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Toutes les [[Madh'hab|écoles]] en [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|droit islamique]] exigent que les [[Islam and Women|femmes]] musulmanes qui ont atteint l'âge de la majorité observent le ''hijab'' lorsqu'elles sont en présence de non-mahrams. Conceptuellement, le hijab est un ensemble d’exigences selon lesquelles les femmes et les hommes doivent couvrir certaines parties de leur corps (le mot arabe ''hijab'' fait littéralement référence au concept de voile comme avec un écran ou un rideau). Si les exigences imposées aux hommes sont similaires aux attentes communes au sujet de la décence publique dans le monde moderne, celles pour les femmes s'étendent à couvrir l'intégralité du corps, à l'exception du visage et des mains, malgré la divergence des écoles juridiques sur les exigences pour les femmes de se couvrir les pieds, le visage et les mains. Familièrement, le mot "hijab" fait référence aux couvre-chefs utilisés par les femmes musulmanes pour couvrir leurs cheveux et leur cou. Il existe de nombreuses variations culturelles sur le hijab (vêtement), dont beaucoup offrent différents degrés de couverture, notamment la ''burqa'', le ''niqab'' et le ''dupatta''. Certains savants modernes sont en désaccord avec les interprétations traditionnelles qui exigent que la tête soit couverte et de nombreuses femmes musulmanes choisissent de ne pas le faire, comme abordé ci-dessous. | |||
Dans quelques versets, le Coran énonce des exigences concernant le ''jilbab'' (un pardessus ou un manteau à capuche) et le ''khimar'' (probablement un morceau de tissu sur la tête servant à couvrir la poitrine). Un verset mentionne le mot ''hijab'' comme une sorte de rideau ou de voile de séparation derrière lequel les visiteurs pouvaient demander des choses aux épouses de Muhammad. Plus tard, ce terme a acquis le sens conceptuel mentionné ci-dessus. Bien que le Coran contienne des directives générales sur le but de ces exigences, la [[Hadith|littérature prophétique]] est plus spécifique dans son analyse sur les [[Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran)|circonstances derrière la révélation]] de ces versets, même si les hadiths fournissent encore peu d’informations sur ce qu’ils impliquent précisément. Un récit suggère que le verset sur le hijab qui concerne les épouses de Muhammad était le résultat de la pression d’[[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Omar]], qui s’opposait à ce qu’elles soient reconnaissables en public. Le Coran indique que les exigences vestimentaires pour les femmes croyantes étaient, en général, de les prévenir des agressions sexuelles et à titre de modestie. | |||
Traditionnellement, ces récits ont été adoptés, même si récemment ils ont été critiqués comme problématiques. Le Coran a été contesté parce qu’il laisse entendre que les femmes doivent porter le fardeau de leur harcèlement en changeant de tenue, et les hadiths à propos d’Omar, le second des [[Rashidun Caliphs|califes bien guidés]] et ami de [[Muhammad]], ont été débattus parce que cela dépeint à la fois cette figure religieuse hautement vénérée comme un personnage peu recommandable, mais aussi parce cela suggère qu'Allah n'était pas seul responsable de la formulation de la charia, qui est censée être divinement révélée et immuable. | |||
Dans son livre court mais détaillé, ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique)'', le professeur Elizabeth Bucar a écrit sur le rôle et les interprétations du hijab à travers l’histoire et la modernité.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique)'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications</ref> Son livre sera mentionné à plusieurs reprises dans cet article. | |||
The | |||
==Dans les temps modernes== | |||
Dans la plupart des pays à majorité musulmane, l’application de la loi sur le hijab n’est pas respectée (dans certains anciens états soviétiques, il n’est même pas courant que les femmes le portent). L’observance du hijab a connu un renouveau dans certains pays à majorité musulmane au milieu du 20<sup>ème</sup> siècle après être tombé en désuétude tandis qu’en Occident, il est porté couramment et de manière volontaire. Cependant, en parallèle à ces normes sociales, il est également fréquent que les femmes et les filles (même en Occident) subissent parfois une pression communautaire ou familiale pour adhérer au hijab contre leur volonté, en particulier pour les adolescentes qui vivent avec leurs parents. Dans un petit nombre de pays à majorité musulmane (comme l’Iran), le hijab, quelle que soit la forme, est légalement imposé. Les manifestations "Femmes, Vie, Liberté" qui ont eu lieu en Iran en 2023 ont souligné que cette imposition est contraire aux souhaits de millions de femmes là-bas. L’Arabie Saoudite a, quant à elle, supprimé ses règles juridiques en matière de couvre-chef en 2018. | |||
Elizabeth Bucar explique que dans les pays occidentaux, les femmes musulmanes qui portent le hijab est souvent un moyen d'exprimer leur identité musulmane, et que des styles spécifiques de hijab peuvent être en outre un moyen de maintenir une identité avec un héritage culturel spécifique.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique)'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 119-122</ref> Dans l’Algérie du 20<sup>ème</sup> siècle, le hijab a servi de symbole de défense culturelle et de résistance contre le colonialisme, alors qu’en Palestine, il est devenu un symbole de l’identité nationale, mais ne pas le porter était associé à la collaboration israélienne.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique)'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 77-83</ref> | |||
