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Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature: Difference between revisions
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{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|82|83}}| 'When we are dead and become dust and bones shall we be resurrected? We and our fathers have been promised this before. It is but of the ancients' fictitious tales.'}} | {{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|82|83}}| 'When we are dead and become dust and bones shall we be resurrected? We and our fathers have been promised this before. It is but of the ancients' fictitious tales.'}} | ||
Others alleged that Muhammad had directly studied what he needed in order to produce the Quran: | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|105}}|And thus do We diversify the verses so the disbelievers will say, "You have studied," and so We may make the Qur'an clear for a people who know.}} | |||
The Qur'an itself records allegations of influence by a non-Arab: | The Qur'an itself records allegations of influence by a non-Arab: | ||
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===Qur'anic Verse=== | ===Qur'anic Verse=== | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|32}}| | {{Quote|{{Quran|5|32}}|Because of that, We decreed upon the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul unless for a soul or for corruption [done] in the land - it is as if he had slain mankind entirely. And whoever saves one - it is as if he had saved mankind entirely.}} | ||
'''The salient points are:''' | '''The salient points are:''' | ||
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#The commentary also appears in the Jerusalem Talmud, [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Sanhedrin/Chapter_4/5 Sanhedrin 4/5], which omits the phrase, ‘of Israel’. There is no evidence that Muhammad had to rely on the Babylonian Talmud and not the Jerusalem Talmud, even though the former is considered more authoritative. Joseph Witztum is even more emphatic that "of Israel" is merely a secondary reading.<ref>Joseph Witztum, ''Syriac Millieu'' footnote on p. 123</ref> | #The commentary also appears in the Jerusalem Talmud, [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mishnah/Seder_Nezikin/Tractate_Sanhedrin/Chapter_4/5 Sanhedrin 4/5], which omits the phrase, ‘of Israel’. There is no evidence that Muhammad had to rely on the Babylonian Talmud and not the Jerusalem Talmud, even though the former is considered more authoritative. Joseph Witztum is even more emphatic that "of Israel" is merely a secondary reading.<ref>Joseph Witztum, ''Syriac Millieu'' footnote on p. 123</ref> | ||
The Qur'an is taking a story from apocryphal literature as scripture, since Sanhedrin 37a is from the "oral" Torah and therefore not part of the original biblical canon. There is no other explanation for the phrase, ‘We decreed / have written’ (katabna) in the verse. It appears the Qur'an considers this apocryphal tradition to be on the same level as the biblical canon. The claim that it is lost because the Torah is corrupted stretches credulity because the parallelism exists in the Talmud, and it is unlikely that something lost from the Torah should find its way almost unchanged into the Talmud as a commentary of a narrative (i.e. a mishnayot). If the Rabbi had in mind a verse in the Torah that has since been lost, he would not have quoted verbatim from Genesis 4:10 ('it is written...'), but then when making his main point not quoted directly this hypothetical lost verse. It is not a law, despite being in the Talmud (Oral Law) but a commentary by a Jewish sage, who explains his reasoning. | The Qur'an is taking a story from apocryphal literature as scripture, since Sanhedrin 37a is from the "oral" Torah (a concept developed by the Pharisees) and therefore not part of the original biblical canon. There is no other explanation for the phrase, ‘We decreed / have written’ (katabna) in the verse. It appears the Qur'an considers this apocryphal tradition to be on the same level as the biblical canon. The claim that it is lost because the Torah is corrupted stretches credulity because the parallelism exists in the Talmud, and it is unlikely that something lost from the Torah should find its way almost unchanged into the Talmud as a commentary of a narrative (i.e. a mishnayot). If the Rabbi had in mind a verse in the Torah that has since been lost, he would not have quoted verbatim from Genesis 4:10 ('it is written...'), but then when making his main point not quoted directly this hypothetical lost verse. It is not a law, despite being in the Talmud (Oral Law) but a commentary by a Jewish sage, who explains his reasoning. | ||
Thus the use of the word "katabna" / decreed / ordain / prescribe / write something was used for a commentary written by a Jewish Rabbi. The conclusion seems to be that the Qur'an sees this tradition as being on the same level as the Bible, or else is not aware that it does not in fact stem from the Bible. | Thus the use of the word "katabna" / decreed / ordain / prescribe / write something was used for a commentary written by a Jewish Rabbi. The conclusion seems to be that the Qur'an sees this tradition as being on the same level as the Bible, or else is not aware that it does not in fact stem from the Bible. | ||
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Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 236-244).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> | Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 236-244).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|125}}|Who has a better religion than him who submits his will to Allah, being virtuous, and follows the creed of Abraham, a Hanif? And Allah took Abraham for a dedicated friend.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|3|67}}|Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian. Rather, he was a Hanif, a Muslim, and he was not one of the polytheists.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|4|125}}|Who has a better religion than him who submits his will to Allah, being virtuous, and follows the creed of Abraham, a Hanif? And Allah took Abraham for a dedicated friend.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|3|67}}|Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian. Rather, he was a Hanif, a Muslim, and he was not one of the polytheists.}} | ||
Kugel (1997) notes that Abraham's great virtue explicitly being the rejection of idolatry and monotheism is found many extra-biblical expansions in late antique literature rather than in the bible itself. | Kugel (1997) notes that Abraham's great virtue explicitly being the rejection of idolatry and monotheism is found in many extra-biblical expansions in late antique literature rather than in the bible itself. | ||
