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[[File:Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.jpg|right|thumb|Khadijah’s “medal” in ''Promptuarii iconum insigniorum'' (1553). Lyon: Rouillé. This illustration made no pretense of being an accurate portrait but it has become a widely accepted symbolic representation of Khadijah.|200px]]
[[File:Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.jpg|right|thumb|La  “medaglia” di Khadijah in ''Promptuarii iconum insigniorum'' (1553). Lyon: Rouillé. Questa illustrazione non ha nessuna pretesa d'essere un ritratto accusato ma è divenuta una rappresentazione simbolica largamente accettata di Khadijah.|200px]]


'''Khadijah''' or '''Khadīja bint Khuwaylid''' (خديجة بنت خويلد‎) was Prophet [[Muhammad]]’s first wife and she was his only wife as long as she lived.<ref>Ibn Hisham note 127, note 918. {{Muslim|31|5975}}.</ref> She is known to Muslims as ''al-Kubra'' (“the Great”)<ref>E.g., [http://www.al-islam.org/khadija/ Razwy, S. A. A. (1990). ''Khadija tul Kubra: A Short Story of Her Life''. New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.]</ref> and ''al-Tahira'' (“the Pure”).<ref>E.g., [http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6103974/f/wives_of_the_prophet.pdf/ Mus’ad, M. F. (2001). ''Wives of the Prophet Muhammad: their Strives and Their Lives'', p. 7. Cairo: Islamic Inc.]</ref> Twelve of [[Muhammad's Wives|Muhammad’s wives]] are credited with the title ''Umm al-Muminun'' (“Mother of the Faithful”),<ref>{{Quran|33|6}}.</ref> but Khadijah occupies a unique position as the Mother of [[Islam]] itself.
'''Khadijah''' o '''Khadīja bint Khuwaylid''' (خديجة بنت خويلد‎) fu la prima moglie del profeta [[Maometto]], l'unica sua moglie finché morì. <ref>Ibn Hisham note 127, note 918. {{Muslim|31|5975}}.</ref> È conosciuta dai musulmani come "al-Kubra" ("la Grande")<ref>E.g., [http://www.al-islam.org/khadija/ Razwy, S. A. A. (1990). ''Khadija tul Kubra: A Short Story of Her Life''. New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an.]</ref> e ''al-Tahira'' (“la Pura”).<ref>E.g., [http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6103974/f/wives_of_the_prophet.pdf/ Mus’ad, M. F. (2001). ''Wives of the Prophet Muhammad: their Strives and Their Lives'', p. 7. Cairo: Islamic Inc.]</ref> Dodici mogli di Maometto hanno ricevuto il titolo di ''Umm al-Muminun'' (“Madre del fedele”),<ref>{{Quran|33|6}}.</ref> ma Khadijah occupa una posizione unica come madre dell'[[islam]] stesso.


==Background==
==Antefatto==


Khadijah was born in Mecca, a member of the dominant Quraysh tribe. Her grandfather Asad, chief of her clan, was a grandson of Qusayy ibn Kilab, Keeper of the [[Kaaba|Ka’aba]] and ruler of Mecca.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 24, 82.</ref> This Qusayy had also been a great-great-great-grandfather of Muhammad.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 3.</ref> Her mother, Fatima bint Za’ida, was from another Quraysh clan, the Amir ibn Luayy.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> The name ''Khadijah'' means “premature”,<ref>“Khadija” in [http://www.almaany.com/home.php?language=english&lang_name=Arabic&word=Khadija/ Almaany Arabic-English Dictionary]. [http://www.behindthename.com/name/Khadija/ Behind the Name].</ref> suggesting the circumstances of her birth.
Khadijah nacque a Mecca, all'interno della tribù dominante dei Quraysh. Suo nonno Asad, il capo del suo gruppo, era il nipote di Qusayy ibn Kilab, il custode della [[Kaaba|Ka’aba]] e legislatore di Mecca.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 24, 82.</ref> This Qusayy had also been a great-great-great-grandfather of Muhammad.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 3.</ref> Sua madre, Fatima bint Za’ida, veniva da un altro gruppo di Quraysh, il Amir ibn Luayy.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> Il nome ''Khadijah'' significa “prematura”,<ref>“Khadija” in [http://www.almaany.com/home.php?language=english&lang_name=Arabic&word=Khadija/ Almaany Arabic-English Dictionary]. [http://www.behindthename.com/name/Khadija/ Behind the Name].</ref> probabilmente relativo alle circostanze della sua nascita.  


