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 </ref>{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. <i>Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 82-83).</i> Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|The way that the Qur’an describes hell in particularly vivid, gruesome terms brings us back to something we mentioned in Chapter 1, namely, that the Qur’an in many ways is a “homiletic” work, a work written like a homily or sermon. The Qur’an’s intention is not simply to declare that those who disobey God will be punished, but to describe that punishment in a way which brings the awfulness of hell to life. Similarly, homilists in the early centuries of Christianity expanded dramatically on the New Testament allusions to hell. In a sermon attributed to John Chrysostom (d. 407) we read a description of hell with the sort of detail that we find in the Qur’an: It is a sea of fire—not a sea of the kind or dimensions we know here, but much larger and fiercer, with waves made of fire, fire of a strange and fearsome kind. There is a great abyss there, in fact, of terrible flames, and one can see fire rushing about on all sides like some wild animal…. There will be no one who can resist, no one who can escape: Christ’s gentle, peaceful face will be nowhere to be seen.<sup>15</sup>}}
-== The term sakīnah ==
-The term sakīnah is a Rabbinic rather than a biblical one<ref>Bible Hub - [https://biblehub.com/topical/s/shekinah.htm Shekinah]
-</ref> describing the physical manifestation of God on Earth.<ref name=":1">Durie, Mark. ''The Qur'an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.177-178.'' Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018</ref>
-This Hebrew/Aramaic term appears as a Qur'anic noun six times. Most Qur’anic references to ''sakīnah'' describe God giving believers tranquility and reassurance in times of opposition.<ref name=":1" /> One exception is Q2:247–48, where the ark is called a “sakīnah from your Lord,” echoing Jewish or Christian ideas of God’s ''shekīnah'' presence linked to the Ark of the Covenant, however, the Qur’an itself does not associate ''sakīnah'' with divine presence.<ref name=":1" /> Instead, the term, which resembles the Hebrew/Aramiac word phonologically, was absorbed into Arabic and generally means “tranquility” or “reassurance”, so not semantically. In this sense, ''sakīnah'' in Q2:248 may be a linguistic fossil—borrowed from earlier traditions but reinterpreted with a new, purely Arabic meaning,<ref name=":1" /> i.e.
-however it undergoes a process of matching phonologically, but not semantic matching as the Arabic root used in the term has a different meaning s-k-n (“rest, repose, stillness”), (Dure cite) denoting a divinely granted calm or fortification, often in situations of fear or external threat.<ref name=":1" />
-the same root in Arabic has a new meaning
-In five occurrences (Q 9:26, 9:40, 48:4, 48:18, 48:26), God “sends down” sakīnah into believers’ hearts, strengthening their faith. A related concept appears in Q 3:154 and 8:11, where God sends down “security.” The sixth occurrence (Q 2:248) associates sakīnah with the Israelite ark, providing reassurance of Saul’s legitimacy as king. Etymologically, sakīnah derives from rabbinic Hebrew/Aramaic shekinah (“God’s dwelling/presence”), but the Qur’an reshapes its meaning. Unlike the Jewish sense of God’s tangible presence in a place, the Qur’anic sakīnah emphasizes inner reassurance and divine support, integrating it into a theology of God fortifying believers’ hearts rather than manifesting in sacred locations. (Sinai summary pp390-391)
-Sinai sums up