'' | |||
== | ==Dans le Coran== | ||
Le Coran contient des versets qui mentionnent le ''jilbab'' (un pardessus ou un manteau à capuche), le ''khimar'' (un morceau de tissu qui couvre la tête), et le ''hijab'' (sorte de paravent pour protéger les épouses de Muhammad du regard des visiteurs de sa maison). Bucar résume que le verset 53 de la sourate 33 était un ordre pour séparer les épouses de Muhammad de l’espace public et privé ; le verset 59 de la même sourate était un ordre pour préserver les femmes croyantes libres de leur intégrité corporelle du harcèlement ; et les versets 30 et 31 de la sourate 24 étaient un commandement pour protéger la pudeur de toutes les femmes musulmanes.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique)'', p. 45</ref> | |||
''' | |||
'' | |||
== | ===Coran 33:53=== | ||
Dans le Coran ([https://quranx.com/33.53?Context=3 33:53]), il est fait mention d’un ''hijab'', un écran (ou une barrière) derrière lequel les visiteurs qui se rendent chez Muhammad peuvent demander des choses à ses épouses sans les voir. Bucar constate qu’en plus de ce verset, le mot hijab est utilisé ailleurs dans le Coran pour désigner un voile, un mur ou une cloison (voir [https://quranx.com/42.51?Context=3 42:51], [https://quranx.com/7.46?Context=3 7:46], [https://quranx.com/41.5?Context=3 41:5] et [https://quranx.com/17.45?Context=3 17:45]). Le seul autre verset où le hijab est utilisé par rapport aux femmes se trouve dans le Coran ([https://quranx.com/19.17?Context=3 19:17]). Enfin, dans [https://quranx.com/33.53?Context=3 33:53], il est difficile de savoir sur qui repose la responsabilité de l’observance du commandement, est-ce les hommes ou les épouses de Muhammad ?<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil (Le Voile Islamique'', p. 35</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|33|53}}|Ô vous qui croyez ! N'entrez pas dans les demeures du Prophète, à moins qu'invitation ne vous soit faite à un repas, sans être là à attendre sa cuisson. Mais lorsqu'on vous appelle, alors, entrez. Puis, quand vous aurez mangé, dispersez-vous, sans chercher à vous rendre familiers pour causer. Cela faisait de la peine au Prophète, mais il se gênait de vous (congédier), alors qu'Allah ne se gêne pas de la vérité. Et si vous leur demandez (à ses femmes) quelque objet, demandez-le leur derrière un rideau: c'est plus pur pour vos cœurs et leurs cœurs; vous ne devez pas faire de la peine au Messager d'Allah, ni jamais vous marier avec ses épouses après lui; ce serait, auprès d'Allah, un énorme péché.}} | |||
Les traditions au sujet des circonstances de la révélation de ce verset sont mentionnées dans un certain nombre de hadiths, et sont abordées plus loin dans cet article. Dans les versets [https://quranx.com/33.32-33 32-33 de la sourate 33], il y a un autre commandement spécifiquement adressé aux femmes de Muhammad ("Ô femmes du Prophète ! Vous n'êtes comparables à aucune autre femme. [...]"). | |||
===Coran 33:59=== | |||
{{Quran|33|59}} states that the purpose of drawing over the ''jilbab'' (overgarment or cloak) is to distinguish free Muslim women (presumably from non-Muslim or slave women, who do not have to observe it) in order to prevent them from being molested/harassed. | |||
Bucar explains that Quran commentators agreed that the occasion of revelation for this verse was that the hypocrites (al-munafiqun) in Medina (who are mentioned in the next verse, {{Quran|33|60}}) were physically harrassing slave women in public spaces. This context is mentioned for example in Tafsir al-Jalalayn regarding the verse. The jilbab thus made free believing women visibly distinct. It was a responsibility placed on them by the Quran to mitigate the immoral behaviour of certain men. Bucar says that the meaning of jilbab is unclear, but most scholars believed it to be a type of outer covering.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 38-40</ref> | |||
{{quote |{{Quran|33|59}}|O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments [jalābībihinna جَلَٰبِيبِهِنَّ]. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.}} | |||
===Coran 24:31=== | |||
{{Quran|24|31}} tells believing women to draw the ''khimar'' (piece of cloth that covers the head) over their bosoms and to hide their adornment or [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Beauty and Makeup|beauty]] from men. | |||
{{quote |{{Quran|24|31}}|And tell the believing women to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private parts and not expose their adornment [zīnatahunna إِخْوَٰنِهِنَّ] except that which [necessarily] appears thereof and to wrap [a portion of] their headcovers [bikhumurihinna بِخُمُرِهِنَّ] over their chests [juyūbihinna جُيُوبِهِنَّ] and not expose their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands' fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers, their brothers' sons, their sisters' sons, their women, that which their right hands possess, or those male attendants having no physical desire, or children who are not yet aware of the private aspects [ʿawrāti عَوْرَٰتِ] of women. And let them not stamp their feet to make known what they conceal of their adornment. And turn to Allah in repentance, all of you, O believers, that you might succeed.}} | |||