{{Quote|Kugel, James L. <i>The Bible As It Was. Chapter 7: Abraham Journeys from Chaldea (GENESIS 12): Abraham the Monotheist (Kindle Edition. pp. 206-207).</i> Harvard University Press.|He— and not his father, Terah, or his brother, Nahor— was summoned personally to God’s service.. ..Out of this basic insight— arrived at by reading the beginning of chapter 12 of Genesis in the light of Josh. 24: 2– 3— arose an interpretive tradition that held Abraham’s great virtue (never mentioned in Genesis itself, nor even stated explicitly in the Joshua passage) to have been his refusal to worship other gods. They served other gods, but not Abraham. And so Abraham came to be thought of in more general terms as the great opponent of polytheism (the belief in the existence of many gods), in fact, as the person who, in the midst of a nation that worshipped many gods, had become convinced that in truth there is only one God. | {{Quote|Kugel, James L. <i>The Bible As It Was. Chapter 7: Abraham Journeys from Chaldea (GENESIS 12): Abraham the Monotheist (Kindle Edition. pp. 206-207).</i> Harvard University Press.|He— and not his father, Terah, or his brother, Nahor— was summoned personally to God’s service.. ..Out of this basic insight— arrived at by reading the beginning of chapter 12 of Genesis in the light of Josh. 24: 2– 3— arose an interpretive tradition that held Abraham’s great virtue (never mentioned in Genesis itself, nor even stated explicitly in the Joshua passage) to have been his refusal to worship other gods. They served other gods, but not Abraham. And so Abraham came to be thought of in more general terms as the great opponent of polytheism (the belief in the existence of many gods), in fact, as the person who, in the midst of a nation that worshipped many gods, had become convinced that in truth there is only one God. | ||
How far back this line of thinking goes we do not know, but it is certainly present very early. For example, it is found in a part of the book of Judith that some scholars date to the second century B.C.E. (if not earlier).}} | How far back this line of thinking goes we do not know, but it is certainly present very early. For example, it is found in a part of the book of Judith that some scholars date to the second century B.C.E. (if not earlier).}} | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|34|36}}|And [mention] when We said to the angels, "Prostrate before Adam"; so they prostrated, except for Iblees. He refused and was arrogant and became of the disbelievers. And We said, "O Adam, dwell, you and your wife, in Paradise and eat therefrom in [ease and] abundance from wherever you will. But do not approach this tree, lest you be among the wrongdoers." But Satan caused them to slip out of it and removed them from that [condition] in which they had been. And We said, "Go down, [all of you], as enemies to one another, and you will have upon the earth a place of settlement and provision for a time.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|34|36}}|And [mention] when We said to the angels, "Prostrate before Adam"; so they prostrated, except for Iblees. He refused and was arrogant and became of the disbelievers. And We said, "O Adam, dwell, you and your wife, in Paradise and eat therefrom in [ease and] abundance from wherever you will. But do not approach this tree, lest you be among the wrongdoers." But Satan caused them to slip out of it and removed them from that [condition] in which they had been. And We said, "Go down, [all of you], as enemies to one another, and you will have upon the earth a place of settlement and provision for a time.}} | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|28|35}}| Remember when your Lord said to the angels, "I am going to create a man (Adam) from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud. So when I have fashioned him completely and breathed into him (Adam) the soul which I created for him then fall you down prostrating yourselves unto him." | {{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|28|35}}| Remember when your Lord said to the angels, "I am going to create a man (Adam) from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud. So when I have fashioned him completely and breathed into him (Adam) the soul which I created for him then fall you down prostrating yourselves unto him." So the angels prostrated themselves all of them together, except Iblis, he refused to be among the prostrators. Allah said: "O Iblis! What is your reason for not being among the prostrators?" Iblis said: "I am not the one to prostrate myself to a human being, whom You created from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud." Allah said: "Then get out from here for verily you are Rajim (an outcast or cursed one). Verily the curse shall be upon you till Day of Recompense (Day of Resurrection). }} | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|62}}|"Shall I prostrate to one whom You created from clay?" Iblis said: "See? those whom You have honored above me, if You give me respite (keep me alive) to the Day of Resurrection, I will surely seize and mislead his offspring (by sending them astray) all but a few!" }} | {{Quote|{{Quran|17|62}}|"Shall I prostrate to one whom You created from clay?" Iblis said: "See? those whom You have honored above me, if You give me respite (keep me alive) to the Day of Resurrection, I will surely seize and mislead his offspring (by sending them astray) all but a few!" }} | ||
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The Qur'anic story of Satan refusing to worship or prostate before Adam has distinct antecedents in pre-Islamic Jewish and Christian sources including elements that were added in stages over the centuries. It would appear that this post-biblical legend has been extensively incorporated into the Islamic scriptures, without an apparent understanding of its origin. | The Qur'anic story of Satan refusing to worship or prostate before Adam has distinct antecedents in pre-Islamic Jewish and Christian sources including elements that were added in stages over the centuries. It would appear that this post-biblical legend has been extensively incorporated into the Islamic scriptures, without an apparent understanding of its origin. | ||
==The angels could not name animals when Adam was created== | ==The angels could not name animals when Adam was created== | ||