-{{Quote|<i>sakīnah {{!}} composure, tranquillity</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 391). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|..Etymologically, the word is descended from rabbinic Hebrew shәkinah or its Aramaic equivalent (WMJA 53–55; NB 24–25; JPND 208–209; CQ 21; FVQ 174; Stewart 2021, 42–54), which in targumic and rabbinic texts designate God’s “dwelling” or “presence” in the world and can on occasion appear as a downright hypostasis of the deity (see DTTM 1573 and DJBA 1145 as well as the overview in Unterman et al. 2007). The Qur’anic use of sakīnah, a word that was presumably adopted from the language of the Medinan Jews, is an evident case in which the semantics of a loanword underwent far-reaching adjustment in accordance with the meaning of its Arabic root s-k-n, conveying rest and calmness. As a result, the Qur’anic sakīnah, though explicitly identified as being God’s, has a distinctly psychological slant and does not convey the presence of God at a particular place, as does the rabbinic concept (Durie 2018, 178–179). One may surmise that the Jews of Medina employed the word sakīnah to describe God’s presence in the ark of the covenant (Q 2:248). This would be in line with God’s statement in Exod 25:8 that he will “dwell” in the Israelites’ sanctuary, which the Targum Onqelos renders, “And I shall cause my presence (shkinti) to dwell among them.” The Qur’an, by contrast, integrates the term into the theme of God’s reassuring impact on the believers’ hearts, into which the sakīnah is sent down according to Q 48:4 (see AHW 67 and under → qalb). Thus, while the concept’s original doctrinal context was a theology of God’s presence at particular places and times (see Durie 2018, 179), in its Qur’anic reception it is absorbed into what one might call the Islamic scripture’s theology of divine fortification: the prime arena in which God can be experienced as present, above and beyond his universal role as the world’s creator and sustainer (→ khalaqa), is the human heart.}}
 == The term sakīnah ==
 The term sakīnah is a Rabbinic rather than a biblical one<ref>Bible Hub - [https://biblehub.com/topical/s/shekinah.htm Shekinah]</ref> describing the physical manifestation of God on Earth.<ref name=":12">Durie, Mark. ''The Qur'an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. pp.177-178.'' Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018</ref>
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 Sinai (2023) sums up:{{Quote|<i>sakīnah {{!}} composure, tranquillity</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 391). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|..Etymologically, the word is descended from rabbinic Hebrew shәkinah or its Aramaic equivalent (WMJA 53–55; NB 24–25; JPND 208–209; CQ 21; FVQ 174; Stewart 2021, 42–54), which in targumic and rabbinic texts designate God’s “dwelling” or “presence” in the world and can on occasion appear as a downright hypostasis of the deity (see DTTM 1573 and DJBA 1145 as well as the overview in Unterman et al. 2007). The Qur’anic use of sakīnah, a word that was presumably adopted from the language of the Medinan Jews, is an evident case in which the semantics of a loanword underwent far-reaching adjustment in accordance with the meaning of its Arabic root s-k-n, conveying rest and calmness. As a result, the Qur’anic sakīnah, though explicitly identified as being God’s, has a distinctly psychological slant and does not convey the presence of God at a particular place, as does the rabbinic concept (Durie 2018, 178–179). One may surmise that the Jews of Medina employed the word sakīnah to describe God’s presence in the ark of the covenant (Q 2:248). This would be in line with God’s statement in Exod 25:8 that he will “dwell” in the Israelites’ sanctuary, which the Targum Onqelos renders, “And I shall cause my presence (shkinti) to dwell among them.” The Qur’an, by contrast, integrates the term into the theme of God’s reassuring impact on the believers’ hearts, into which the sakīnah is sent down according to Q 48:4 (see AHW 67 and under → qalb). Thus, while the concept’s original doctrinal context was a theology of God’s presence at particular places and times (see Durie 2018, 179), in its Qur’anic reception it is absorbed into what one might call the Islamic scripture’s theology of divine fortification: the prime arena in which God can be experienced as present, above and beyond his universal role as the world’s creator and sustainer (→ khalaqa), is the human heart.}}
-== THe term khalāq ==
+== The term khalāq ==