Bucar notes that unlike the above two verses, only late traditions provide an occasion of revelation for Q. 24:30-31. Believing women are told to draw their ''Khumur'' (singular: ''Khimar'') over their bosoms (''juyub''). Bucar comments that the word khimar, which some Quran commentators glossed as a veil, mainly meant a kerchief worn on the head, and that the root of the word juyub meant a space between, so probably meant cleavage. Thus she argues that the purpose of this part of the verse is that the cleavage must be covered.<ref name="Bucar40-45">Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 40-45</ref> In the same year (2012) a PhD thesis by Sheikh Mustapha Mohamed Rashed at al-Azhar University similarly concluded that the verse only commands that the bosom be covered.<ref>[https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2012/06/45564/hijab-is-not-an-islamic-duty-scholar Hijab is Not an Islamic Duty: Muslim Scholar] - Morocco World News, 24 June 2012</ref> | |||
Except in specifically defined company, the verse also says that women must not reveal their adornment (''zina'', which besides illicit sexual activity is a word used in a few verses for stars adorning the heavens). It seems to essentially mean a woman's attractiveness, though Quran commentators have always disagreed on the meaning of hidden zina in this verse. Some suggested it meant ankle bracelets due to the final part of the verse telling women not to stamp their feet. {{Quran|24|60}} later in the same surah exempts older women from the command to wear garments hiding their adornment. Some Quran commentators like al-Tabari thought it allowed a woman's face to show, based on a hadith in which Muhammad defines what a woman can reveal of herself when she reaches the age of menstruation ({{Abu Dawud|33|4092}}, quoted in the next section below). For al-Zamakhshari, adornment in this context meant jewelry and makeup. Ibn Taymiyyah and al Baydawi said that even a woman's face and hands must be covered in public except during prayer.<ref name="Bucar40-45" /> | |||
Bucar notes that there was similarly no consensus on the meaning of the word 'awra in the verse. For men, hadiths made clear that a man's 'awra was from his navel to his knees. As for a woman's 'awra, there is an isolated hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi quoted in the next section on hadiths below. For some scholars it referred to a woman's bosom, neck and head, for others everything except her face and hands, or for others just the genital region (as with men).<ref name="Bucar40-45" /> | |||
==Hadiths== | |||
Bucar observes that there are no explicit references in hadiths to women being required to cover the face or hair (a popular translation of {{Bukhari|6|60|282}} mentions the women covering their faces, but this is not clear in the Arabic text and another version of the narration in {{Abu Dawud|32|4089}} refers only to them making Khimars). Bucar observes that hadiths distinguish a time before and after the revelation of the hijab verse concerning Muhammad's wives, particularly narrations about the event of the slander (al-ifk) in which 'Aisha was accused of adultery. By the time of these narrations, ''hijab'' had come to be transformed from a literal screen in the home of Muhammad's wives to a complex ideology of segregation, privacy and social status, perhaps reflecting post-Muhammad cultural practices of specific Muslim communities.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 47-48</ref> | |||
A few hadiths refer specifically to Muhammad's wives covering their heads and faces with jilbab in public such as {{Bukhari|5|59|462}}, which is the above mentioned event of the slander. It mentions Aisha drawing her jilbab over her face, though it also says this was after the verse of hijab had come down, which was a requirement specifically for Muhammad's wives. | |||
Bucar says that the few relevant hadiths detailing requirements for believing women in general concern the avoidance of thin clothing or short hemlines while an isolated hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi is the exception, describing a woman in her entirety as 'awra.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 34</ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|33|4092}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: | |||
Asma, daughter of AbuBakr, entered upon the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) wearing thin clothes. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) turned his attention from her. He said: O Asma', when a woman reaches the age of menstruation, it does not suit her that she displays her parts of body except this and this, and he pointed to his face and hands. Abu Dawud said: This is a mursal tradition (i.e. the narrator who transmitted it from 'Aishah is missing) Khalid b. Duraik did not see 'Aishah}} | |||
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi|3|22|1731|}}|Narrated Ibn 'Umar: | |||
That the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Whoever arrogantly drags his garment, Allah will not look at him on the Day of Judgement." So Umm Salamah said: "What should the women do with their hems?" He said: "Slacken them a handspan." So she said: "Then their feet will be uncovered." He said: "Then slacken them a forearm's length and do not add to that." He said: This Hadith is Hasan Sahih. In the Hadith there is a concession for women to drag their Izar because it covers them better.}} | |||
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|10|1173}}|Abdullah narrated that The Prophet said: | |||
“The woman is Awrah, so when she goes out, the Shaitan seeks to tempt her.”}} | |||
A narration mentioned by some Quran commentators such as Ibn Kathir attributes to Ibn Abbas a view that a woman should be entirely covered by her jilbab except for a single eye. | |||