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It is nevertheless unlikely that the myth of Leto was the direct source for sura Maryam. As was aforementioned, the concise version found in the latter has two parts: Mary's labor and delivery, and the miracle. We might therefore suspect that there was a stage when Leto's myth was borrowed and applied to Mary.<ref>Suleiman Mourad, “Mary in the Qur'an″, in ''The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context'', Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, p.169, New York: Routledge, 2007</ref>}} | It is nevertheless unlikely that the myth of Leto was the direct source for sura Maryam. As was aforementioned, the concise version found in the latter has two parts: Mary's labor and delivery, and the miracle. We might therefore suspect that there was a stage when Leto's myth was borrowed and applied to Mary.<ref>Suleiman Mourad, “Mary in the Qur'an″, in ''The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context'', Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, p.169, New York: Routledge, 2007</ref>}} | ||
For further parallels involving the story of Mary, see the [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (Supplement)|Supplement to this article]]. | |||
==Mary and Zechariah== | ==Mary and Zechariah== | ||
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Reynolds remarks on this parallel: "The miracle of Jesus' creating a bird (or birds) from clay, and his bringing it to life with his breath (cf. 5:110) is known from the apocryphal ''Childhood of the Saviour'' (second century AD; commonly, and erroneously, referred to as the Infancy Gospel of Thomas). In the Christian context, the point is to have Jesus create a living being in the way God creates Adam (Gen 2:7)"<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 121</ref> In the Quranic versions, he does so "with Allah's permission". | Reynolds remarks on this parallel: "The miracle of Jesus' creating a bird (or birds) from clay, and his bringing it to life with his breath (cf. 5:110) is known from the apocryphal ''Childhood of the Saviour'' (second century AD; commonly, and erroneously, referred to as the Infancy Gospel of Thomas). In the Christian context, the point is to have Jesus create a living being in the way God creates Adam (Gen 2:7)"<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 121</ref> In the Quranic versions, he does so "with Allah's permission". | ||
''The Childhood of the Saviour'' survives primarily through a few Greek manuscripts, but was also translated at an early time into other languages including Syriac. The following is from a critical edition of the Childhood of the Saviour based on the best manuscripts by Tony Burke, Professor of Early Christianity, York University, Toronto (the opening attribution to the apostle Thomas is | ''The Childhood of the Saviour'' survives primarily through a few Greek manuscripts, but was also translated at an early time into other languages including Syriac. The following is from a critical edition of the Childhood of the Saviour based on the best manuscripts by Tony Burke, Professor of Early Christianity, York University, Toronto (the opening attribution to the apostle Thomas is omitted in his translation because the earliest textual witnesses are anonymous). | ||
{{Quote|Childhood of the Saviour 1:1-5 Critical edition translated by Tony Burke, 2009 [https://www.tonyburke.ca/infancy-gospel-of-thomas/the-childhood-of-the-saviour-infancy-gospel-of-thomas-a-new-translation/ The Childhood of the Saviour (Infancy Gospel of Thomas): A New Translation] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220519110212/https://www.tonyburke.ca/infancy-gospel-of-thomas/the-childhood-of-the-saviour-infancy-gospel-of-thomas-a-new-translation/ archive])|When the boy Jesus was five years old, he was playing at the ford of a rushing stream. And he gathered the disturbed water into pools and made them pure and excellent, commanding them by the character of his word alone and not by means of a deed. Then, taking soft clay from the mud, he formed twelve sparrows. It was the Sabbath when he did these things, and many children were with him. And a certain Jew, seeing the boy Jesus with the other children doing these things, went to his father Joseph and falsely accused the boy Jesus, saying that, on the Sabbath he made clay, which is not lawful, and fashioned twelve sparrows. And Joseph came and rebuked him, saying, “Why are you doing these things on the Sabbath?” But Jesus, clapping his hands, commanded the birds with a shout in front of everyone and said, “Go, take flight, and remember me, living ones.” And the sparrows, taking flight, went away squawking. When the Pharisee saw this he was amazed and reported it to all his friends.}} | {{Quote|Childhood of the Saviour 1:1-5 Critical edition translated by Tony Burke, 2009 [https://www.tonyburke.ca/infancy-gospel-of-thomas/the-childhood-of-the-saviour-infancy-gospel-of-thomas-a-new-translation/ The Childhood of the Saviour (Infancy Gospel of Thomas): A New Translation] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220519110212/https://www.tonyburke.ca/infancy-gospel-of-thomas/the-childhood-of-the-saviour-infancy-gospel-of-thomas-a-new-translation/ archive])|When the boy Jesus was five years old, he was playing at the ford of a rushing stream. And he gathered the disturbed water into pools and made them pure and excellent, commanding them by the character of his word alone and not by means of a deed. Then, taking soft clay from the mud, he formed twelve sparrows. It was the Sabbath when he did these things, and many children were with him. And a certain Jew, seeing the boy Jesus with the other children doing these things, went to his father Joseph and falsely accused the boy Jesus, saying that, on the Sabbath he made clay, which is not lawful, and fashioned twelve sparrows. And Joseph came and rebuked him, saying, “Why are you doing these things on the Sabbath?” But Jesus, clapping his hands, commanded the birds with a shout in front of everyone and said, “Go, take flight, and remember me, living ones.” And the sparrows, taking flight, went away squawking. When the Pharisee saw this he was amazed and reported it to all his friends.}} | ||
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===Muslim Apologetics about the Collyridians=== | ===Muslim Apologetics about the Collyridians=== | ||
Orthodox Muslim scholars tend to explain these verses by | Orthodox Muslim scholars tend to explain these verses by appearing to the heretical Arab Christian sect of the Collyridians, which were described in the 4th century CE and possibly may have survived into Muhammad’s time, so the Quran was specifically addressing their understanding of the Trinity. | ||
Reynolds notes that Epiphanius (d. 403 CE) in his ''Panerion'' refers briefly to a group of women in the Arabian desert who worship Mary as a godess and offer her cakes (in Greek, ''collyrida''; hence they were known as Collyridians).<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 218</ref> | Reynolds notes that Epiphanius (d. 403 CE) in his ''Panerion'' refers briefly to a group of women in the Arabian desert who worship Mary as a godess and offer her cakes (in Greek, ''collyrida''; hence they were known as Collyridians).<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 218</ref> | ||