The traditions about Khadijah’s early life are scarce and often contradictory. It is generally accepted that she was born “fifteen years before the Elephant” and that she was 65 ([[lunar]]) years old when she died,<ref>E.g., {{Tabari|6|p. 47}}.</ref> indicating a birth date between July 556 and July 557. However, the source of this tradition is Khadijah’s nephew, Hakim ibn Hizam,<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9, 11-12. {{Tabari|39|pp. 41, 106}}.</ref> who was one of the many early Muslims who claimed his own age to be 120.<ref>{{Muslim|10|3662}}. See also {{Tabari|39|pp. 40, 43}}, where Huwaytib ibn Abduluzza claims to be 120 years old, yet in the same breath betrays that he cannot count.</ref> By contrast, Abdullah ibn Abbas, the cousin who lived at Muhammad’s side through the final years in [[Medina]],<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 95}}.</ref> stated that “on the day Khadijah married Allah’s Messenger, she was 28 years old.<ref>[http://qurango.com/images/b/5/293.jpg/ Ibn Kathir, ''Al-Bidaya wa’l-Nihaya'' vol. 5 p. 293]. Majlisi, ''Bihar al-Anwar'' vol. 16 p. 12. Ibn Ishaq, cited in Al-Hakim al-Nishaburi, ''Mustadrak'' vol. 3 p. 182.</ref> If this is correct, she was born between March 568 and March 569. Variant traditions claim other years.<ref>See [https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister, M. J. (1993). The Sons of Khadija. ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 16'', 59-95.]</ref> Whatever her precise date of birth, she was still of childbearing age as late as 605.
Le narrazioni riguardo i primi anni di vita di Khadijah sono scarse e spesso contraddittorie. È generalmente accettato che nacque "quindici anni prima dell'Elefante" e che aveva 65 anni ([[lunari]]) quando morì,<ref>E.g., {{Tabari|6|p. 47}}.</ref> quindi nacque tra giugno 556 e luglio 557. C'è però da dire che la fonte di questa narrazione è il nipote di Khadijah, Hakim ibn Hizam, <ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9, 11-12. {{Tabari|39|pp. 41, 106}}.</ref> uno dei molti primi musulmani che dichiarò di avere 120 anni.<ref>{{Muslim|10|3662}}. Vedi anche {{Tabari|39|pp. 40, 43}}, dove Huwaytib ibn Abduluzza sostiene di avere 120 anni, e allo stesso tempo dichiara che non sa contare.</ref> Al contrario, Abdullah ibn Abbas, il cugino che visse al fianco di Maometto durante gli ultimi anni di [[Medina]],<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 95}}.</ref> affermò che "il giorno che Khadijah sposò il messaggero di Allah, lei aveva 28 anni."<ref>[http://qurango.com/images/b/5/293.jpg/ Ibn Kathir, ''Al-Bidaya wa’l-Nihaya'' vol. 5 p. 293]. Majlisi, ''Bihar al-Anwar'' vol. 16 p. 12. Ibn Ishaq, cited in Al-Hakim al-Nishaburi, ''Mustadrak'' vol. 3 p. 182.</ref> Se ciò è corretto, lei nacque fra marzo 658 e marzo 569. Altre narrazioni riferiscono altri anni.<ref>Guarda [https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister, M. J. (1993). The Sons of Khadija. ''Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 16'', 59-95.]</ref> Qualunque sia stato il suo anno di nascita, era ancora incinta nel 605.


Khadijah’s personality is described as “determined and intelligent”.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> Although it is not explicitly stated that her father was a merchant, “the Quraysh were a people given to commerce,<ref>Guilaume/Ishaq, p. 82.</ref> so Khadijah may have spent her childhood sitting in the bazaars learning to negotiate bargains. Her known siblings were two brothers, Hizam<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 160.</ref> and Al-Awwam,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 115.</ref> two sisters, Ruqayqa<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:180.</ref> and Hala,<ref>{{Bukhari|5|58|168}}</ref> and a paternal half-brother, Nawfal.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 177.</ref> At one stage, there was talk of [[Marriage|marrying]] Khadijah off to her [[Cousin Marriage in Islam|cousin]], Waraqa ibn Nawfal, but this never happened.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref>
La personalità di Khadijah è descritta come "determinata e intelligente". <ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> Sebbene non sia specificato che suo padre fosse un mercante, "i Quraysh erano un popolo dato al commercio,"<ref>Guilaume/Ishaq, p. 82.</ref> quindi Khadijah probabilmente spese la sua infanzia seduta al bazar imparando a negoziare affari. I suoi fratelli conosciuti erano due fratelli, Hizam<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 160.</ref> e Al-Awwam,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 115.</ref> due sorelle, Ruqayqa<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:180.</ref> e Hala,<ref>{{Bukhari|5|58|168}}</ref> e un fratellastro paterno, Nawfal.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 177.</ref> Ad un certo punto si parlò del [[matrimonio]] di Khadijah con suo [[matrimonio tra cugini nell'islam|cugino]], Waraqa ibn Nawfal, ma il matrimonio non avvenne.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref>


==Husbands==
==Mariti==


Khadijah’s first husband was Atiq ibn A’idh (or Abid), a junior member of the Makhzum clan.<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918. Bewley/Saad 8:151.</ref> The Makhzumites had grown wealthy on trade, and their generosity had won them the loyalty of their neighbours. They were now serious contenders for the leadership of the city.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 142-143. See also Bewley/Saad 8:61; {{Tabari|39|p. 196}}.</ref> This match was therefore a step up the social scale for Khadijah, though perhaps a small step if her family also had money. Atiq and Khadijah had two children, suggesting since Khadijah produced her children within two-year intervals<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 36.2/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:36:2].</ref> – that the marriage lasted between two and four years. From their daughter, Hind, Khadijah derived her ''kunya'' Umm Hind.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9. {{Tabari|39|p. 161}}.</ref> Their son, Abdullah,<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> died in infancy.<ref>[http://www.oocities.org/tirmidhihadith/page1.html/ Tirmidhi 117].</ref> Most sources state that Atiq died,<ref>{{Tabari|9|p. 127}}.</ref> although there is a variant tradition that the marriage ended in divorce.<ref>[https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister (1993)] summarises these sources, citing Ibn Ishaq, as transmitted by Yunus ibn Bukayr, ''Al-Siyar wa-l-Maghazi'' p. 82, and Majlisi, ''Bihar al-Anwar'' vol. 16 p. 10, for Atiq’s death, and Baladhuri, ''Ansab al-Ashraf'' vol. 1 pp. 406-407, for divorce.</ref>
Il primo marito di Khadijah fu Atiq ibn A'idh (anche detto Abid), un giovane membro del gruppo Makhzum.<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918. Bewley/Saad 8:151.</ref> I Makhzumiani si arricchirono col commercio e la loro generosità gli valse la lealtà dei loro vicini. Erano adesso dei veri e propri contendenti per la guida della città.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 142-143. See also Bewley/Saad 8:61; {{Tabari|39|p. 196}}.</ref> Questo matrimonio fu perciò un salto nella scala sociale per Khadijah, ma forse un piccolo salto se la sua famiglia era già ricca. Atiq e Khadijah ebbero due figli, probabilmente dato che Khadijah generò i suoi figli con un intervallo di due anni<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 36.2/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:36:2].</ref> – che il matrimonio durò tra i due e i quattro anni. Da sua figlia, Hind, Khadijah derivò il suo "kunya Umm Hind".<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9. {{Tabari|39|p. 161}}.</ref> Their son, Abdullah,<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> Il loro figlio Abdullah,<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> morì infante.<ref>[http://www.oocities.org/tirmidhihadith/page1.html/ Tirmidhi 117].</ref> La maggior parte delle fonti affermano che Atiq morì,<ref>{{Tabari|9|p. 127}}.</ref> anche se c'è una narrazione differente che dice che il matrimonio terminò con un divorzio.<ref>[https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister (1993)] summarises these sources, citing Ibn Ishaq, as transmitted by Yunus ibn Bukayr, ''Al-Siyar wa-l-Maghazi'' p. 82, and Majlisi, ''Bihar al-Anwar'' vol. 16 p. 10, for Atiq’s death, and Baladhuri, ''Ansab al-Ashraf'' vol. 1 pp. 406-407, for divorce.</ref>