{{Quote|Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Q. 33:59|Here Allah tells His Messenger to command the believing women -- especially his wives and daughters, because of their position of honor -- to draw their Jilbabs over their bodies, so that they will be distinct in their appearance from the women of the Jahiliyyah and from slave women. The Jilbab is a Rida', worn over the Khimar. This was the view of Ibn Mas`ud, `Ubaydah, Qatadah, Al-Hasan Al-Basri, Sa`id bin Jubayr, Ibrahim An-Nakha`i, `Ata' Al-Khurasani and others. It is like the Izar used today. Al-Jawhari said: "The Jilbab is the outer wrapper. `Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn `Abbas said that Allah commanded the believing women, when they went out of their houses for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with the Jilbab, leaving only one eye showing. Muhammad bin Sirin said, "I asked `Ubaydah As-Salmani about the Ayah:<BR /> | |||
يُدْنِينَ عَلَيْهِنَّ مِن جَلَـبِيبِهِنَّ | |||
(to draw their Jalabib over their bodies.) He covered his face and head, with just his left eye showing.''<BR /> | |||
ذلِكَ أَدْنَى أَن يُعْرَفْنَ فَلاَ يُؤْذَيْنَ | |||
(That will be better that they should be known so as not to be annoyed. ) means, if they do that, it will be known that they are free, and that they are not servants or whores.}} | |||
Some other relevant hadiths were collected by Abu Dawud (all graded Sahih by al-Albani): | |||
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|2|641}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: | |||
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Allah does not accept the prayer of a woman who has reached puberty unless she wears a veil [Khimar بِخِمَارٍ]. Abu Dawud said: This tradition has been narrated by Sa;id b. Abi 'Arubah from Qatadah on the authority of al-Hasan from the Prophet (ﷺ).}} | |||
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|32|4094}}|Narrated Anas ibn Malik: | |||
The Prophet (ﷺ) brought Fatimah a slave which he donated to her. Fatimah wore a garment which, when she covered her head, did not reach her feet, and when she covered her feet by it, that garment did not reach her head. When the Prophet (ﷺ) saw her struggle, he said: There is no harm to you: Here is only your father and slave.}} | |||
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud|32|4090}}|Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin: | |||
When the verse "That they should cast their outer garments over their persons" was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows over their heads by wearing outer garments.}} | |||
The following hadith account mentions the use of hijab (screen) to conceal Muhammad's wives from a eunuch, or effeminate man in other translations (similarly see {{Abu Dawud|32|4095}}). | |||
{{Quote|{{Muslim|26|5416}}|'A'isha reported that a eunuch used to come to the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) and they did not And anything objectionable in his visit considering him to be a male without any sexual desire. Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) one day came as he was sitting with some of his wives and he was busy in describing the bodily characteristics of a lady and saying: | |||
As she comes in front four folds appear on her front side and as she turns her back eight folds appear on the back side. Thereupon Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) said: I see that he knows these things; do not, therefore, allow him to cater. She (" A'isha) said: Then they began to observe veil from him.}} | |||
Some observe that a eunuch could not pose any threat to the chastity or safety of Muhammad's wives, which distinguishes the purpose of hijab in Q. 33:53 from that of jilbab or khimar for protection or modesty in the other verses discussed above. | |||
==In Islamic Law== | |||
Bucar details how different opinions on the veil existed between and within the schools of Islamic jurisprudence over time, probably influenced by the differing cultural contexts (she uses the term "veil" to mean the relevant Islamic concepts in a general sense).<ref name="Bucar49-58">Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 49-58</ref> | |||
She writes that "Early ''fiqh'' discussed veiling in the context of prayer, and in general saw veiling as an issue of social status and physical safety". Later, it was not a central concern of medieval legal scholars, though their reasoning remains relevant to modern discussions about veiling. Regarding the concept of 'awra mentioned in Q. 24:31 and discussed above, the majority view was that it excluded a woman's hands and face (the main Maliki and Hanafi view), though a minority view was that everything should be covered except her eyes despite no mention of this in the Quran, while hadiths indicate this was not common practice for early Muslim communities. Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 CE) who inspired modern day Salafism said that her face should be covered in public, which became the standard Shafi'i and Hanbali legal position. Legal scholars also commonly linked 'awra with the concept of fitnah mentioned separately in the Quran. Bucar quotes the prominent jurist al-Nawawi (d. 1278) as an exemplar of this view, which is a motivation argued by some emerging Islamic governments in modern times: | |||
{{Quote|al-Nawawi quoted by Elizabeth Bucar (transl. El Fadl)<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 56</ref>|Since God made men desire women, and desire looking at them and enjoying them, women are like the devil in that they seduce men towards the commission of evil, while making evil look attractive [to men]. We deduct from this that women should not go out in the midst of men except for a necessity.}} | |||
