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The Caliph (خليفة; khalīfah) is the head of state in a '''Caliphate''', and the title for the leader of the Islamic [[Ummah]] (body of Muslim believers) who serves as the successor to [[Muhammad]], the founder of [[Islam]], in all matters of political and religious decision making. The word of the caliph is, however, only legally and not theologically binding upon members of the Muslim ummah who consider him legitimate. | The Caliph (خليفة; khalīfah) is the head of state in a '''Caliphate''', and the title for the leader of the Islamic [[Ummah]] (body of Muslim believers) who serves as the successor to [[Muhammad]], the founder of [[Islam]], in all matters of political and religious decision making. The word of the caliph is, however, only legally and not theologically binding upon members of the Muslim ummah who consider him legitimate. | ||
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Following brief instability, from 1556 to 1605, the Mughal empire was ruled by Akbar, who was responsible for conquering almost all of India and for modernizing the empire's adminstration. Akbar was even more famous for his tolerant domestic policy whereby, despite his Islamic faith, he did not [[Dhimmitude|prosecute or diminish]] non-Muslims nor especially pagan subjects such as the Hindus. Akbar was so fundamentally cosmopolitan, in fact, that he started his own religion by merging favorable elements of several religions, including Hinduism and Islam, to produce a syncretic religion which he dubbed ''Din-e-ilahi'', or "Divine Faith", which epitomized tolerance and whose hallmark was the idea that no one religion could alone be true. Akbar would oversee the prime era of the Mughals. | Following brief instability, from 1556 to 1605, the Mughal empire was ruled by Akbar, who was responsible for conquering almost all of India and for modernizing the empire's adminstration. Akbar was even more famous for his tolerant domestic policy whereby, despite his Islamic faith, he did not [[Dhimmitude|prosecute or diminish]] non-Muslims nor especially pagan subjects such as the Hindus. Akbar was so fundamentally cosmopolitan, in fact, that he started his own religion by merging favorable elements of several religions, including Hinduism and Islam, to produce a syncretic religion which he dubbed ''Din-e-ilahi'', or "Divine Faith", which epitomized tolerance and whose hallmark was the idea that no one religion could alone be true. Akbar would oversee the prime era of the Mughals. | ||
Subsequently, from 1658 to 1707, the Mughal empire would be ruled by Akbar's great-grandson, Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb seized the throne from his brother (also the rightful heir), Dara Shikoh, in 1658 and had Dara executed in order to preserve his power (the practice of executing competing claimants to the throne was a relatively common practice throughout the history of Islamic empires, and found sanction in [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], or [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shariah]])<ref>{{Muslim| | Subsequently, from 1658 to 1707, the Mughal empire would be ruled by Akbar's great-grandson, Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb seized the throne from his brother (also the rightful heir), Dara Shikoh, in 1658 and had Dara executed in order to preserve his power (the practice of executing competing claimants to the throne was a relatively common practice throughout the history of Islamic empires, and found sanction in [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], or [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shariah]])<ref>{{Muslim||1853|reference}} "It has been narrated on the authority of Aba Sa'id al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later."</ref>. Aurangzeb likewise imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, following Dara's execution. Aurangzeb was a strong supporter of Islamic orthodoxy, saw the Shariah implemented throughout the entirety of the Mughal empire, and undid much of the tolerant and syncretic reforms brought about by his great-grandfather, Akbar. This period in the empire's history also saw India's grow into the most productive economy in the world, and would see Aurangzeb conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. | When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later."</ref>. Aurangzeb likewise imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, following Dara's execution. Aurangzeb was a strong supporter of Islamic orthodoxy, saw the Shariah implemented throughout the entirety of the Mughal empire, and undid much of the tolerant and syncretic reforms brought about by his great-grandfather, Akbar. This period in the empire's history also saw India's grow into the most productive economy in the world, and would see Aurangzeb conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. | ||
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===Hadith=== | ===Hadith=== | ||
{{Quote|{{ | {{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2956|darussalam}} & {{Al Tirmidhi||5|39|4201}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: | ||
That heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying, "We are the last but will be the foremost to enter Paradise)." The Prophet added, "He who obeys me, obeys Allah, and he who disobeys me, disobeys Allah. He who obeys the chief, obeys me, and he who disobeys the chief, disobeys me. The Imam is like a shelter for whose safety the Muslims should fight and where they should seek protection. If the Imam orders people with righteousness and rules justly, then he will be rewarded for that, and if he does the opposite, he will be responsible for that."}}{{Quote|{{Muslim| | That heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying, "We are the last but will be the foremost to enter Paradise)." The Prophet added, "He who obeys me, obeys Allah, and he who disobeys me, disobeys Allah. He who obeys the chief, obeys me, and he who disobeys the chief, disobeys me. The Imam is like a shelter for whose safety the Muslims should fight and where they should seek protection. If the Imam orders people with righteousness and rules justly, then he will be rewarded for that, and if he does the opposite, he will be responsible for that."}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1818a|reference}} & {{Muslim||1818b|reference}}|It has been narrarted on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