Khadijah then married a Bedouin nobleman, Malik ibn An-Nabbash, who was from the Tamim tribe. In the way of nomads who aspired to an urban lifestyle, Malik and his two brothers had immigrated to Mecca and formed an alliance with the Abduldar clan of the Quraysh.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9, 151. {{Tabari|9|p. 127}}. {{Tabari|39|p. 79}}.</ref> Given their highborn origins, the Tamim brothers would have interacted with their new allies as equals rather than as vassals. To complete their Meccan citizenship, they sought Quraysh wives, to whom they could offer rank, connections and probably also money. It is interesting that Malik chose Khadijah, for the Asad clan was the traditional rival of Abduldar.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 57.</ref> Their marriage produced three children, suggesting that it lasted between four and six years. From their first son, Hala, Malik took his ''kunya'' Abu Hala.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9. [https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister (1993)] documents sources in which Malik was also known as Hind and his son Hala was also known as Al-Harith. It was not uncommon for Arabs to be known by alternative and apparently unrelated names.</ref> Their second son was, confusingly, also named Hind.<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918. Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref> Their daughter, Zaynab,<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> probably died young, as no more is heard about her, and Khadijah later mentioned that she had borne each of her first two husbands a child who had died in infancy.<ref>[http://www.oocities.org/tirmidhihadith/page1.html/ Tirmidhi 117].</ref>
Dopo Khadijah sposò un nobile beduino, Malik ibn An-Nabbash, della tribù dei Tamim. Da nomadi che aspiravano allo stile di vita urbano, Malik e i suoi due fratelli erano immigrati a Mecca e avevano formato un'alleanza con il gruppo dei Abduldar dei Quraysh.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9, 151. {{Tabari|9|p. 127}}. {{Tabari|39|p. 79}}.</ref> Dato il loro rango, i fratelli Tamim avrebbero trattato i loro nuovi alleati come pari e non come vassalli. Per completare la loro cittadinanza meccana cercarono delle mogli Quraysh, alle quali potevano offrire il rango, connessioni e probabilmente anche denaro. È interessante notare come Malik scelse Khadijah, dato che il gruppo Asad era il rivale tradizionale di Abduldar.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 57.</ref> Il loro matrimonio diede vita a tre bambini, il che indica che durò fra i quattro ed i sei anni. Dal loro primo figlio, Hala, Malik prese il suo "kunya" Abu Hala.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:9. [https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/khadija.pdf&embedded=true/ Kister (1993)] documents sources in which Malik was also known as Hind and his son Hala was also known as Al-Harith. It was not uncommon for Arabs to be known by alternative and apparently unrelated names.</ref> Il loro secondo figlio fu chiamato anch'egli Hind.<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918. Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref> La loro figlia, Zaynab,<ref>Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> probabilmente morì giovane, dato che non se ne sa più nulla, e la stessa Khadijah disse poi che da entrambi i suoi primi due mariti ebbe un figlio morto infante.<ref>[http://www.oocities.org/tirmidhihadith/page1.html/ Tirmidhi 117].</ref>


In contradiction to all this, some sources state that Khadijah married Abu Hala first and Atiq second.<ref>E.g., Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref> However, a ''kunya'' was usually taken from a firstborn child, indicating that Umm Hind and Abu Hala did not share the same firstborn.
In contraddizione con tutto ciò, qualche fonte dice che Khadijah sposò prima Abu Hala e Atiq dopo.<ref>E.g., Bewley/Saad 8:9.</ref> Ad ogni modo, un "kunya" era generalmente preso da un primogenito, e questo indica che Umm Hind e Abu Hala non condividevano il primogenito.  


It is not known when or how Abu Hala died, but the Sacrilegious War against the Qays-Aylan tribe dominated the years 591–594.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 32.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:32:1]. Strangely, Ibn Hisham note 124 claims an outbreak date as early as 585. Although note 124 was designed to be read immediately after the statement of Ibn Ishaq that it contradicts, there is not a word of explanation for the inconsistency. However, the preliminary hostilities commenced several years before the first full-fledged battle ([http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 pp. 2-5]). One possible explanation is that Ibn Hisham deliberately confused the first informal skirmish (when Muhammad was 14) with the first battle proper (when Muhammad was 20) so that his youth might excuse his lack of prowess in the fighting [http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ (Muir, 1861, pp. 6-7f)].</ref> Khadijah’s brother Hizam was killed in the second round of the conflict,<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 41}}</ref> and their father Khuwaylid, who must have been some sixty years old, was a commander on the field.<ref>Waqidi, ''Kitab al-Maghazi'', cited in [http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 pp. 7f9, 22, 24f28].</ref> After Abu Hala’s death, several prominent citizens proposed marriage to the widowed Khadijah, some of them investing great sums of money into their courtship, but her father vetoed every match.<ref>{{Tabari|6|pp. 48-49}}. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref>
Non si sa dove o come Abu Hala morì, ma la Guerra Sacrilega contro la tribù Qays-Aylan dominò gli anni 591-594.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 32.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:32:1]. Strangely, Ibn Hisham note 124 claims an outbreak date as early as 585. Although note 124 was designed to be read immediately after the statement of Ibn Ishaq that it contradicts, there is not a word of explanation for the inconsistency. However, the preliminary hostilities commenced several years before the first full-fledged battle ([http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 pp. 2-5]). One possible explanation is that Ibn Hisham deliberately confused the first informal skirmish (when Muhammad was 14) with the first battle proper (when Muhammad was 20) so that his youth might excuse his lack of prowess in the fighting [http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ (Muir, 1861, pp. 6-7f)].</ref> Il fratello di Khadijah Hizam fu ucciso nel secondo turno del conflitto,<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 41}}</ref> e loro padre Khuwaylid, che doveva avere circa 60 anni, era un generale sul campo.<ref>Waqidi, ''Kitab al-Maghazi'', cited in [http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 pp. 7f9, 22, 24f28].</ref> Dopo la morte di Abu Hala, molti cittadini importanti si proposero come mariti per la vedova Khadijah, alcuni di loro investendo grosse somme di denaro nella loro corte, ma suo padre pose il veto per ogni corteggiatore.<ref>{{Tabari|6|pp. 48-49}}. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref>  