Some modern Islamic jurists such as Khaled Abou El Fadl (d. 1963) have criticised this linking of a woman's 'awra with the concept of fitna and preventing illicit intercourse. He argues that modesty is a Quranic ethical command in and of itself and the relevant verses do not link it to fitna. The medieval jurists invocation of fitna in addition thereby shifted the blame for potential sin from men to women (whereas the hypocrites are blamed in Q. 33:59-60 for violating women's modesty). Thirdly, since even medieval jurists allowed exemptions (for example slaves labouring in fields), he argued that the rules must be "contigent and contextual in nature". In the late 19th and early 20th century a renewed juridical interest in veiling led to a wide range of debates and opinions.<ref name="Bucar49-58" /> | |||
Saudi Arabia (until it revoked its legal head covering requirement in 2018), Afghanistan, and Iran base their laws on veiling on the Hanbali, Hanafi, and Shi'a Jafari schools of jurisprudence, respectively.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 65-66</ref> | |||
==Proposed benefits of hijab and modern criticisms thereof== | |||
[[File:Hijab propaganda billboard.jpg|thumb|Billboard in Tehran reading "hijab is security"]] | |||
Bucar categorises three types of traditional and modern purposes for hijab that have been articulated. Firstly, it was seen as a means of building moral character (modesty, shyness) and a path to piety because it is not an easy thing to start wearing it. With repetition, over time a woman would feel uncomfortable at the thought of not wearing it. Indeed, one could add that ex-Muslim women commonly describe how leaving home without hijab for the first time takes some courage. Secondly, it has been said to have the benefit of preventing inapproprate desires, which could end in [[zina]] (illicit sexual activity), and strengthens the marital bond since a woman's sensuality was reserved for her husband. Finally, it is seen as having a social purpose, to regulate and prevent sexual urges in society running out of control. Arguments in this last category are of four types: 1) that it prevents constant male arousal, protects social dignity and a tranquil society; 2) that it supports educational and economic productivity due to reduced male distraction; 3) that it allows women to participate more fully in society as every public space is a morally safe zone; and 4) that it serves as a guard against westernizing influence.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 19-23</ref> | |||
Bucar gives examples of Muslim figures who have criticised such arguments for hijab. Some reformists and progressives interpreted hijab metaphorically in terms of a principle of modest behaviour and controlling one's desires. Other Muslim critics have noted that veiling is not sufficient to suppress desire, and in a modern context can even stimulate desire for that which is "forbidden". Others criticise mandatory veiling for removing moral choice.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 24</ref> Secular observers might add that most of the arguments for hijab pre-suppose a conservative moral order in which sexual activity outside the bounds of marriage (or in the past, slavery) must be forbidden, and the risk of such, mitigated. | |||
Some critics argue that if the hijab is intended to protect women from sexual assault, it wholly fails to serve this purpose. Islamic countries where the overwhelming majorities of women observe the hijab have been found to have some of the highest rates of women experiencing all manner of sexual harassment, notably in the case of Egypt.<ref>See [https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/sexual-harassment-laws-in-egypt-does-stricter-mean-more-effective/ Sexual Harassment Laws in Egypt: Does Stricter Mean More Effective?] by Habiba Abdelaal, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy - December 2021</ref><ref>Manar Ammar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bikyamasr.com/77158/sexual-harassment-and-pedophilia-await-egyptian-girls-outside-schools/|2=2012-09-14}} Sexual harassment awaits Egyptian girls outside schools] - Bikya Masr, September 10, 2012</ref> In Saudi Arabia, where the observance of hijab is strictly enforced throughout the country, women experience one of the highest rates of [[Rape in Islamic Law|rape]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://womanstats.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/the-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia/|title= The High Rape-Scale in Saudi Arabia|publisher= WomanStats Project (blog)|author= |date= January 16, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwomanstats.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F01%2F16%2Fthe-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia%2F&date=2013-07-13|deadurl=no}}</ref> | |||
=='Umar and the revelation of the hijab verse (Quran 33:53)== | |||
A hadith narrated from Anas bin Malik describes how he witnessed the revelation of the hijab verse. See also {{Muslim|8|3328}}. | |||
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|6|60|315}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: | |||
I of all the people know best this verse of Al-Hijab. When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) married Zainab bint Jahsh she was with him in the house and he prepared a meal and invited the people (to it). They sat down (after finishing their meal) and started chatting. So the Prophet (ﷺ) went out and then returned several times while they were still sitting and talking. So Allah revealed the Verse: 'O you who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses until leave is given to you for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation.....ask them from behind a screen.' (33.53) So the screen was set up and the people went away.}} | |||
