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Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature (view source)

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Removed superfluous/weakly evidenced paras re 16:103 in the intro and merged repetitive ones in the last intro section. Removed Baby Moses section as none of the things mentioned are actually in Exodus Rabbah, which is any case a late source from 11th century which we have avoided using elsewhere (also deleted Questions to Moses for that reason).
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(Removed superfluous/weakly evidenced paras re 16:103 in the intro and merged repetitive ones in the last intro section. Removed Baby Moses section as none of the things mentioned are actually in Exodus Rabbah, which is any case a late source from 11th century which we have avoided using elsewhere (also deleted Questions to Moses for that reason).)
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{{Quote|{{Muslim|1|301}}|
Khadija then took him to Waraqa b. Naufal b. Asad b. 'Abd al-'Uzza, and he was the son of Khadija's uncle, i. e., the brother of her father. And he was the man who had embraced Christianity in the Days of Ignorance (i. e. before Islam) and he used to write books in Arabic and, therefore, wrote Injil in Arabic as God willed that he should write. He was very old and had become blind Khadija said to him: O uncle! listen to the son of your brother.}}
Khadija then took him to Waraqa b. Naufal b. Asad b. 'Abd al-'Uzza, and he was the son of Khadija's uncle, i. e., the brother of her father. And he was the man who had embraced Christianity in the Days of Ignorance (i. e. before Islam) and he used to write books in Arabic and, therefore, wrote Injil in Arabic as God willed that he should write. He was very old and had become blind Khadija said to him: O uncle! listen to the son of your brother.}}
Regardless who this foreigner who taught Muhammad was, it is clear that this highly specific charge was leveled against the Qur'an, and the aforementioned verse is intended to answer this very specific objection. That this foreigner existed is real: the Qur'an itself alluded to him by saying, ‘the tongue of him at whom they hint is a non-Arab’. Again, this strongly indicates that there was in fact such a foreigner who may have influenced the "clear Arabic tongue" of the Qur'an.
That this foreigner is alleged to have taught Muhammad Judeo-Christian tales is alluded to when one follows the apologetic against this complaint in Surah 16. What follows {{Quran|16|103}} is a discussion of how Allah revealed the religion of Abraham, the Resurrection, the Everlasting Life, Judgment Day, prohibition of meat of swine and non-halal slaughter, and other practices given to the Jews.
In short, verse {{Quran-range|16|103|104}} is nothing more than the Qur'an's attempt to answer the charge that he learned the Jewish/Christian religion from a foreigner (very possibly Jabr). He was the Muslim who first came up with the excuse that the similarities between the Judeo-Christian religion and the Qur'an are due to the three scriptures sharing the same source, which he named as Allah.


Thus, beyond what seems to have been a general circulation of Judeo-Christian stories (and the Quran attesting the presence of and complaining about the people of the book), there are various individuals from whom Muhammad may have heard these tales, beginning with Zaid bin 'Amr bin Nufail and from Waraqa bin Naufal bin Asad bin 'Abdul 'Uzza, to Jabr and the un-named Christian of {{Bukhari|4|56|814}}.  
Thus, beyond what seems to have been a general circulation of Judeo-Christian stories (and the Quran attesting the presence of and complaining about the people of the book), there are various individuals from whom Muhammad may have heard these tales, beginning with Zaid bin 'Amr bin Nufail and from Waraqa bin Naufal bin Asad bin 'Abdul 'Uzza, to Jabr and the un-named Christian of {{Bukhari|4|56|814}}.  
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This argument ignores the Qur'an itself. which claims the charges were that Muhammad heard what was recited to him {{Quran-range|25|4|6}} or that he learned them from a foreigner {{Quran-range|16|103|104}}. Thus, the existence or otherwise of Arabic translations in Muhammad’s time is an irrelevancy. Moreover, epigraphic and historical evidence from the the time points to an Arabia which was awash in Greek and Syriac literature, and in which knowledge of both the Syriac and Greek alphabets were widespread, and both of these were used to write Arabic along with the Hismaetic and Safaitic scripts.<ref>Ahmad al-Jallad (2020) [https://www.academia.edu/43141064 Chapter 7: The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia - Context for the Qur’an] in Mustafa Shah (ed.), Muhammad Abdel Haleem (ed.), "The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies", Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref>   
This argument ignores the Qur'an itself. which claims the charges were that Muhammad heard what was recited to him {{Quran-range|25|4|6}} or that he learned them from a foreigner {{Quran-range|16|103|104}}. Thus, the existence or otherwise of Arabic translations in Muhammad’s time is an irrelevancy. Moreover, epigraphic and historical evidence from the the time points to an Arabia which was awash in Greek and Syriac literature, and in which knowledge of both the Syriac and Greek alphabets were widespread, and both of these were used to write Arabic along with the Hismaetic and Safaitic scripts.<ref>Ahmad al-Jallad (2020) [https://www.academia.edu/43141064 Chapter 7: The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia - Context for the Qur’an] in Mustafa Shah (ed.), Muhammad Abdel Haleem (ed.), "The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies", Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref>   


