsi Ali (2007)]|She caught hold of me and gripped my upper body [...] Two other women held my legs apart. The man [...] picked up a pair of scissors [...] Then the scissors went down between my legs and the man cut off my inner labia and clitoris. I heard it, like a butcher snipping the fat off a piece of meant. A piercing pain shot up between my legs, indescribable, and I howled. Then came the sewing: the long, blunt needle clumsily pushed into my bleeding outer labia, my loud and anguished protests, Grandma's words of comfort and encouragement [...] That is all I can recall of it. | This is most clearly reflected in the fact that anaesthetics are generally not used, even when available. Medicalised FGM in Indonesia - note the apparent lack of anaesthesia (see also [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation] The Guardian 2012) / Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009 / TUZ KHURMATU, IRAQ - AUGUST 25: In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions. A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq. (Photo by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images)<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref> <gallery> | ||
File:Indonesia - susanfemalecircumcision-1.jpg|Medicalised FGM in Indonesia - note the apparent lack of anaesthesia (see also [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation] The Guardian 2012) | |||
File:Endfgm-campaign-video-016.jpg|In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions. A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref> | |||
File:Fgm-in-the-middle-east.jpg|Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009 | |||
</gallery>[[File:Indonesia - susanfemalecircumcision-1.jpg|thumb|Medicalised FGM in Indonesia - note the apparent lack of anaesthesia (see also [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation] The Guardian 2012) |alt=]]{{Quote|[http://archive.today/2021.04.27-044528/https://www.unfpa.org/pcm/node/9481 Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions, UNFPA (2020)]|'''Anaesthetic and antiseptics are generally not used''' unless the procedure is carried out by medical practitioners.}}{{Quote|[https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/81227.Infidel p32 'Infidel' by Ayaan Hirsi Ali (2007)]|She caught hold of me and gripped my upper body [...] Two other women held my legs apart. The man [...] picked up a pair of scissors [...] Then the scissors went down between my legs and the man cut off my inner labia and clitoris. I heard it, like a butcher snipping the fat off a piece of meant. A piercing pain shot up between my legs, indescribable, and I howled. Then came the sewing: the long, blunt needle clumsily pushed into my bleeding outer labia, my loud and anguished protests, Grandma's words of comfort and encouragement [...] That is all I can recall of it. | |||
But I do remember [my sister's] bloodcurdling howls.}}[[File:Fgm-in-the-middle-east.jpg|thumb|Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009]]{{Quote|[http://archive.today/2021.04.27-042745/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/13131835.i-screaming-mother/ 'I was screaming for my mother' (2013)]|I remember I was screaming for my grandmother and my mother to help me but no-one did. I wasn't given any medication before or after - '''not anaesthetic, nothing'''.}}{{Quote|Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Survivor Tells Her Story (2016) - youtu.be/jlyj9hgdbrQ|My aunt was a doctor, so when she led me downstairs for a clinic and instructed me to lie flat on my back on her operating table I didn't think to question her authority. '''With no anesthetic''' and very littlewarning she performed a ritualized cut.}}[[File:Endfgm-campaign-video-016.jpg|thumb|TUZ KHURMATU, IRAQ - AUGUST 25: In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions. A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq. (Photo by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images)<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref>]]{{Quote|{{cite web | But I do remember [my sister's] bloodcurdling howls.}}[[File:Fgm-in-the-middle-east.jpg|thumb|Iraqi Kurdish four-year-old Shwen screams during her circumcision in Suleimaniyah on April 14, 2009]]{{Quote|[http://archive.today/2021.04.27-042745/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/13131835.i-screaming-mother/ 'I was screaming for my mother' (2013)]|I remember I was screaming for my grandmother and my mother to help me but no-one did. I wasn't given any medication before or after - '''not anaesthetic, nothing'''.}}{{Quote|Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Survivor Tells Her Story (2016) - youtu.be/jlyj9hgdbrQ|My aunt was a doctor, so when she led me downstairs for a clinic and instructed me to lie flat on my back on her operating table I didn't think to question her authority. '''With no anesthetic''' and very littlewarning she performed a ritualized cut.}}[[File:Endfgm-campaign-video-016.jpg|thumb|TUZ KHURMATU, IRAQ - AUGUST 25: In northern Iraq, a midwife slices part of seven year-old Sheelan Anwar Omer's genitals while performing a female circumcision. Female circumcision is a rite of passage for most girls in Kurdistan. It is meant to "cleanse" them of improper or sexual thoughts and actions. A woman who served as an escort for The Washington Post via Getty Images, left, rushed in to comfort the child. Maharoub Juwad Nawchas, the 40-year-old midwife back to camera, also delivered Omer and is a trusted and valued member of the neighborhood. Sheelan's mother, right, holds her. Photographed August, 25, 2008 in Tuz Khurmatu, Iraq. (Photo by Andrea Bruce/The Washington Post via Getty Images)<ref>Image cropped from larger photo - for original see http://archive.today/2021.04.26-065336/https://i0.wp.com/freethoughtblogs.com/taslima/files/2012/06/Kurdish-girl.jpg?ssl=1</ref>]]{{Quote|{{cite web | ||