==Business==
==Affari==


Khadijah was the richest woman in Mecca. This explains why she attracted so many suitors. By the time Abu Hala died, she had become “a merchant woman of dignity and wealth. She used to hire men to carry merchandise outside the country.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> While the claims that “half the trade in Mecca” belonged to Khadijah<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> are doubtless exaggerated, she may well have been the wealthiest single trader. The traditions do not state in what commodity she dealt, but among the exports of Mecca are mentioned leather, wool, perfume, silver, cheese and dried raisins.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 424, 547, 716. See also Crone, P. (2007). Quraysh and the Roman army: Making sense of the Meccan leather trade. ''Bulletin of SOAS, 70'', 63–88.</ref> Nor is it known how she originally acquired her business. Perhaps her father helped to set her up, but this opens the question of why Khadijah became more prosperous than any of her siblings. If she had a backer not available to them, it was probably one or both of her husbands. Or perhaps the business flourished because of Khadijah’s personal talents and efforts.
Khadijah era la donna più ricca a Mecca. Questo spiega il perché attraeva molti corteggiatori. Quando Abu Hala morì, lei era diventata "una donna mercante di dignità e ricchezza. Era solita assumere uomini per continuare i traffici fuori del paese."<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> Sebbene le affermazioni che "metà dei traffici a Mecca appartenevano a Khadijah<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> sono senza dubbio esagerati, è possibile che sia stata la commerciante più facoltosa. Le narrazioni non dicono in che settore operò, ma tra le esportazioni di Mecca si menzionano pellame, lana, profumi, argento, formaggio e farine secche.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 424, 547, 716. See also Crone, P. (2007). Quraysh and the Roman army: Making sense of the Meccan leather trade. ''Bulletin of SOAS, 70'', 63–88.</ref> Non si sa nemmeno come ottenne il suo giro d'affari. Forse suo padre la aiutò a sistemarsi, ma questo porta a chiedersi come mai Khadijah divenne la più prospera tra tutti i suoi fratelli. Se ha avuto un finanziatore in più non disponibile ai suoi fratelli, è stato probabilmente uno o entrambi i suoi mariti. O forse gli affari prosperarono a causa degli sforzi di Khadijah.


Muslim apologists sometimes point to Khadijah’s independence and success as an example of the great opportunities that Islam grants to women. Typical claims cite her as an example of the "vibrant, liberating spirit of early Islam"<ref>"''Khadija, the first wife of the Prophet ... an outstanding female liberating figure in history ... can help us reclaim the vibrant, liberating spirit of early Islam. That alone could go a long way in removing the current image of Muslims among non Muslims.''" - Bandukwala, J. S. “Hazrat Khadija was an outstanding female liberating figure in history,” letter to the editor in ''New Age Islam'', 22 May 2010.</ref> or state that the modern-day justifications for "denying girls an equal chance at success lies in archaic interpretations of religion".<ref>"''For Muslim girls everywhere, Khadijah is one of the first female role models introduced by parents and teachers of religion. A self-made businesswoman … She had already created her own success … The justification for denying girls an equal chance at success lies in archaic interpretations of religion… There is nothing contradictory about being a powerful Muslim female.''" - Saraswati, R. E. (2012). “[http://www.aquila-style.com/focus-points/khadijah-bint-khuwaylid-one-of-the-four-perfect-women/ Khadijah Bint Khuwaylid: Perfect Woman]” in ''Aquila Style''.</ref> These claims are illogical, since Khadijah’s career was established before Islam existed. What it really demonstrates is the opportunities that pre-Islamic Arabs (sometimes) granted to women, who not only mingled freely with men in the market-place but were also respected for doing so. Most merchants were men, but among the women were the very pagan Hind bint Utba<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:165.</ref> and the perfumer Asma bint Mukharriba.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:209.</ref><ref>[http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., Bianquis, T., Bosworth, C. E., van Donzel, E., & Heinrichs, W. P. (Eds.). (2006). '''Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Ed.'' Brill Online.]</ref> After Khadijah died, Muslim women were ordered to stay at home and wear veils,<ref>{{Quran|33|54}}</ref> and it became impossible for an adherent Muslim woman to conduct any such enterprise. Khadijah had no way of knowing that within a decade of her death, her lifestyle would be forbidden to the women of Arabia.
Gli apologetici musulmani a volte usano l'indipendenza di Khadijah per indicare le grandi opportunità che l'islam garantisce alle donne. Affermazioni solite la citano come un esempio del "vibrante, spirito liberatore del primo islam"<ref>"''Khadija, the first wife of the Prophet ... an outstanding female liberating figure in history ... can help us reclaim the vibrant, liberating spirit of early Islam. That alone could go a long way in removing the current image of Muslims among non Muslims.''" - Bandukwala, J. S. “Hazrat Khadija was an outstanding female liberating figure in history,” letter to the editor in ''New Age Islam'', 22 May 2010.</ref> o dicono che le giustificazioni moderne per "rifiutare alle ragazze le stesse possibilità di successo si trovano in un'interpretazione arcaica della religione".<ref>"''For Muslim girls everywhere, Khadijah is one of the first female role models introduced by parents and teachers of religion. A self-made businesswoman … She had already created her own success … The justification for denying girls an equal chance at success lies in archaic interpretations of religion… There is nothing contradictory about being a powerful Muslim female.''" - Saraswati, R. E. (2012). “[http://www.aquila-style.com/focus-points/khadijah-bint-khuwaylid-one-of-the-four-perfect-women/ Khadijah Bint Khuwaylid: Perfect Woman]” in ''Aquila Style''.</ref> Queste affermazioni sono illogiche, dato che la carriera di Khadijah si sviluppò prima che l'islam esistesse. Ciò che ella dimostra sono le opportunità che gli arabi pre-islamici (a volte) garantivano alle donne, le quali non sono si mescolavano liberamente con uomini nel commercio ma erano anche rispettate per questo. La maggior parte dei mercanti erano uomini, ma tra le donne c'erano le pagane Hind bint Utba<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:165.</ref> e la venditrice di profumi Asma bint Mukharriba<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:209.</ref><ref>[http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., Bianquis, T., Bosworth, C. E., van Donzel, E., & Heinrichs, W. P. (Eds.). (2006). '''Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Ed.'' Brill Online.]</ref> Dopo la morte di Khadijah, alle donne musulmane fu ordinato di restare a casa e indossare il velo,<ref>{{Quran|33|54}}</ref> e divenne impossibile per una musulmana condurre ogni tipo di impresa. Khadijah non poteva sapere che a una decade dalla sua morte, il suo stile di vita sarebbe stato proibito alle donne dell'Arabia.