'''''2. There was no center of Judaism and/or Christianity in Mecca or the Hijaz in Muhammad’s time.'''''
'''''2. The Jews were in Medinah and the Christians were in Najran and Yemen.'''''  
 
As the Islamic literature itself shows Muhammad was accused of repeating ‘tales of the ancients’ from individual Jews and Christians, some of whom we may know by name, there is no need for Muhammad to learn from centers of Judaism or Christianity. Surah Imran is in large part concerned with people of the book leading the believers astray. However, whether or not there were any Christians proselytizing in Mecca or other localities is irrelevant: all it takes is one Christian individual (as in {{Bukhari|4|56|814}}) for Muhammad to learn from. Moreover, modern scholarship has shown through inscriptions inter alia that the Arabian peninsula at the time of the prophet was thoroughly Christianized.
 
'''''3. There is no evidence that Muhammad borrowed these tales even though there were Jews and Christians in the region.'''''
 
The evidence is laid out on this page and forms a vibrant area of academic study known as source criticism. The charges of borrowing are in the Qur'an and they are easily proven. The evidence is to be found in the hadiths and sirah in addition to the Qur'an. Even according to the Islamic tradition itself, individuals who taught Muhammad the Judeo-Christian tales were named.
 
'''''4. The Jews were in Medinah and the Christians were in Najran and Yemen.'''''  


There is debate among academic scholars as to the extent of Christian presence around Mecca and Medina specifically. Given the limited evidence so far available, and the internal evidence in the Quran that its audience were familiar with the stories therein and the numerous complaints about the people of the book, some academic scholars such as Stephen Shoemaker have posited that these materials first circulated in a location further to the North with a greater Christian presence. On the other hand, specific Jews and Christians do seem to have been present in Mecca, for instance Jabr the Christian slave. Waraqa, Khadijah’s cousin also lived in Mecca, and so did the Hanif Zaid bin ‘Amr.<ref>There is also a woman mentioned by Ibn Sa'd:<BR />  
Modern scholarship has shown through inscriptions inter alia that the Arabian peninsula at the time of the prophet was thoroughly Christianized. There is debate among academic scholars as to the extent of Christian presence around Mecca and Medina specifically. Given the limited evidence so far available, and the internal evidence in the Quran that its audience were familiar with the stories therein and the numerous complaints about the people of the book (for example most of Surah Imran), some academic scholars such as Stephen Shoemaker have posited that these materials first circulated in a location further to the North with a greater Christian presence. On the other hand, specific Jews and Christians do seem to have been present in Mecca, for instance Jabr the Christian slave. Waraqa, Khadijah’s cousin also lived in Mecca, and so did the Hanif Zaid bin ‘Amr.<ref>There is also a woman mentioned by Ibn Sa'd:<BR />  
"..... (Muhammad's father) passed by a woman of the Kath'am (tribe) whose name was Fatimah Bint Murr and who was the prettiest of all women, in the full bloom of her youth and the most pious and had studied the scriptures;..."<BR />
"..... (Muhammad's father) passed by a woman of the Kath'am (tribe) whose name was Fatimah Bint Murr and who was the prettiest of all women, in the full bloom of her youth and the most pious and had studied the scriptures;..."<BR />
Ibn Sa'd's "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir", page 104</ref>
Ibn Sa'd's "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir", page 104</ref>
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It seem to be the case that, in actuality, there were Jews elsewhere outside of Yathrib and surrounding areas of Northern Hijaz. So far, there is limited evidence of a small number of Christians present in Mecca.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/shahanSean/status/1546498794967154695 Twitter.com] thread involving Professor Sean Anthony - 11 July 2022</ref>
It seem to be the case that, in actuality, there were Jews elsewhere outside of Yathrib and surrounding areas of Northern Hijaz. So far, there is limited evidence of a small number of Christians present in Mecca.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/shahanSean/status/1546498794967154695 Twitter.com] thread involving Professor Sean Anthony - 11 July 2022</ref>