People are subservient to the Quraish: the Muslims among them being subservient to the Muslims among them, and the disbelievers among the people being subservient to the disbelievers among them.}}{{Quote|{{ | People are subservient to the Quraish: the Muslims among them being subservient to the Muslims among them, and the disbelievers among the people being subservient to the disbelievers among them.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1819|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir b. 'Abdullah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
People are the followers of Quraish in good as well as evil}}{{Quote|{{ | People are the followers of Quraish in good as well as evil}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3501|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn `Umar: | ||
The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Authority of ruling will remain with Quraish, even if only two of them remained."}}{{Quote|{{ | The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Authority of ruling will remain with Quraish, even if only two of them remained."}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1820|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of 'Abdullah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
The Caliphate will remain among the Quraish even if only two persons are left (on the earth)}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari| | The Caliphate will remain among the Quraish even if only two persons are left (on the earth)}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3500|darussalam}}|Narrated Muhammad bin Jubair bin Mut`im: | ||
That while he was with a delegation from Quraish to Muawiya, the latter heard the news that `Abdullah bin `Amr bin Al-`As said that there would be a king from the tribe of Qahtan. On that Muawiya became angry, got up and then praised Allah as He deserved, and said, "Now then, I have heard that some men amongst you narrate things which are neither in the Holy Book, nor have been told by Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). Those men are the ignorant amongst you. Beware of such hopes as make the people go astray, for I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying, 'Authority of ruling will remain with Quraish, and whoever bears hostility to them, Allah will destroy him as long as they abide by the laws of the religion.' "}}{{Quote|{{ | That while he was with a delegation from Quraish to Muawiya, the latter heard the news that `Abdullah bin `Amr bin Al-`As said that there would be a king from the tribe of Qahtan. On that Muawiya became angry, got up and then praised Allah as He deserved, and said, "Now then, I have heard that some men amongst you narrate things which are neither in the Holy Book, nor have been told by Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). Those men are the ignorant amongst you. Beware of such hopes as make the people go astray, for I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying, 'Authority of ruling will remain with Quraish, and whoever bears hostility to them, Allah will destroy him as long as they abide by the laws of the religion.' "}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1821a|reference}}, {{Muslim||1821b|reference}}, {{Muslim||1821d|reference}}, {{Muslim||1821e|reference}}, {{Muslim||1821f|reference}}, & {{Muslim||1822a|reference}}|It has been reported on the authority of Jabir b. Samura who said: | ||
I went with my father to the Messenger of Allah (may peeace be upon him) and I heard him say: This religion would continue to remain powerful and dominant until there have been twelve Caliphs. Then he added something which I couldn't catch on account of the noise of the people. I asked my father: What did he say? My father said: He has said that all of them will be from the Quraish.}}{{Quote|{{ | I went with my father to the Messenger of Allah (may peeace be upon him) and I heard him say: This religion would continue to remain powerful and dominant until there have been twelve Caliphs. Then he added something which I couldn't catch on account of the noise of the people. I asked my father: What did he say? My father said: He has said that all of them will be from the Quraish.}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2476|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: | ||
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established until the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler, he will break the cross, kill the pigs, and abolish the Jizya tax. Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it (as charitable gifts).}}{{Quote|{{ | Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established until the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler, he will break the cross, kill the pigs, and abolish the Jizya tax. Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it (as charitable gifts).}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2925|darussalam}} & {{Bukhari|||2926|darussalam}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar: | ||
Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "You (i.e. Muslims) will fight with the Jews until some of them will hide behind stones. The stones will (betray them) saying, 'O `Abdullah (i.e. slave of Allah)! There is a Jew hiding behind me; so kill him.'"}}{{Quote|{{ | Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "You (i.e. Muslims) will fight with the Jews until some of them will hide behind stones. The stones will (betray them) saying, 'O `Abdullah (i.e. slave of Allah)! There is a Jew hiding behind me; so kill him.'"}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1829a|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Umar that the Prophet (May be upon him) said: | ||