A somewhat different account, or background leading up to the revelation of the verse is reported regarding pressure exerted on Muhammad regarding his wives by 'Umar, as detailed below. | |||
===Umar bin Al-Khattab's spies on Sauda=== | ===Umar bin Al-Khattab's spies on Sauda=== | ||
According to hadiths found in [[Sahih Bukhari|Sahih al-Bukhari]], the most authoritative hadith collection, the series of events leading up to the [[revelation]] of the | According to hadiths found in [[Sahih Bukhari|Sahih al-Bukhari]], the most authoritative hadith collection, the series of events leading up to the [[revelation]] of the verse of the hijab ({{Quran|33|53}}) was as follows. First, Umar repeatedly asked Muhammad that Allah should reveal verses of the Qur'an pertaining to the veiling of women. Next, when no such revelation was forthcoming from Muhammad, Umar went out one night and stalked one of [[Muhammad's Marriages|Muhammad's wives]] when she went out to relieve herself. Identifying the wife as Sauda bint Zam'a, he called out to her by name, noting that he had succeeded in recognizing her in her compromised circumstance. After this, Sauda presumably returned home embarrassed by the incident and reported what occurred to Muhammad, finally resulting in the revelation of the verses pertaining to the hijab. | ||
The wives of the Prophet used to go to Al-Manasi, a vast open place (near Baqia at Medina) to answer the call of nature at night. 'Umar used to say to the Prophet "Let your wives be veiled," but Allah's Apostle did not do so. One night Sauda bint Zam'a the wife of the Prophet went out at 'Isha' time and she was a tall lady. 'Umar addressed her and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda." He said so, as he desired eagerly that the verses of Al-Hijab (the observing of veils by the Muslim women) may be revealed. So Allah revealed the verses of "Al-Hijab" (A complete body cover excluding the eyes). }} | |||
Note that the Sahih al-Bukhari translator's comment attempting to define hijab as "a complete body covering excluding the eyes" at the end of the hadiths is not present in the Arabic. Moreover, in the Arabic these hadiths do not mention "verses" of the hijab plural, but at most mention the "verse" singular. This is in reference to Q. 33:53 which concerns concealing Muhammad's wives from public view (this is even clearer with the related hadiths in the section after this below). | |||
{{quote |{{Bukhari|1|4|148}}|Narrated 'Aisha: | |||
The wives of the Prophet used to go to Al-Manasi, a vast open place (near Baqia at Medina) to answer the call of nature at night. 'Umar used to say to the Prophet "Let your wives be veiled," but Allah's Apostle did not do so. One night Sauda bint Zam'a the wife of the Prophet went out at 'Isha' time and she was a tall lady. 'Umar addressed her and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda." He said so, as he desired eagerly that the verses of Al-Hijab (the observing of veils by the Muslim women) may be revealed. So Allah revealed the verses of "Al-Hijab" (A complete body cover excluding the eyes).}} | |||
{{quote |{{Bukhari|8|74|257}}|Narrated 'Aisha: | {{quote |{{Bukhari|8|74|257}}|Narrated 'Aisha: | ||
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====Allah agrees with Umar==== | ====Allah agrees with Umar==== | ||
{{Main|Convenient Revelations}} | {{Main|Convenient Revelations}} | ||
Following the incident with Sauda and a number of other incidents where Umar had directly preceded revelation in his recommendations to Muhammad, Muhammad proclaimed that Allah had come, on multiple occasions, to agree with Umar.{{quote | {{Bukhari|6|60|10}}|Narrated Anas: | Following the incident with Sauda and a number of other incidents where Umar had directly preceded revelation in his recommendations to Muhammad, Muhammad proclaimed that Allah had come, on multiple occasions, to agree with Umar. | ||
Note that the translation of the hadiths below are incorrect. The Arabic text of these hadiths refers to "the veil" (hijab) singular, and "verse" singular, not plural i.e. the various versions of this hadith refer to the revelation of {{Quran|33|53}} concerning the screen (al hijab) between visitors and Muhammad's wives. | |||
{{quote | {{Bukhari|6|60|10}}|Narrated Anas: | |||
Umar said, "I agreed with Allah in three things," or said, "My Lord agreed with me in three things. I said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Would that you took the station of Abraham as a place of prayer.' I also said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons visit you! Would that you ordered the Mothers of the believers to cover themselves with veils.' So the Divine Verses of Al-Hijab (i.e. veiling of the women) were revealed. I came to know that the Prophet had blamed some of his wives so I entered upon them and said, 'You should either stop (troubling the Prophet ) or else Allah will give His Apostle better wives than you.' When I came to one of his wives, she said to me, 'O 'Umar! Does Allah's Apostle haven't what he could advise his wives with, that you try to advise them?' " Thereupon Allah revealed:-- | Umar said, "I agreed with Allah in three things," or said, "My Lord agreed with me in three things. I said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Would that you took the station of Abraham as a place of prayer.' I also said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons visit you! Would that you ordered the Mothers of the believers to cover themselves with veils.' So the Divine Verses of Al-Hijab (i.e. veiling of the women) were revealed. I came to know that the Prophet had blamed some of his wives so I entered upon them and said, 'You should either stop (troubling the Prophet ) or else Allah will give His Apostle better wives than you.' When I came to one of his wives, she said to me, 'O 'Umar! Does Allah's Apostle haven't what he could advise his wives with, that you try to advise them?' " Thereupon Allah revealed:-- | ||