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===Byzantine theological debates and war propaganda=== | ===Byzantine theological debates and war propaganda=== | ||
Klaus von Stosch proposed at the 2022 conference "Unlocking the Byzantine Qur'an" an explanation for the hitherto unexplained and unusual Quranic phrases regarding Mary and the Christian trinity in Surah 5 al-Ma'idah, which are not found in earlier surahs but make a late appearance here in the Quran. Regarding the | Klaus von Stosch proposed at the 2022 conference "Unlocking the Byzantine Qur'an" an explanation for the hitherto unexplained and unusual Quranic phrases regarding Mary and the Christian trinity in Surah 5 al-Ma'idah, which are not found in earlier surahs but make a late appearance here in the Quran. Regarding the peculiar formulation "They have certainly disbelieved who say, 'Allah is the Messiah, the son of Mary'" (verses 17 and 72), Stosch points out that a hot theological debate in 6th century CE Byzantine Christianity was whether it was correct to not only say Christ is God, but also that God is Christ. | ||
Regarding "They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three" (verse 73), Stosch points out that a liturgy propogated across the empire by the emperor Justinian had introduced the phrase "One of the Holy Trinity" (albeit applied to Jesus, not God) in order to smooth over the differences in the above mentioned debate, and was in use as a creedal formula in Alexandria even during Muhammad's prophetic career. | Regarding "They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three" (verse 73), Stosch points out that a liturgy propogated across the empire by the emperor Justinian had introduced the phrase "One of the Holy Trinity" (albeit applied to Jesus, not God) in order to smooth over the differences in the above mentioned debate, and was in use as a creedal formula in Alexandria even during Muhammad's prophetic career. | ||
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Regarding the argument that he and his mother "both used to eat (earthly) food" (verse 75), some Byzantine theologians had proposed that because Christ was without sin, his body was incorruptible and he had no need for food. Moreover, relics relating to Jesus and Mary had recently been credited as saving Constantinople from a seige by Khosrow in 626 CE and were therefore considered indestructable (surah al Ma'idah dates to 630 CE or after the conquest of Mecca). Another phrase in verse 17 also appears to be a response to this imperial propaganda: "Say, 'Then who could prevent Allah at all if He had intended to destroy Christ, the son of Mary, or his mother or everyone on the earth?'". A letter had been sent throughout the empire by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius blaming Khosrow's defeat on his opposition to Christ and Mary. Stosch argues that "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, worship me and my mother as gods in derogation of Allah'?" (verse 116) is a Quranic critique of what it sees as the Byzantines turning Mary into a Godess of war.<ref>Klaus von Stosch, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flvLH6BkaNo Jesus and Mary in Q5 - An anti-imperial discourse in the Qur'an as a critique of Byzantine misuse of Christology] at the 2022 conference "Unlocking the Byzantine Qur'an"</ref> | Regarding the argument that he and his mother "both used to eat (earthly) food" (verse 75), some Byzantine theologians had proposed that because Christ was without sin, his body was incorruptible and he had no need for food. Moreover, relics relating to Jesus and Mary had recently been credited as saving Constantinople from a seige by Khosrow in 626 CE and were therefore considered indestructable (surah al Ma'idah dates to 630 CE or after the conquest of Mecca). Another phrase in verse 17 also appears to be a response to this imperial propaganda: "Say, 'Then who could prevent Allah at all if He had intended to destroy Christ, the son of Mary, or his mother or everyone on the earth?'". A letter had been sent throughout the empire by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius blaming Khosrow's defeat on his opposition to Christ and Mary. Stosch argues that "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, worship me and my mother as gods in derogation of Allah'?" (verse 116) is a Quranic critique of what it sees as the Byzantines turning Mary into a Godess of war.<ref>Klaus von Stosch, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flvLH6BkaNo Jesus and Mary in Q5 - An anti-imperial discourse in the Qur'an as a critique of Byzantine misuse of Christology] at the 2022 conference "Unlocking the Byzantine Qur'an"</ref> | ||
Given Stosch's insights and looking again at the three Quranic passages quoted above, particularly 5:72-77 where the polemic against the deification of Jesus and (as the author perceives it) of Mary follows seamlessly from condemnation of Allah being "the third of three", perhaps the most likely explanation is that the imperial liturgical formulation about the trinity and the news and propaganda about Mary had become conflated by the time it penetrated Arabia or reached Muhammad's ears, such that he not only thought Mary was now being worshipped as a goddess by Byzantine Christians, but even that she was part of the trinity. | |||
==The Wealth of Korah== | ==The Wealth of Korah== | ||
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===Midrash Account=== | ===Midrash Account=== | ||
Michael Graves has argued in a detailed article on the theology of these passages that the Quran deploys the motif that the mountain was literally raised over the Israelites for its own theological purposes, to destabilize Judeo-Christian concepts of divine election and to emphasise the need for all people to show reverant awareness of Allah. Moreover, he explains why academic scholars understand the idea to have come about from Rabbinic exegesis of a verse in the biblical book of | Michael Graves has argued in a detailed article on the theology of these passages that the Quran deploys the motif that the mountain was literally raised over the Israelites for its own theological purposes, to destabilize Judeo-Christian concepts of divine election and to emphasise the need for all people to show reverant awareness of Allah. Moreover, he explains why academic scholars understand the idea to have come about from Rabbinic exegesis of a verse in the biblical book of Exodus.<ref>Graves, M. W. (2018). [https://www.academia.edu/37906831 The Upraised Mountain and Israel’s Election in the Qur’an and Talmud] Comparative Islamic Studies, 11(2), 141–177. https://doi.org/10.1558/cis.34780</ref> | ||