Beware. every one of you is a shepherd and every one is answerable with regard to his flock. The Caliph is a shepherd over the people and shall be questioned about his subjects (as to how he conducted their affairs). A man is a guardian over the members of his family and shal be questioned about them (as to how he looked after their physical and moral well-being). A woman is a guardian over the household of her husband and his children and shall be questioned about them (as to how she managed the household and brought up the children). A slave is a guardian over the property of his master and shall be questioned about it (as to how he safeguarded his trust). Beware, every one of you is a guardian and every one of you shall be questioned with regard to his trust.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim| | Beware. every one of you is a shepherd and every one is answerable with regard to his flock. The Caliph is a shepherd over the people and shall be questioned about his subjects (as to how he conducted their affairs). A man is a guardian over the members of his family and shal be questioned about them (as to how he looked after their physical and moral well-being). A woman is a guardian over the household of her husband and his children and shall be questioned about them (as to how she managed the household and brought up the children). A slave is a guardian over the property of his master and shall be questioned about it (as to how he safeguarded his trust). Beware, every one of you is a guardian and every one of you shall be questioned with regard to his trust.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1846a|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Alqama b. Wai'l al-Hadrami who learnt the tradition from his father. The latter said: | ||
Salama b. Yazid al-ju'afi asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): Prophet of Allah, what do you think if we have rulers who rule over us and demand that we discharge our obligations towards them, but they (themselves) do not discharge their own responsibilities towards us? What do you order us to do? The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) avoided giving any answer. Salama asked him again. He (again) avoided giving any answer. Then he asked again-it was the second time or the third time-when Ash'ath b. Qais (finding that the Prophet was unnecessarily being pressed for answer) pulled him aside and said: Listen to them and obey them, for on them shall he their burden and on you shall be your burden.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim| | Salama b. Yazid al-ju'afi asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): Prophet of Allah, what do you think if we have rulers who rule over us and demand that we discharge our obligations towards them, but they (themselves) do not discharge their own responsibilities towards us? What do you order us to do? The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) avoided giving any answer. Salama asked him again. He (again) avoided giving any answer. Then he asked again-it was the second time or the third time-when Ash'ath b. Qais (finding that the Prophet was unnecessarily being pressed for answer) pulled him aside and said: Listen to them and obey them, for on them shall he their burden and on you shall be your burden.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1852a|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of 'Arfaja who said: | ||
I have heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Different evils will make their appearance in the near future. Anyone who tries to disrupt the affairs of this Umma while they are united you should strike him with the sword whoever he be. (If remonstrance does not prevail with him and he does not desist from his disruptive activities, he is to be killed.)}}{{Quote|{{ | I have heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Different evils will make their appearance in the near future. Anyone who tries to disrupt the affairs of this Umma while they are united you should strike him with the sword whoever he be. (If remonstrance does not prevail with him and he does not desist from his disruptive activities, he is to be killed.)}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1853|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Aba Sa'id al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim| | When oath of allegiance has been taken for two caliphs, kill the one for whom the oath was taken later.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1854a|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Umm Salama that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: | ||
In the near future there will be Amirs and you will like their good deeds and dislike their bad deeds. One who sees through their bad deeds (and tries to prevent their repetition by his band or through his speech), is absolved from blame, but one who hates their bad deeds (in the heart of his heart, being unable to prevent their recurrence by his hand or his tongue), is (also) fate (so far as God's wrath is concerned). But one who approves of their bad deeds and imitates them is spiritually ruined. People asked (the Holy Prophet): Shouldn't we fight against them? He replied: No, as long as they say their prayers.}}{{Quote|{{ | In the near future there will be Amirs and you will like their good deeds and dislike their bad deeds. One who sees through their bad deeds (and tries to prevent their repetition by his band or through his speech), is absolved from blame, but one who hates their bad deeds (in the heart of his heart, being unable to prevent their recurrence by his hand or his tongue), is (also) fate (so far as God's wrath is concerned). But one who approves of their bad deeds and imitates them is spiritually ruined. People asked (the Holy Prophet): Shouldn't we fight against them? He replied: No, as long as they say their prayers.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1353c|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Abbas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said on the day of the Conquest of Mecca: | ||
There is no Hijra now, but (only) Jihad (fighting for the cause of Islam) and sincerity of purpose (have great reward) ; when you are asked to set out (on an expedition undertaken for the cause of Islam) you should (readily) do so.}} | There is no Hijra now, but (only) Jihad (fighting for the cause of Islam) and sincerity of purpose (have great reward) ; when you are asked to set out (on an expedition undertaken for the cause of Islam) you should (readily) do so.}} | ||