'''''5. The Qur'an contains stories absent in the Judeo-Christian scriptures, thus the charge of borrowing is erroneous.'''''  
'''''3. The Qur'an contains stories absent in the Judeo-Christian scriptures, thus the charge of borrowing is erroneous.'''''  


As documented in detail in this article, a great number of non-Biblical stories in the Quran are now known to have antecedents in late antique Jewish and Christian apocrypha and exegesis. This is rather suggestive that all or almost all Quranic examples have such an origin. This conclusion would naturally extend to imply that Biblical stories were similarly circulating in the environment in which the Quranic materials were first composed.
As documented in detail in this article, a great number of non-Biblical stories in the Quran are now known to have antecedents in late antique Jewish and Christian apocrypha and exegesis, and forms a vibrant area of academic study known as source criticism. This is rather suggestive that all or almost all Quranic examples have such an origin. This conclusion would naturally extend to imply that Biblical stories were similarly circulating in the environment in which the Quranic materials were first composed.


==Whoever kills a soul it is as if he has slain mankind==
==Whoever kills a soul it is as if he has slain mankind==
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Citing: Rubin, Uri, 2014, ''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan. On the Biblical and Midrashic Background of a Qurʾanic Scene],'' Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73, 73–81.</ref> does not have a parallel in the bible,<ref>''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan: On the biblical and midrashic background of a qurʾānic scene.]'' Rubin 2014. Ibid. pp. 75.</ref> but does in other Judeo-Christian (later) works.<ref>Ibid. pp. 76-78</ref> And the idea of eschatology in Moses's story such as {{Quran|20|15}}, with reward in the afterlife being mentioned, is not contained in the biblical story of Moses. Neuwirth (2024) notes that this moves the biblical story into a late antiquity interpretation.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 199).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> Key details in the stories include:
Citing: Rubin, Uri, 2014, ''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan. On the Biblical and Midrashic Background of a Qurʾanic Scene],'' Journal of Near Eastern Studies 73, 73–81.</ref> does not have a parallel in the bible,<ref>''[https://urirubin.com/assets/docs/Tuwan.86132451.pdf Moses and the Holy Valley Ṭuwan: On the biblical and midrashic background of a qurʾānic scene.]'' Rubin 2014. Ibid. pp. 75.</ref> but does in other Judeo-Christian (later) works.<ref>Ibid. pp. 76-78</ref> And the idea of eschatology in Moses's story such as {{Quran|20|15}}, with reward in the afterlife being mentioned, is not contained in the biblical story of Moses. Neuwirth (2024) notes that this moves the biblical story into a late antiquity interpretation.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 199).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> Key details in the stories include:


=== The prophecy of baby Moses ===
The Quran elaborates on the scene of [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%201%3A8-2%3A10&version=NIV Exodus 1:8-2:10] where the Hebrews in Egyptian bondage are told to kill all male babies to control the growing Israelite population, so Moses's mother places his basket in the Nile to let him escape. Neuwirth (2024), citing Speyer, notes that ''the prophecy to Moses’s mother that an enemy—of Moses as well as of God himself—would take him in reflects a Midrashic interpretation of Exodus Rabba (1:31: “So the daughter of Pharaoh raised the daughter, who was once to take revenge on her father”). The event is explicitly based on a divine intention, namely, to make Moses his chosen one.''<ref>''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect'' Ibid. pp. 201. </ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|20|37|39}}|We have bestowed Our favour on you before this, When We told your mother what We relate: 'Put him in a wooden box and cast it in the river. The river will cast it on the bank. An enemy of Ours, and his, will retrieve it.' We bestowed Our love on you that you may be reared under Our eyes.}}
And similarly the next verse unlike the bible focuses on the emotional impact of the event on Moses’s mother, which Neuwirth notes is comparable to Midrash Exodus Rabba 1:25.<ref>Ibid. pp. 201-202.</ref> Moses's salvation from persecution after manslaughter is commemorated with similar consideration of Moses’s mental condition.<ref>Ibid. pp. 202.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|40}}|When your sister walked up [to Pharaoh’s palace] saying, “Shall I show you someone who will take care of him?” Then We restored you to your mother, that she might not grieve and be comforted. Then you slew a soul, whereupon We delivered you from anguish, and We tried you with various ordeals. Then you stayed for several years among the people of Midian. Then you turned up as ordained, O Moses!}}
=== Moses not suckled by Egyptians ===
=== Moses not suckled by Egyptians ===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|12|13}}|And We had prevented from him [all] wet nurses before, so she said, "Shall I direct you to a household that will be responsible for him for you while they are to him [for his upbringing] sincere?" So We restored him to his mother that she might be content and not grieve and that she would know that the promise of Allah is true. But most of the people do not know.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|12|13}}|And We had prevented from him [all] wet nurses before, so she said, "Shall I direct you to a household that will be responsible for him for you while they are to him [for his upbringing] sincere?" So We restored him to his mother that she might be content and not grieve and that she would know that the promise of Allah is true. But most of the people do not know.}}
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Others even added stories on how he might have acquired that deformity, such as Josephus in Jewish Antiquities 2: 232– 236 (published ~93/94 AD), connecting their explanation of Moses’ speech problems to the tradition of Pharaoh’s wise men and their warnings about a boy that might grow up and save Israel.<ref>Ibid. pp. 433 - 434 (Kindle Edition)</ref>
Others even added stories on how he might have acquired that deformity, such as Josephus in Jewish Antiquities 2: 232– 236 (published ~93/94 AD), connecting their explanation of Moses’ speech problems to the tradition of Pharaoh’s wise men and their warnings about a boy that might grow up and save Israel.<ref>Ibid. pp. 433 - 434 (Kindle Edition)</ref>
=== Pharaoh's questions ===
Neuwirth (2024), citing Speyer, comments that the list of further detailed questions to Moses in {{Quran-range|26|22|29}}) reflect a more detailed episode from Midrash Exodus Rabba 5:18, which likewise starts from Pharaoh’s self-praise as God.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 250).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>