Graves explains that in [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Exodus#19:17 Exodus 19:17] Moses brings the people out of the camp to meet God, and the people take their place beṯaḥtîṯ hāhār, which is usually taken to mean, “at the foot of the mountain.” | Graves explains that in [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Exodus#19:17 Exodus 19:17] Moses brings the people out of the camp to meet God, and the people take their place beṯaḥtîṯ hāhār, which is usually taken to mean, “at the foot of the mountain.” | ||
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Reynolds notes an additional point regarding {{Quran-range|7|171|174}}: "On the term translated here as 'canopy' (Ar: zulla), Yahuda (284) argues that it means something closer to a jar (inverted)."<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 286<BR />"Yahuda" refers to Abraham Yahuda, "A contribution to Quran and Hadith interpretation" in S. Lowinger and J. Somogyi (eds.) Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume. Budapest: Globus, 1948</ref> If correct, that would suggest an even closer fit to the talmud quote above. | Reynolds notes an additional point regarding {{Quran-range|7|171|174}}: "On the term translated here as 'canopy' (Ar: zulla), Yahuda (284) argues that it means something closer to a jar (inverted)."<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 286<BR />"Yahuda" refers to Abraham Yahuda, "A contribution to Quran and Hadith interpretation" in S. Lowinger and J. Somogyi (eds.) Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume. Budapest: Globus, 1948</ref> If correct, that would suggest an even closer fit to the talmud quote above. | ||
==The body on Solomon's throne== | ==The body on Solomon's throne== | ||
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[...]<BR /> | [...]<BR /> | ||
Solomon kept him with him until he had built the Temple.}} | Solomon kept him with him until he had built the Temple.}} | ||
==The preaching of Noah== | ==The preaching of Noah== | ||
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== Moses and Pharaoh == | == Moses and Pharaoh == | ||
Alongside the biblical account of Moses and | Alongside the biblical account of Moses and Pharaoh, there are some key aspects that match Jewish Rabbinic and Christian non-biblical traditions. Even the place where Moses communicates with God in the story of the burning bush, the word used ''ṭuwan'' in e.g. {{Quran|20|12}} (for the folded land, implying double the holiness)<ref>See; Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 199).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. | ||
Ṭuwā stands for the holy Mount Sinai or Horeb (cf. KU, 124ff.; FVQ, 206ff.; BEQ, 255ff.). The word was long thought to be a rhyming transformation of Aramaic ṭūrā (“the mountain”), but now, based on rabbinic tradition and in agreement with traditional exegetes, Uri Rubin has convincingly interpreted bi-l-wādī l-muqaddasi Ṭuwā to mean “in the doubly hallowed valley” (see Rubin 2014). (The Sinai is in a sense the “folded Holy Land” [ṬWY = “to fold”].) | Ṭuwā stands for the holy Mount Sinai or Horeb (cf. KU, 124ff.; FVQ, 206ff.; BEQ, 255ff.). The word was long thought to be a rhyming transformation of Aramaic ṭūrā (“the mountain”), but now, based on rabbinic tradition and in agreement with traditional exegetes, Uri Rubin has convincingly interpreted bi-l-wādī l-muqaddasi Ṭuwā to mean “in the doubly hallowed valley” (see Rubin 2014). (The Sinai is in a sense the “folded Holy Land” [ṬWY = “to fold”].) | ||
Citing: Rubin, Uri, 2014, ''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan. On the Biblical and Midrashic Background of a Qurʾanic Scene],'' Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73, 73–81.</ref> does not have a parallel in the bible,<ref>''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan: On the biblical and midrashic background of a qurʾānic scene.]'' Rubin 2014. Ibid. pp. 75.</ref> but does in other Judeo-Christian (later) works.<ref>Ibid. pp. 76-78</ref> And the idea of eschatology in Moses's story such as {{Quran|20|15}}, with reward in the afterlife being mentioned, is not contained in the biblical story of Moses | Citing: Rubin, Uri, 2014, ''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan. On the Biblical and Midrashic Background of a Qurʾanic Scene],'' Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73, 73–81.</ref> does not have a parallel in the bible,<ref>''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan: On the biblical and midrashic background of a qurʾānic scene.]'' Rubin 2014. Ibid. pp. 75.</ref> but does in other Judeo-Christian (later) works.<ref>Ibid. pp. 76-78</ref> And the idea of eschatology in Moses's story such as {{Quran|20|15}}, with reward in the afterlife being mentioned, is not contained in the biblical story of Moses. Neuwirth (2024) notes that this moves the biblical story into a late antiquity interpretation.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 199).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> Key details in the stories include: | ||
=== The prophecy of baby Moses === | === The prophecy of baby Moses === | ||
The Quran elaborates on the scene of [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%201%3A8-2%3A10&version=NIV Exodus 1:8-2:10] where the Hebrews in Egyptian bondage are told to kill all male babies to control the growing Israelite population, so Moses's mother places his basket in the Nile to let him escape. Neuwirth (2024), citing Speyer, notes that ''the prophecy to Moses’s mother that an enemy—of Moses as well as of God himself—would take him in reflects a Midrashic interpretation of Exodus Rabba (1:31: “So the daughter of Pharaoh raised the daughter, who was once to take revenge on her father”). The event is explicitly based on a divine intention, namely, to make Moses his chosen one.''<ref>''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect'' Ibid. pp. 201. </ref> | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|20|37|39}}|We have bestowed Our favour on you before this, When We told your mother what We relate: 'Put him in a wooden box and cast it in the river. The river will cast it on the bank. An enemy of Ours, and his, will retrieve it.' We bestowed Our love on you that you may be reared under Our eyes.}} | {{Quote|{{Quran-range|20|37|39}}|We have bestowed Our favour on you before this, When We told your mother what We relate: 'Put him in a wooden box and cast it in the river. The river will cast it on the bank. An enemy of Ours, and his, will retrieve it.' We bestowed Our love on you that you may be reared under Our eyes.}} | ||
And similarly the next verse unlike the bible focuses on the emotional impact of the event on Moses’s mother, Neuwirth notes is comparable to Midrash Exodus Rabba 1:25.<ref>Ibid. pp. 201-202.</ref> Moses's salvation from persecution after manslaughter is commemorated with similar consideration of Moses’s mental condition.<ref>Ibid. pp. 202.</ref> | And similarly the next verse unlike the bible focuses on the emotional impact of the event on Moses’s mother, which Neuwirth notes is comparable to Midrash Exodus Rabba 1:25.<ref>Ibid. pp. 201-202.</ref> Moses's salvation from persecution after manslaughter is commemorated with similar consideration of Moses’s mental condition.<ref>Ibid. pp. 202.</ref> | ||