In the spring of 595, Khadijah required a new agent to accompany her camels to Syria. Her brother’s wife’s brother, Abu Talib ibn Abdulmuttalib,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 162, 585. Bewley/Saad 8:29.</ref> recommended the services of his ward, a nephew whom he could no longer afford to keep. Khadijah agreed to hire him for a higher commission than she usually paid.<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 34.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:34:2.] Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> His name was Muhammad.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref>
Nella primavera del 595, Khadijah richiese un nuovo agente per accompagnare i suoi cammelli in Siria. Il fratello di sua cognata, Abu Talib ibn Abdulmuttalib,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 162, 585. Bewley/Saad 8:29.</ref> raccomandò i servizi del suo protetto, un nipote che lui [Abu Talib] non poteva più tenere. Khadijah accettò di assumerlo per una commissione superiore a quella che di solito pagava.<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 34.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:34:2.] Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> Il suo nome era Maometto.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref>  


Two months later Muhammad returned to Mecca with merchandise worth nearly double what Khadijah had expected.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 48}}. Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> Goods commonly imported from Syria included grain, oil, wine, weapons, cotton and linen.<ref>Crone, P. (2007). [http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., et al. (Eds.) (2006).]</ref> As Khadijah worked on a profit-share basis,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> she doubled Muhammad’s commission.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> It is said that Khadijah later dispatched him on a second trip, this time to Tihama<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 49}}</ref> in Yemen to import frankincense, myrrh and fine textiles.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 128, 158, 271.</ref> It is not clear whether Khadijah took the unusual step of sending her agent southwards in the heat of summer<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 58. [http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., et al. (Eds.) (2006).] See also {{Quran|106|2}}.</ref> in order to import a near-monopoly; or whether this second venture occurred during a subsequent winter, after Muhammad and Khadijah were already married, and the detail that she “employed” him is an error; or whether the whole timeline has been confused, and these events occurred over a longer timespan than is usually assumed. What is certain is that by the summer of 595, Khadijah had decided to marry her agent.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82; Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref>
Due mesi dopo Maometto tornò a Mecca con della merce con un valore quasi doppio rispetto a quanto atteso da Khadijah.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 48}}. Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> I beni generalmente importanti dalla Siria includevano grano, olio, vino, armi, cotone e lino.<ref>Crone, P. (2007). [http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., et al. (Eds.) (2006).]</ref> Khadijah, che divideva le sue entrate,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82.</ref> raddoppiò la commissione di Maometto.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref> Si dice che Khadijah dopo lo inviò per un secondo viaggio, questa volta verso Tihama<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 49}}</ref> nello Yemen per importante incenso, mirra e tessuti.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 128, 158, 271.</ref> Non è chiaro se Khadijah inviò i suoi agenti verso sud nel caldo dell'estate<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 58. [http://www.encislam.brill.nl/public/makka/ “Makka” in Bearman, P., et al. (Eds.) (2006).] See also {{Quran|106|2}}.</ref> in modo da eliminare la concorrenza; oppure se questo secondo viaggio avvenne durante un inverno dopo che Khadijah e Maometto erano già sposati, e che il dettaglio che lei lo "assunse" sia un errore; oppure se l'intera cronologia è sbagliata, e questi eventi avvennero in un lasso temporale


==Why Muhammad Married Her==
più lungo di quel che si crede. Ciò che è certo che che per l'estate del 595, Khadijah decise di sposare il suo agente.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82; Bewley/Saad 8:10.</ref>


Khadijah sent as her intermediary Nafisa bint Umayya, a freedwoman from Abu Hala’s tribe.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10, 172. She is sometimes known matrilinearly as Nafisa bint Munya, suggesting that she was illegitimate.</ref> Nafisa approached Muhammad at the bazaar and asked why he had never married. He replied that he could not afford to support a family. “But if money were no obstacle,” Nafisa persisted, “would you be willing to marry a lady of wealth, rank and beauty?” Muhammad asked which lady of that description would be willing to take him, and Nafisa named Khadijah. Muhammad instantly expressed his willingness.<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref> When Khadijah next sent for Muhammad, it was to make a formal proposal. She spoke of how his noble ancestry, good reputation and personal honesty rendered him eligible, and offered herself as his wife.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 48}}.</ref>
==Perché Maometto la sposò==