"It may be, if he divorced you (all) his Lord will give him instead of you, wives better than you Muslims (who submit to Allah).." (66.5) }} | "It may be, if he divorced you (all) his Lord will give him instead of you, wives better than you Muslims (who submit to Allah).." (66.5) }} | ||
{{quote |{{Bukhari|6|60|313}} | {{quote |{{Bukhari|6|60|313}}| Narrated Umar: | ||
I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons enter upon you, so I suggest that you order the mothers of the Believers (i.e. your wives) to observe veils." Then Allah revealed the Verses of Al-Hijab. }} | I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons enter upon you, so I suggest that you order the mothers of the Believers (i.e. your wives) to observe veils." Then Allah revealed the Verses of Al-Hijab. }} | ||
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====Umar ups the ante==== | ====Umar ups the ante==== | ||
After Umar's wish of having | After Umar's wish of having Muhammad's wives veiled was fulfilled, he set his sights on having the clothing requirements increased to the point of making the women completely unrecognizable. To this end, he again spied on Sauda as she had gone out to relieve herself, this time notifying her that because she was a distinctively "fat huge lady", the newly-obligated veil did not suffice in obscuring her identity. Embarrassed yet again, Sauda returned home to inform Muhammad. Then feasting on a piece of meat and apparently disturbed by the interruption, Muhammad immediately received revelation from God alerting Sauda that Umar's demands would not this time be met. Accordingly, Sauda was informed that she would be allowed to relieve herself outdoors in spite of Umar's harassment.{{quote |{{Bukhari|6|60|318}}|Narrated Aisha: | ||
Sauda (the wife of the Prophet) went out to answer the call of nature after it was made obligatory (for all the Muslims ladies) to observe the veil. She was a fat huge lady, and everybody who knew her before could recognize her. So 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her and said, "O Sauda! By Allah, you cannot hide yourself from us, so think of a way by which you should not be recognized on going out. Sauda returned while Allah's Apostle was in my house taking his supper and a bone covered with meat was in his hand. She entered and said, "O Allah's Apostle! I went out to answer the call of nature and 'Umar said to me so-and-so." Then Allah inspired him (the Prophet) and when the state of inspiration was over and the bone was still in his hand as he had not put in down, he said (to Sauda), "You (women) have been allowed to go out for your needs."}} | Sauda (the wife of the Prophet) went out to answer the call of nature after it was made obligatory (for all the Muslims ladies) to observe the veil. She was a fat huge lady, and everybody who knew her before could recognize her. So 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her and said, "O Sauda! By Allah, you cannot hide yourself from us, so think of a way by which you should not be recognized on going out. Sauda returned while Allah's Apostle was in my house taking his supper and a bone covered with meat was in his hand. She entered and said, "O Allah's Apostle! I went out to answer the call of nature and 'Umar said to me so-and-so." Then Allah inspired him (the Prophet) and when the state of inspiration was over and the bone was still in his hand as he had not put in down, he said (to Sauda), "You (women) have been allowed to go out for your needs."}} | ||
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{{quote | {{Muslim|26|5395}}| A'isha reported that Sauda (Allah be pleased with her) went out (in the fields) in order to answer the call of nature even after the time when veil had been prescribed for women. She had been a bulky lady, significant in height amongst the women, and she could not conceal herself from him who had known her. 'Umar b. Khattab saw her and said: Sauda, by Allah, you cannot conceal from us. Therefore, be careful when you go out. She ('A'isha) said: She turned back. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was at that time in my house having his evening meal and there was a bone in his hand. She (Sauda) cline and said: Allah's Messenger. I went out and 'Umar said to me so and so. She ('A'isha) reported: There came the revelation to him and then it was over; the bone was then in his hand and he had not thrown it and he said: "Permission has been granted to you that you may go out for your needs."}} | {{quote | {{Muslim|26|5395}}| A'isha reported that Sauda (Allah be pleased with her) went out (in the fields) in order to answer the call of nature even after the time when veil had been prescribed for women. She had been a bulky lady, significant in height amongst the women, and she could not conceal herself from him who had known her. 'Umar b. Khattab saw her and said: Sauda, by Allah, you cannot conceal from us. Therefore, be careful when you go out. She ('A'isha) said: She turned back. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was at that time in my house having his evening meal and there was a bone in his hand. She (Sauda) cline and said: Allah's Messenger. I went out and 'Umar said to me so and so. She ('A'isha) reported: There came the revelation to him and then it was over; the bone was then in his hand and he had not thrown it and he said: "Permission has been granted to you that you may go out for your needs."}} | ||