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|40}}|When your sister walked up [to Pharaoh’s palace] saying, “Shall I show you someone who will take care of him?” Then We restored you to your mother, that she might not grieve and be comforted. Then you slew a soul, whereupon We delivered you from anguish, and We tried you with various ordeals. Then you stayed for several years among the people of Midian. Then you turned up as ordained, O Moses!}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|20|40}}|When your sister walked up [to Pharaoh’s palace] saying, “Shall I show you someone who will take care of him?” Then We restored you to your mother, that she might not grieve and be comforted. Then you slew a soul, whereupon We delivered you from anguish, and We tried you with various ordeals. Then you stayed for several years among the people of Midian. Then you turned up as ordained, O Moses!}} | ||
=== Moses not suckled by Egyptians === | === Moses not suckled by Egyptians === | ||
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Others even added stories on how he might have acquired that deformity, such as Josephus in Jewish Antiquities 2: 232– 236 (published ~93/94 AD), connecting their explanation of Moses’ speech problems to the tradition of Pharaoh’s wise men and their warnings about a boy that might grow up and save Israel.<ref>Ibid. pp. 433 - 434 (Kindle Edition)</ref> | Others even added stories on how he might have acquired that deformity, such as Josephus in Jewish Antiquities 2: 232– 236 (published ~93/94 AD), connecting their explanation of Moses’ speech problems to the tradition of Pharaoh’s wise men and their warnings about a boy that might grow up and save Israel.<ref>Ibid. pp. 433 - 434 (Kindle Edition)</ref> | ||
=== | === Pharaoh's questions === | ||
Neuwirth (2024) comments that the list of further detailed questions to Moses | Neuwirth (2024), citing Speyer, comments that the list of further detailed questions to Moses in {{Quran-range|26|22|29}}) reflect a more detailed episode from Midrash Exodus Rabba 5:18, which likewise starts from Pharaoh’s self-praise as God.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 250).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> | ||
=== The Drowning of Pharaoh === | === The Drowning of Pharaoh === | ||
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::"And the waters returned and covered the chariot etc. [Exo 14:27]. Even Pharaoh, according to the words of R. Judah, as it is said, 'The chariots of Pharaoh and his force, etc.' [Exo 15:4]. R. Nehimiah says: ''Except for Pharaoh.'' About him it says, 'However, for this purpose I have let you live' [Exo 9:16]. Others say that in the end Pharaoh went down and drowned, as it is said, 'Then went the horse of Pharaoh, etc.' [Exo 15:19]. (Beshallah 7)"<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 339</ref> | ::"And the waters returned and covered the chariot etc. [Exo 14:27]. Even Pharaoh, according to the words of R. Judah, as it is said, 'The chariots of Pharaoh and his force, etc.' [Exo 15:4]. R. Nehimiah says: ''Except for Pharaoh.'' About him it says, 'However, for this purpose I have let you live' [Exo 9:16]. Others say that in the end Pharaoh went down and drowned, as it is said, 'Then went the horse of Pharaoh, etc.' [Exo 15:19]. (Beshallah 7)"<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qurʾān and Bible'' p. 339</ref> | ||
For further parallels involving the story of Moses, see the [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (Supplement)|Supplement to this article]]. | |||
==Allah keeps the heavens and the birds from falling== | ==Allah keeps the heavens and the birds from falling== | ||
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{{Quote|{{Quran|67|3}}|He created seven heavens in layers. You do not see any discordance in the creation of the All-beneficent. Look again! Do you see any flaw?}} | {{Quote|{{Quran|67|3}}|He created seven heavens in layers. You do not see any discordance in the creation of the All-beneficent. Look again! Do you see any flaw?}} | ||
The idea of multiple layered heavens above each other, including seven among other numbers, dates back to at least ancient Mesopotamian times.<ref>''Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography.'' Wayne Horowitz. Eisenbrauns. 1998. <nowiki>ISBN 9780931464997</nowiki>. ''Chapter "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths". pp. 208-222.'' Read PDF online for free on internetarchive.org: [https://ia800904.us.archive.org/3/items/HorowitzmesopotamianCosmicGeographyMesopotamianCivilizations/horowitzmesopotamian%20cosmic%20geography%20mesopotamian%20civilizations%20-.pdf ''horowitzmesopotamian cosmic geography mesopotamian civilizations -.pdf'']</ref> The seven skies/heavens however, are not mentioned in the bible, though a 'third' heaven is specifically mentioned in the new Testament with [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Corinthians%2012%3A2&version=NIV Corinthians 12:2]. Reynolds (2018) notes that the cosmology of seven heavens specifically however is found in both Jewish Talmudic and apocrypha texts (e.g., BT, Ḥagīgā, 12b) and Christian traditions (e.g. church fathers, Irenaeus (Proof of the Apostolic Preaching 9); in the Ascension of Isaiah, a composite text extant in Ethiopic with Jewish origins but redacted by Christians, Isaiah travels to the seventh heaven.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''The Qur'an and the Bible: Text and Commentary. pp. 843.'' Yale University Press, 2018. </ref> Other non-biblical Judeo-Christian works range in the number of heavens, including three (family α of Testament of Levi), five (3 Baruch), and seven (long and shorter recensions of 2 Enoch).<ref>Stephen Wunrow. 2022. Biblical Research. ''[https://www.academia.edu/90568147/Paul_among_the_Travelers_into_Heaven_2_Corinthians_12_1_4_and_Other_Early_Jewish_and_Christian_Ascent_Texts Paul among the Travelers into Heaven: 2 Corinthians 12:1–4 and Other Early Jewish and Christian Ascent Texts.] pp.39-41.'' </ref> | The idea of multiple layered heavens above each other, including seven among other numbers, dates back to at least ancient Mesopotamian times.<ref>''Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography.'' Wayne Horowitz. Eisenbrauns. 