When Muhammad told Nafisa that he had always wanted to marry but could not afford it, he was speaking directly from his personal experience. He had hoped to marry his cousin Fakhita, but Abu Talib had prevented it by giving her to a wealthy man and telling Muhammad that the family needed to marry money.<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 196}}. Bewley/Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 8:109.</ref> So Muhammad was looking for a wife and was in a frame of mind to consider any reasonable offer. Khadijah’s offer, of course, was beyond reasonable. She was the Arab equivalent of a multi-millionaire, and her patronage was the most extraordinary luck for Muhammad.
Khadijah inviò come sua intermediary Nafisa bint Umayya, una donna liberata dalla tribù di Abu Hala.<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:10, 172. She is sometimes known matrilinearly as Nafisa bint Munya, suggesting that she was illegitimate.</ref> Nafisa approcciò Maometto al bazar e vli chiese perché non si era mai sposato. Lui rispose che non poteva sostenere una famiglia. "Ma se i soldi non fossero un ostacolo," Nafisa insistette, "sposeresti una donna ricca, di rango e bella?" Maometto chiese quale donna con quelle caratteristiche lo sposerebbe, e Nafisa disse Khadijah. Maometto insistentemente si disse favorevole.<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref> Quando Khadijah chiese di Maometto la volta dopo, era per fare una proposta ufficiale. Disse che la sua nobile famiglia, buona reputazione e onestà personale lo rendessero eleggibile, e si offrì come sua moglie.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 48}}.</ref>


Muslim commentators have stressed how Khadijah was a “much older” woman and therefore Muhammad must have been noble and high-minded to marry her for her character rather than her physical charms.<ref>"''The Beloved Holy prophet preferred to have his first marriage with a fifteen years older widow shows [''sic''] how the Beloved Holy Prophet had a value of nobility and character more than anything else.''" - Saleem, H. M. (2012). [http://www.bzu.edu.pk/PJIR/eng%201%20Hafiz%20M.pdf/ Justification of the marriages of the Beloved Holy prophet.] ''Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research, 9'', 1-20.</ref> It would be difficult, however, to prove that Muhammad was attracted only to Khadijah’s character and not to her money. While she was to prove both loyal and sympathetic,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 111</ref> it is not clear that Muhammad had had the opportunity to assess these character-qualities in advance. It is certain that he had had the opportunity to assess her wealth.
Quando Maometto disse a Nafisa che aveva sempre desiderato sposarsi ma non poteva permetterselo, parlava per esperienza personale. Aveva sperato di sposare sua cugina Fahkita, ma Abu Talib lo aveva proibito dandola ad un uomo ricco e dicendo a Maometto che la famiglia aveva bisogno di sposare i soldi.<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 196}}. Bewley/Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 8:109.</ref> Quindi Maometto stava cercando una moglie ed era disposto a considerare ogni offerta ragionevole. L'offerta di Khadijah, ovviamente, era molto più che ragionevole. Era l'equivalente arabo di un multimilionario, e il suo appoggio fu la più grande fortuna di Maometto.


Nor is there any reason to assume that Khadijah was physically unattractive. If the report of Abdullah ibn Abbas is correct, she was a mere three years older than Muhammad, which hardly qualifies as an age-difference. While a modern hagiography that describes her as “beautiful, tall and light-skinned”<ref>[http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/library/pro_ahl/fatima/fatima_the_gracious/03.htm/ Ordoni, Abu M. (1987). ''Fatima the Gracious'', p. 27. Qum: Ansariyan Publications.]</ref> does not cite early sources, the servant Nafisa had also mentioned that she was “beautiful”.<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref> Even if Nafisa was exaggerating (the word “beautiful” in this context usually means “normal-looking” as opposed to deformed or ugly), she achieved no purpose in telling an outright lie to a man who already knew what Khadijah looked like.
I commentator musulmani sogliono sottolineare il fat to che Khadijah era una donna "molt più vecchia" e quindi Maometto doveva esser stato nobile e magnanimous per sposarla per il duo carattere piuttosto che per il duo fisico.<ref>"''The Beloved Holy prophet preferred to have his first marriage with a fifteen years older widow shows [''sic''] how the Beloved Holy Prophet had a value of nobility and character more than anything else.''" - Saleem, H. M. (2012). [http://www.bzu.edu.pk/PJIR/eng%201%20Hafiz%20M.pdf/ Justification of the marriages of the Beloved Holy prophet.] ''Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research, 9'', 1-20.</ref> Sarebbe però difficile prover che Maometto fosse attratto solo dal carattere di Khadijah e non dai suoi soldi. Anche se lei si dimostrò leale ed empatia,<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 111</ref> non si sa se Maometto avesse avuto la possibilità di conoscere queste qualità caratteriali prima. È certo che conosceva la sua ricchezza.


==Controversial Wedding==
Non c'è nemmeno alcuna ragione per assumere che Khadijah fosse brutta fisicamente. Se il rapporto di Abdullah ibn Abbas è corretto, era più vecchia di Maometto di soli tre anni. Sebbene un moderno agiografo la descrive come "bella, alta e dalla pelle chiara"<ref>[http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/library/pro_ahl/fatima/fatima_the_gracious/03.htm/ Ordoni, Abu M. (1987). ''Fatima the Gracious'', p. 27. Qum: Ansariyan Publications.]</ref> senza però citare fonti, anche la serva Nafisa disse che era "bella".<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:1].</ref> Anche se Nafisa stava esagerando (la parola "bella" in questo contesto generalmente significa "aspetto-normale", nel senso di non-malformata o deforme), non aveva motivo di mentire ad un uomo [Maometto] che già sapeva qual era l'aspetto di Khadijah.