-{{Quote|1=<i>khalāq {{!}} share</i> Sinai, Nicolai. Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 281-282). Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.|2=Further vocabulary discussed: ummī {{!}} scriptureless, not hitherto endowed with a scriptural revelation    baraʾa tr. {{!}} to create (s.th.)    al-ākhirah {{!}} what is final or last, the final state of things, the hereafter Q 2:102.200 and 3:77 threaten various kinds of people with having “no share in the hereafter” (mā lahu fī l-ākhirati min khalāqin or lā khalāqa lahum fī l-ākhirati). The noun khalāq also occurs, in the general sense of “portion, share,” in Q 9:69, where it refers to people’s “share” of goods in the present life. Khalāq may reasonably be suspected of being a loanword, given that it stands apart from the otherwise prevalent semantics of the Arabic root kh-l-q to do with creation (thus in the Qur’an; see under → khalaqa) or, outside the Qur’an, with smoothness or with being old and worn out (AEL 800). Moreover, the word’s morphological pattern faʿāl is usually associated with verbal nouns (e.g., fasād, dhahāb) and adjectives (e.g., jawād, jabān). What might be the word’s ancestor, then? Syriac ḥelqā means one’s allotted fate (FVQ 124–125; SD 460) and does not appear to be used in an eschatological context. Instead, at least at Q 2:102.200 and 3:77 the Qur’an’s diction is convincingly linked with a rabbinic turn of phrase (BEḲ 87; Hirschfeld 1902, 114; JPND 198–199; FVQ 124–125; BEQ 459). The latter is exemplified, for instance, by a Mishnaic declaration that all of Israel have “a share (ḥēleq) in the world to come (la-ʿolam ha-ba),” followed by a catalogue of various groups of sinners said to have “no share in the world to come” (m. Sanh. 10). The expression “a share in the world to come” (ḥēleq la-ʿolam ha-ba) has two more occurrences in the Mishnah (m. Abot 3:11 and m. Sanh. 6:2) as well as a great number of further attestations in the Tosefta (e.g., t. Sanh. 9:5), the two Talmuds (e.g., b. B. Mәṣ. 59a), and Genesis Rabbah (e.g., Gen. Rab. 1:5). Hence, Q 2:102.200 and 3:77, while certainly reflecting rabbinic rabbinic diction, are unlikely to be a targeted allusion specifically to m. Sanh. 10. The claim that the three verses at hand echo a rabbinic turn of phrase is strengthened by the Medinan provenance of all Qur’anic occurrences of khalāq. To be sure, one may query why Hebrew ḥēleq should become Arabic khalāq. As regards the long ā vowel, Horovitz notes that the Hebrew word corresponds to Jewish Aramaic ḥulaqa (DJPA 191; DJBA 439), which is morphologically closer to the Arabic form (JPND 198–199). Like Hebrew ḥēleq, Aramaic ḥulaqa is employed to refer to an individual’s share in this world and in the next in the so-called Second Targum on the book of Esther (ḥulaqa b-ʿalma haden wa-b-ʿalma d-ate; Grossfeld 1994, 42 = Esther 2:7; Ego 1996, 88; the passage is pointed out in JPND 198–199). As regards the transition from word-initial ḥ to kh, there is at least some evidence that such a shift was not impossible: Arabic khardal, “mustard” (Q 21:47, 31:16), is descended from Aramaic or Syriac ḥardlā (Fraenkel 1886, 141; Pennachio 2013, 94), and Arabic khamr, “wine” (e.g., Q 2:219, 5:90–91), is generally derived from ḥamrā (Fraenkel 1886, 160–161; FVQ 125–126; Pennachio 2013, 91–92). In sum, it seems safe to posit that the word khalāq was employed, and very likely coined, by Arabophone Jews in order to render a common rabbinic idiom about the prospect of salvation in the world to come.73 Like → ummī, “scriptureless,” or baraʾa, “to create” (→ khalaqa), khalāq would seem to be a case of the Qur’an employing terminology current among the Medinan Jews.}}
+Sinai (2023 notes the Qur’an uses ''khalāq'' (“share, portion”) in verses threatening that some will have “no share in the hereafter” (e.g., Q 2:102, 2:200, 3:77). Unlike the usual Arabic root ''kh-l-q'' (“to create”), ''khalāq'' seems to be a loanword, likely from Hebrew ''ḥēleq'' or Aramaic ''ḥulaqa'', both meaning “share” or “allotted fate.” This phrasing strongly resembles rabbinic expressions about having (or lacking) a “share in the world to come,” widely attested in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, and Midrash. The Qur’an’s diction thus reflects Jewish idiom, likely adopted in a Medinan context, making ''khalāq,'' like ''ummī'' (“scriptureless”) and ''baraʾa'' (“to create”) etc. an example of Jewish Rabbinical terminology integrated into Qur’anic usage.
 ==Parallels in the hadith==