1998. <nowiki>ISBN 9780931464997</nowiki>. ''Chapter "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths". pp. 208-222.'' Read PDF online for free on internetarchive.org: [https://ia800904.us.archive.org/3/items/HorowitzmesopotamianCosmicGeographyMesopotamianCivilizations/horowitzmesopotamian%20cosmic%20geography%20mesopotamian%20civilizations%20-.pdf ''horowitzmesopotamian cosmic geography mesopotamian civilizations -.pdf'']</ref> The seven skies/heavens however, are not mentioned in the bible, though a 'third' heaven is specifically mentioned in the new Testament with [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Corinthians%2012%3A2&version=NIV Corinthians 12:2]. Reynolds (2018) notes that the cosmology of seven heavens specifically however is found in both Jewish Talmudic and apocrypha texts (e.g., BT, Ḥagīgā, 12b) and Christian traditions (e.g. church fathers, Irenaeus (Proof of the Apostolic Preaching 9); in the Ascension of Isaiah, a composite text extant in Ethiopic with Jewish origins but redacted by Christians, Isaiah travels to the seventh heaven.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''The Qur'an and the Bible: Text and Commentary. pp. 843.'' Yale University Press, 2018. </ref> Other non-biblical Judeo-Christian works range in the number of heavens, including three (family α of Testament of Levi), five (3 Baruch), and seven (long and shorter recensions of 2 Enoch).<ref>Stephen Wunrow. 2022. Biblical Research. ''[https://www.academia.edu/90568147/Paul_among_the_Travelers_into_Heaven_2_Corinthians_12_1_4_and_Other_Early_Jewish_and_Christian_Ascent_Texts Paul among the Travelers into Heaven: 2 Corinthians 12:1–4 and Other Early Jewish and Christian Ascent Texts.] pp.39-41.'' </ref> | ||
== Different Ranks of Believers in Paradise == | |||
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|21}}|See, how We have exalted some above others in this world, and in the Life to Come they will have higher ranks and greater degrees of excellence over others.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|8|4}}|It is they who are truly the faithful. They shall have ranks near their Lord, forgiveness and a noble provision.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|46|19}}|Of these all have ranks according to their deeds so that Allah may fully recompense them for their deeds. They shall not be wronged.}}Just like people on earth are not equal, with many having different ranks ''<nowiki/>'darajāt'''<ref>''darajah'' - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0869.pdf Lanes Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary p.869] | |||
Lane's Lexicon Quranic Research - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/08_d/044_drj.html ''root درج'']</ref> (e.g. men are a rank above women {{Quran|2|228}}, some messengers are ranked higher than others {{Quran|2|253}}, and people generally {{Quran|6|165}}),<ref>See uses of the word for ranks/degrees applied to people in the Qur'an on the noun section of [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=drj Qur'an Corpus root ''dāl rā jīm'' (د ر ج) page]</ref> those in the afterlife among the believers similarly have different ranks/degrees.<ref>''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p.283-289).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Sinai (2023) notes verses such as {{Quran|8|2-4}}, {{Quran|20|75}}, {{Quran|4|95–96}}, {{Quran|9|20}} and {{Quran|58|11}} suggest that degrees of belief, action, and knowledge appear lead to these differences in eschatological rewards''.''<ref>Ibid pp. 288. | |||
''As one would expect, those who believe and do righteous deeds will have “the highest ranks” (Q 20:75: fa-ulāʾika lahumu l-darajātu l-ʿulā). But there also seem to be differences of rank among the believers themselves. For instance, God “favours in rank” (faḍḍala … darajatan) those who “contend (→ jāhada) by means of their possessions and their lives” over those who remain sitting at home (Q 4:95–96; cf. also 9:20), and according to Q 57:10, those who have “spent and contended before the decisive success (al-fatḥ)”—meaning probably before the conquest of Mecca<sup>10</sup>—are “greater in rank” than those who only did so afterwards. It follows that disparities of merit among believers must correspond to different levels of eschatological reward.''</ref> This idea is further confirmed in hadith, such as {{Bukhari|9|93|519}} and Qur'anic commentaries.<ref>E.g. commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/46.19 Q46:19], [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/8.4 Q8:4], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/17.21 Q17:21] or any other verse listed in this section.</ref> | |||
He notes a parallel that paradise comprises different ranks/orders is found in Ephrem's Hymns of Paradise (e.g. 2:10-13), and the vocabulary he employs in this context includes the Syriac word ''dargā'', a cognate of the Arabic ''darajah'' used in the Qur'an.<ref name=":02">''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 289)''. Kindle Edition. | |||
These hymns can be read: [https://ia803106.us.archive.org/4/items/syrarch334903/St.%20Ephrem%20the%20Syrian%20-%20Hymns%20on%20Paradise%20%28Sebastian%20Brock%29.pdf ''SAINT EPHREM HYMNS ON PARADISE''] Introduction and translation by Sebastian Brock. St Vladmimir's Seminary Press, Crestwoof, New York, 1990. E.g. Hymn 2 on pp. 84-89 (p.82-87/239 of the PDF)</ref> And that both the present world and the hereafter are portrayed as hierarchical, with earthly dualities (e.g., day/night, male/female) foreshadowing ultimate salvation or damnation - and that this way of thinking (worldly structures anticipate the stratified reality of the afterlife) parallels other traditions, such as Ephrem’s view of paradise as prefigured in sacred history (e.g., on Noah’s ark).<ref name=":02" /> | |||
== Late antique Christian Martyrdom == | == Late antique Christian Martyrdom == | ||
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Sinai (2017) similarly notes strong ideological parallels a 6th century hagiographical text (the Panegyric on Macarius, Bishop of Tkow by Pseudo-Dioscorus of Alexandria) of a 5th-century martyr, Egyptian Bishop Macarius of Tkow who was martyred for opposing the council of Chalcedon. Citing Michael Gaddis's summary of the document, ‘He was both willing to die for his faith, and willing to kill for it.’ he notes the same idea in {{Quran|9|111}} … they fight in the way of Allah, kill, and are killed.. <ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 299).</ref> As well as citing English historian of the Byzantine Empire James Howard-Johnston "''..James Howard-Johnston draws attention to a passage in the Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (d. 818), which reports that at about the same time when the Qur’an promised those ‘killed in the path of God’ immediate entry to paradise, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius similarly announced that those fighting the Sasanians would be recompensed with eternal life. In Heraclius’s address as reported by Theophanes Confessor, we find some of the same general ingredients that are noticeable in Qur’anic calls to militancy…''"<ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 301).