Khadijah asked for a dower of 20 camels.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82; Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> Twenty camels would have been worth about £8,000,<ref>Numerous ''ahadith'' such as {{Bukhari|2|24|528}} and {{Muslim|10|3893}} indicate that a camel cost about 80 ''dirhams'', although this varied with the age and health of the camel. Hence 20 camels would be worth 1,600 ''dirhams''. {{Bukhari|5|59|357}} indicates that an annual income of 5,000 ''dirhams'' was a comfortable living, so Khadijah’s dower was equivalent to four months’ (middle-class) income. However, it seems that a frugal person could survive on a ''dirham'' a day ([http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life4/chap25.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 4 p. 156]), so the same sum came to over four years’ wages for a labourer. While it is almost impossible to calculate equivalent prices for such a different culture, the ''dirham'', a silver coin, was the price of a wooden bowl or a ground-sheet ({{Abudawud|9|1637}}) or a cheap necklace ({{Abudawud|14|2704}}), so we might, very roughly, think of a ''dirham'' as £5. A ''dinar'', a gold coin worth 10 ''dirhams'', was the price of a sheep.</ref> which was four times the dower that Muhammad gave to any of his subsequent wives.<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 189}}. See also Ibn Hisham note 918. The same 400 ''dirhams'' (£2,000) was also the ransom for a war-captive ({{Abudawud|14|2685}}) or the starting price for a slave ({{Tabari|39|p. 6}}).</ref> This suggests that Khadijah was “worth four women” to him, i.e. that it was part of their marriage contract that he would not take another wife in her lifetime. A poor man like Muhammad would have had some trouble amassing such a hefty gift, even if he returned all the beasts that Khadijah had personally given him (she had paid his commissions in camels).<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 34.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:34:2.]</ref> His good fortune in attracting the wealthiest woman in Mecca must have delighted the investment-seeking Abu Talib, and we can only assume that the family combined resources to raise the dower.
==Matrimonio controverso==


Marriage required the consent of the bride’s guardian, and Khadijah’s father Khuwaylid had refused her previous suitors. She therefore plotted to secure his permission through trickery. She plied her father with wine until he was drunk. Then she slaughtered a cow, covered his shoulders with a new striped robe and sprinkled him with perfume, whereupon Muhammad and his uncles entered the house. Khadijah extracted the legally binding words from her father while he was too inebriated to know what he was saying. As the day wore on and the wedding party was in full swing, Khuwaylid recovered his sobriety enough to ask, “What is this meat, this robe and this perfume?” Khadijah replied, “You have given me in marriage to Muhammad ibn Abdullah.” Khuwaylid was as furious as his daughter had expected, protesting that he had never consented to any such thing and even unsheathing his sword. Muhammad’s kin also brandished weapons before everyone realised that the matter was not worth actual bloodshed. It was too late. Muhammad was Khadijah’s husband.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 49}}. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.4/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:4, 5.] See also Guillaume/Ishaq 83 and Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref>
Khadijah cheese una controdote di 20 camellia.<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 82; Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref> Venti camellia valevano circa 9,700 €,<ref>Numerous ''ahadith'' such as {{Bukhari|2|24|528}} and {{Muslim|10|3893}} indicate that a camel cost about 80 ''dirhams'', although this varied with the age and health of the camel. Hence 20 camels would be worth 1,600 ''dirhams''. {{Bukhari|5|59|357}} indicates that an annual income of 5,000 ''dirhams'' was a comfortable living, so Khadijah’s dower was equivalent to four months’ (middle-class) income. However, it seems that a frugal person could survive on a ''dirham'' a day ([http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life4/chap25.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 4 p. 156]), so the same sum came to over four years’ wages for a labourer. While it is almost impossible to calculate equivalent prices for such a different culture, the ''dirham'', a silver coin, was the price of a wooden bowl or a ground-sheet ({{Abudawud|9|1637}}) or a cheap necklace ({{Abudawud|14|2704}}), so we might, very roughly, think of a ''dirham'' as £5. A ''dinar'', a gold coin worth 10 ''dirhams'', was the price of a sheep.</ref> ovvero quattro volte la dote che Maometto diede successivamente alle sue altre mogli.<ref>{{Tabari|39|p. 189}}. See also Ibn Hisham note 918. The same 400 ''dirhams'' (£2,000) was also the ransom for a war-captive ({{Abudawud|14|2685}}) or the starting price for a slave ({{Tabari|39|p. 6}}).</ref> Questo suggerisce che Khadijah "valeva quattro donne" per lui, nel senso che era parte del loro contratto di matrimonio che lui non avrebbe preso altre mogli durante la vita di lei. Un uomo povero come Maometto avrebbe avuto parecchi problemi ad ammassare un così grosso regalo, anche se averse ritornato tutte le bestie che Khadijah gli aveva personalmente donato (vli aveva pagato le commissioni in camellia).<ref>[http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 34.1/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:34:2.]</ref> La sua buona fortuna nell'accaparrarsi la donna più ricca di Mecca deve aver attratto Abu Talib, che cercava investimenti, e possiamo assumere che la famiglia accomunò le risorse per mettere insieme la controdote.


Although the Muslim historian Waqidi denied this embarrassing story (even while reporting it), the British historian Muir points out that nobody had any reason to fabricate it. The tradition is from two independent sources, both of whom were biased in Muhammad’s favour and neither of whom had any reason to disparage Khadijah’s father or his clan. Two further independent sources, without mentioning the drunken party, state that it was Khuwaylid who married Khadijah to Muhammad. Although Waqidi claims that it was Khadijah’s uncle who gave her away because her father had died before the Sacrilegious War (591-594), his pupil Ibn Saad names Khuwaylid as a commander in that war. Muir therefore concludes that the tradition of Khuwaylid’s death “has been invented, to throw discredit on the story of his drunkenness.<ref>[http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 p. 24f]. See also {{Tabari|6|pp. 48-50}}; Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref>
Il matrimonio richiedeva il consenso del guardiano della sposa, e il padre di Khalijah aveva rifiutato i precedenti pretendenti. Lei perciò si assicurò il suo permesso con l'inganno. Offrì insistentemente a suo padre del vino finché fu ubriaco. Dopo macellò una vacca, coprì le sue spalle con una veste a strisce e sparse profumo su di lui, quando Maometto e i suoi zii entrarono nella casa. Khadijah tirò fuori da suo padre le parole necessarie quand'era troppo ebbro per capire cosa stava dicendo. Quando il matrimonio era in corso, Khawaylid tornò sobrio abbastanza da domandare, "Cos'è questa carne, questa veste e questo profumo?" Khadijah rispose, "Mi hai dato in matrimonio a Maometto ibn Abdullah." Khuwaylid era furioso come sua figlia si aspettava, protestando che non aveva mai dato il suo consenso ad una cosa del genere e sguainò addirittura la sua spada. Anche i parenti di Maometto brandirono le armi prima che qualcuno si rese conto che non valeva la pena spargere sangue per questa faccenda. Era troppo tardi. Maometto era il marito di Khadijah.<ref>{{Tabari|6|p. 49}}. [http://www.soebratie.nl/religie/hadith/IbnSad.html#Book 35.4/ Ibn Saad, ''Tabaqat'' 1:35:4, 5.] See also Guillaume/Ishaq 83 and Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref>