Another hadith records how Umar attempted to apply the ruling of hijab (curtain) to other women in Muhammad's house besides his wives (the same account is in {{Bukhari|8|73|108}}). | |||
{{Quote|{{Muslim|31|5899}}|Sa'd b. Waqqas reported that Umar sought permission from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) to visit him when some women of the Quraish were busy in talking with him and raising their voices above his voice. When 'Umar sought permission they stood up and went hurriedly behind the curtain. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) gave him permission smilingly. Thereupon 'Umar said: | |||
{{ | |||
Allah's Messenger, may Allah keep you happy all your life. Then Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: I wonder at these women who were with me and no sooner did they hear your voice, they immediately went behind the curtain. Thereupon 'Umar said: Allah's Messenger, you have more right that they should fear you. Then Umar (addressing the women) said: O ye enemies of yourselves, do you fear me and fear not the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ)? They said: Yes, you are harsh and strict as compared to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Thereupon, Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: By Him in Whose Hand is my life, if satan would encounter you in the way he would certainly take a different way from that of yours.}} | |||
== | ===Umar struck a slave girl for wearing jilbab like free women=== | ||
One tradition relates Umar's strident views also to the theme of {{Quran|3|59}}, the verse in which believing women in general are instructed to wear the jilbab to distinguish themselves and to avoid harrasment. | |||
{{Quote|1=[https://archive.org/details/FP152371/04_152374/page/n353/mode/1up?view=theater Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah 6382 and 6383] (both graded sahih [https://archive.org/details/WAQ25781WAQ/erwaa6/page/n201/mode/2up?view=theater by al-Albani] and [https://archive.org/details/FP152371/04_152374/page/n353/mode/1up?view=theater by Sa'd al Shathri])|2=Narrated Anas ibn Malik: | |||
Umar saw a slave-girl wearing a veil, so he struck her. He said, "Do not emulate free women."<BR /><BR /> | |||
Narrated Anas ibn Malik: | |||
A female slave came to Umar ibn al Khattab. He knew her through some of the emigrants, or the Ansar. She was wearing a jilbab (cloak) which veiled her. He asked her: "Have you been freed?" She said: "No." He said: "What about the jilbab? Pull it down off your head. The jilbab is only for free women from among the believing women." She hesitated. So he came at her with a whip and struck her on the head, until she cast it off her head.}} | |||
== | ==Hijab as a screen or physical barrier== | ||
Another type of veiling, also referred to in Arabic as ''hijab'', is that effected through physical barriers. While Islamic legal schools disagree about the requirement and use of physical barriers in addition to hijab as matter of personal clothing, the use of physical barriers is the rule rather than the exception in much of the Islamic world and even make frequent appearance in Western diasporic settings. | Another type of veiling, also referred to in Arabic as ''hijab'', is that effected through physical barriers. This was the original meaning of the term as discussed above regarding {{Quran|33|53}}. While Islamic legal schools disagree about the requirement and use of physical barriers in addition to hijab as matter of personal clothing, the use of physical barriers is the rule rather than the exception in much of the Islamic world and even make frequent appearance in Western diasporic settings. | ||
In addition to the generic employment of physical barriers wherever both men and women are present, there is the more specific practice of the "household hijab". The idea of separating male and female visitors at one's home is inspired by hadith accounts which describe this practice in Muhammad's household as well as a Quranic allusion thereto in {{Quran|33|53}}. According to the hadiths, the separate revelation regarding the household hijab was also situationally inspired. Here, the story is that Muhammad had visitors and was bothered to find them lingering to chat with his wives after they had dinner. | |||
In addition to the generic employment of physical barriers wherever both men and women are present, there is the more specific practice of the "household hijab". The idea of separating male and female visitors at one's home is inspired by hadith accounts which describe this practice in Muhammad's household as well as a Quranic allusion thereto. According to the hadiths, the separate revelation regarding the household hijab was also situationally inspired. Here, the story is that Muhammad had visitors and was bothered to find them lingering to chat with his wives after they had dinner. | |||
{{quote |{{Bukhari|6|60|314}}; see also {{Bukhari|6|60|315}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: | {{quote |{{Bukhari|6|60|314}}; see also {{Bukhari|6|60|315}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: | ||
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[[Category:Criticism of Islam]] | [[Category:Criticism of Islam]] | ||
[[Category:Human rights]] | [[Category:Human rights]] | ||
[[ar:حجاب]] | |||