</ref> He notes these similarities are likely caused by being on the fringes of the Roman empire.<ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 301).</ref> | Sinai (2017) similarly notes strong ideological parallels a 6th century hagiographical text (the Panegyric on Macarius, Bishop of Tkow by Pseudo-Dioscorus of Alexandria) of a 5th-century martyr, Egyptian Bishop Macarius of Tkow who was martyred for opposing the council of Chalcedon. Citing Michael Gaddis's summary of the document, ‘He was both willing to die for his faith, and willing to kill for it.’ he notes the same idea in {{Quran|9|111}} … they fight in the way of Allah, kill, and are killed.. <ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 299).</ref> As well as citing English historian of the Byzantine Empire James Howard-Johnston "''..James Howard-Johnston draws attention to a passage in the Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (d. 818), which reports that at about the same time when the Qur’an promised those ‘killed in the path of God’ immediate entry to paradise, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius similarly announced that those fighting the Sasanians would be recompensed with eternal life. In Heraclius’s address as reported by Theophanes Confessor, we find some of the same general ingredients that are noticeable in Qur’anic calls to militancy…''"<ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 301).</ref> He notes these similarities are likely caused by being on the fringes of the Roman empire.<ref>Ibid. (Kindle Edition. pp. 301).</ref> | ||
Neuwirth (2024) also notes the | Neuwirth (2024) also notes that the "request for forgiveness of sins before a violent death is a topos of Christian martyr stories." She points to this topos in the sudden conversion and prayers/asking for forgiveness to God by Pharaoh's magicians, who are originally opponents of Moses until he shows them proof of his prophethood via a miracle, and are consequently threatened with a sudden and violent death by the arrogant ruler (e.g. in {{Quran-range|26|50|51}} and {{Quran-range|20|71|73}}).<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 204).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> | ||
Both Jewish and Christian traditions present individual “anti-Moses” sorcerers named Jannes and Jambres, who continue to appear in later interpretations; citing Nora Schmid, she notes that, although there is no explicit textual reference and the magicians are typically depicted in a negative light, they came to be associated with penance and martyrdom in Christian tradition - in the Qurʾan, this idea is developed further: the forgiveness that Jannes and Jambres either did not receive or only partially received in earlier sources is ultimately granted.<ref>Ibid. pp. 251-252</ref> | |||
== Expansions on the afterlife == | |||
Reynolds (2020) notes the Qur’ans provides vivid depictions of hell are highly unlike the New Testament, where Jesus refers to afterlife punishment mostly allusively. The closest the Gospels describe hell is through the few images of “fire,” “wailing,” and “gnashing of teeth.”, for example in Matthew’s Parable of the Weeds, Jesus explains that at the end of the age, the Son of Man will send his angels that will cast evildoers into a fiery furnace where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matt 13:40–42).<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 81-82).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> He notes the much more constant an vivid Qur'anic descriptions far better match later Christian works that expanded the descriptions to be more gruesome, in order to scare the reader/audience.<ref>Ibid. pp. 88. | |||
''We might note how all of these traditions are meant to make humans yearn for paradise and fear hell. The Qur’an, from this regard, is a profoundly psychological work. Like a Christian preacher, like John Chrysostom or Saint Ephrem, the author of the Qur’an speaks of heaven and hell to persuade his audience to repent and believe. He does so in a way, however, that is distinct—emphasizing physical pain and physical pleasure in order, apparently, to make a greater impression on his audience. He puts a terrible tree into hell and young women in paradise.'' | |||
</ref>{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. <i>Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 82-83).</i> Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|The way that the Qur’an describes hell in particularly vivid, gruesome terms brings us back to something we mentioned in Chapter 1, namely, that the Qur’an in many ways is a “homiletic” work, a work written like a homily or sermon. The Qur’an’s intention is not simply to declare that those who disobey God will be punished, but to describe that punishment in a way which brings the awfulness of hell to life. Similarly, homilists in the early centuries of Christianity expanded dramatically on the New Testament allusions to hell. In a sermon attributed to John Chrysostom (d. 407) we read a description of hell with the sort of detail that we find in the Qur’an: It is a sea of fire—not a sea of the kind or dimensions we know here, but much larger and fiercer, with waves made of fire, fire of a strange and fearsome kind. There is a great abyss there, in fact, of terrible flames, and one can see fire rushing about on all sides like some wild animal…. There will be no one who can resist, no one who can escape: Christ’s gentle, peaceful face will be nowhere to be seen.<sup>15</sup>}}Sinai (2017) in his paper titled "''The Eschatological Kerygma of the Early Qur’an''" notes many overlap with Syriac Homilies on the afterlife as well as other apocalyptic ideas and terminology.<ref>“[https://almuslih.org/wp-content/uploads/Library/Sinai,%20N%20-%20The%20Eschatological%20Kerygma.pdf The Eschatological Kerygma of the Early Qur’an]”, Nicolai Sinai, in ''Apocalypticism and Eschatology in Late Antiquity: Encounters in the Abrahamic Religions, 6th–8th Centuries'', edited by Hagit Amirav, Emmanouela Grypeou, and Guy Stroumsa, Leuven: Peeters, 2017, 219–266. | |||
These are discussed throughout the whole paper, and a summary can be found in pp.50-57. On heaven and hell specifically, the summary is on pp.55-57.</ref> | |||
== Supplementary parallels == | |||
For additional parallels, beyond what can be accommodated in this article, see [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (Supplement)]]. | |||
== Parallels in the hadith == | == Parallels in the hadith == | ||
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==See Also== | ==See Also== | ||
* [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (Supplement)]] | |||
* [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam]] | * [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam]] | ||