This story highlights the Arab assumption that marriage was a contract between bridegroom and father-in-law in which they transferred the guardianship of a woman. It was somewhat similar to buying a camel: the purchase required the consent of the vendor. Muhammad never questioned this view of marriage. It would have been highly convenient for him to perceive some of his marriages, including the one to Khadijah, as purely a contract between husband and wife. Yet there is no evidence that this concept ever occurred to him, even after he declared himself the final prophet who was wise for all time and had authority to change all the rules. To the end of his life, he was particular about meeting the legal requirement to contract with a guardian;<ref>E.g., see Bewley/Saad 8:63, 65; {{Tabari|39|pp. 178-179}}; Bewley/Saad 8:105.</ref> he never questioned that every woman belonged to a man.


This story also reveals how Khadijah and Muhammad understood consent. It did not need to be “free” or “informed”; any type of consent was legally binding. This theme was to recur in Muhammad’s life. He was to extract consent at sword-point,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 547.</ref> under duress,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 314-315. Bewley/Saad 8:87-88.</ref> from an immature or unsound mind,<ref>E.g., Bewley/Saad 8:43.</ref> by withholding essential information,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 463-464. {{Tabari|39|p. 165}}.</ref> by offering a false dichotomy between two bad alternatives,<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:40. Guillaume/Ishaq 493.</ref> by exploiting spiritual beliefs,<ref>[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=33&tAyahNo=36&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0/ Jalalayn, ''Tafsir'' Q33:36]. See also {{Quran|33|36}}. {{Bukhari|3|43|648}}, {{Muslim|4|3511}}.</ref> through bribery<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 438; 594-597.</ref> or by making promises that he intended to break.<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 504, 509. Bewley/Saad 8:181-182.</ref> Yet he never suggested there was any kind of ethical problem in extracting consent in whatever manner might succeed; it was the one who consented to Muhammad, no matter how, who was morally obliged to stand by his word.
Sebbene lo storico musulmano Waqidi negò questa storia imbarazzante (anche mentre la riportava), lo storico britannico Muir argomenta che nessuno aveva nessuna ragione per fabbricarla. La narrazione viene da due fonti indipendenti, entrambi a favore di Maometto e nessuna delle quali aveva nessuna ragione per denigrare il padre di Khadijah o il suo gruppo. Altre due fonti indipendenti, senza menzionare la festa ubriaca, dicono che fu Khuwaylid che diede in sposa Khadijah a Maometto. Sebbene Waqidi sostenga che fu lo zio di Khadijah a darla in sposa perché suo padre era morto prima della Guerra Sacrilega (591-594), il suo pupillo Ibn Saad nomina Khuwaylid come un comandante in quella guerar. Muir quindi conclude che la narrazione della morte di Khuwaylid "è stata inventata, per gettare discredito sulla storia della sua ubriacatezza."<ref>[http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Muir/Life2/chap2.htm/ Muir (1861) vol. 2 p. 24f]. See also {{Tabari|6|pp. 48-50}}; Ibn Hisham note 918.</ref>  


Questa storia evidenzia la natura contrattuale dei matrimoni in Arabia, in cui il guadiano della sposa (suo padre), trasferiva la guardia della donna al nuovo marito. Era in qualche modo simile a comprare un cammello: l'acquisto richiedeva il consenso del venditore. Maometto non criticò mai questa concezione del matrimonio. Sarebbe stato molto conveniente per lui percepire i suoi matrimoni, incluso quello con Khadijah, puramente come un contratto tra marito e moglie. Eppure non c'è nessuna evidenza che lui volle mai cambiare queste cose, anche dopo che si dichiarò come l'ultimo profeta che era saggio per tutti i tempi ed aveva autorità di cambiare tutte le regole. Alla fine della sua vita, fu specifico per quanto riguardava avere i requisiti legali per contrattare con un guardiano;<ref>E.g., see Bewley/Saad 8:63, 65; {{Tabari|39|pp. 178-179}}; Bewley/Saad 8:105.</ref> lui non si oppose mai al fatto che la donna appartenesse all'uomo.
Questa storia rivela anche che Khadijah e Maometto capivano il consenso. Non c'era bisogno che fosse "libero" o "informato"; ogni tipo di consenso era legalmente vincolante. Questo tema ricorrerà altre volte nella vita di Maometto. Avrebbe successivamente estratto il consenso con la spada,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 547.</ref> in difficoltà,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 314-315. Bewley/Saad 8:87-88.</ref>  da una mente immatura,<ref>E.g., Bewley/Saad 8:43.</ref> non rilevando informazioni essenziali,<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 463-464. {{Tabari|39|p. 165}}.</ref> offrendo una falsa dicotomia tra due cattive alternative,<ref>Bewley/Saad 8:40. Guillaume/Ishaq 493.</ref> sfruttando credi spirituali,<ref>[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=33&tAyahNo=36&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0/ Jalalayn, ''Tafsir'' Q33:36]. See also {{Quran|33|36}}. {{Bukhari|3|43|648}}, {{Muslim|4|3511}}.</ref> attraverso la corruzione<ref>Guillaume/Ishaq 438; 594-597.</ref> o facendo promesse che sapeva che avrebbe spezzato.<ref>E.g., Guillaume/Ishaq 504, 509. Bewley/Saad 8:181-182.</ref> Eppure non disse mai che ci fosse un problema etico nell'estrarre il consenso in qualsiasi modo potesse funzionare; era chi acconsentiva con Maometto, che era obbligato, in ogni modo, a rispettare la sua parola.   
==Marriage to Muhammad==
==Marriage to Muhammad==


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