=== The Drowning of Pharaoh ===
=== The Drowning of Pharaoh ===
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== Different Ranks of Believers in Paradise ==
== Different Ranks of Believers in Paradise ==
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|21}}|See, how We have exalted some above others in this world, and in the Life to Come they will have higher ranks and greater degrees of excellence over others.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|8|4}}|It is they who are truly the faithful. They shall have ranks near their Lord, forgiveness and a noble provision.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|46|19}}|Of these all have ranks according to their deeds so that Allah may fully recompense them for their deeds. They shall not be wronged.}}Just like people on earth are not equal, with many having different ranks ''<nowiki/>'darajāt'''<ref>''darajah'' - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0869.pdf Lanes Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary p.869]
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|21}}|See, how We have exalted some above others in this world, and in the Life to Come they will have higher ranks and greater degrees of excellence over others.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|8|4}}|It is they who are truly the faithful. They shall have ranks near their Lord, forgiveness and a noble provision.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|46|19}}|Of these all have ranks according to their deeds so that Allah may fully recompense them for their deeds. They shall not be wronged.}}Just like people on earth are not equal, with many having different ranks ''<nowiki/>'darajāt'''<ref>''darajah'' - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0869.pdf Lanes Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary p.869]
Lane's Lexicon Quranic Research - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/08_d/044_drj.html ''root درج'']</ref> (e.g. men are a rank above women {{Quran|2|228}}, some messengers are ranked higher than others {{Quran|2|253}}, and people generally {{Quran|6|165}}),<ref>See uses of the word for ranks/degrees applied to people in the Qur'an on the noun section of [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=drj Qur'an Corpus root ''dāl rā jīm'' (د ر ج) page]</ref> those in the afterlife among the believers similarly have different ranks/degrees.<ref>''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p.283-289).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Sinai (2023) notes verses such as {{Quran|8|2-4}}, {{Quran|20|75}}, {{Quran|4|95–96}}, {{Quran|9|20}} and {{Quran|58|11}} suggest that degrees of belief, action, and knowledge appear lead to these differences in eschatological rewards''.''<ref>Ibid pp. 288.</ref> This idea is further confirmed in hadith, such as {{Bukhari|9|93|519}} and Qur'anic commentaries.<ref>E.g. commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/46.19 Q46:19], [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/8.4 Q8:4], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/17.21 Q17:21] or any other verse listed in this section.</ref>
Lane's Lexicon Quranic Research - [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/08_d/044_drj.html ''root درج'']</ref> (e.g. men are a rank above women {{Quran|2|228}}, some messengers are ranked higher than others {{Quran|2|253}}, and people generally {{Quran|6|165}}),<ref>See uses of the word for ranks/degrees applied to people in the Qur'an on the noun section of [https://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=drj Qur'an Corpus root ''dāl rā jīm'' (د ر ج) page]</ref> those in the afterlife among the believers similarly have different ranks/degrees.<ref>''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p.283-289).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Sinai (2023) notes verses such as {{Quran-range|8|2|4}}, {{Quran|20|75}}, {{Quran|4|95–96}}, {{Quran|9|20}} and {{Quran|58|11}} suggest that degrees of belief, action, and knowledge appear to lead to these differences in eschatological rewards''.''<ref>Ibid pp. 288.</ref> This idea is further confirmed in hadith, such as {{Bukhari|9|93|519}} and Qur'anic commentaries.<ref>E.g. commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/46.19 Q46:19], [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/8.4 Q8:4], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/17.21 Q17:21] or any other verse listed in this section.</ref> No such concept of heavenly ranks exists in the New Testament. There is only the vague statement in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew%2016:27&version=NIV Matthew 16:27] (and similar ones in the Pauline epistles and Revelation) that "The Son of Man ... will reward each person according to what they have done."
He notes a parallel that paradise comprises different ranks/orders is found in Ephrem's Hymns of Paradise (e.g. 2:10-13), and the vocabulary he employs in this context includes the Syriac word ''dargā'', a cognate of the Arabic ''darajah'' used in the Qur'an.<ref name=":02">''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 289)''. Kindle Edition.
Sinai notes a parallel that paradise comprises different ranks/orders is found in Ephrem's Hymns of Paradise (e.g. 2:10-13), and the vocabulary he employs in this context includes the Syriac word ''dargā'', a cognate of the Arabic ''darajah'' used in the Qur'an.<ref name=":02">''darajah | rank'' Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (pp. 289)''. Kindle Edition.
These hymns can be read: [https://ia803106.us.archive.org/4/items/syrarch334903/St.%20Ephrem%20the%20Syrian%20-%20Hymns%20on%20Paradise%20%28Sebastian%20Brock%29.pdf ''SAINT EPHREM HYMNS ON PARADISE''] Introduction and translation by Sebastian Brock. St Vladmimir's Seminary Press, Crestwoof, New York, 1990. E.g. Hymn 2 on pp. 84-89 (p.82-87/239 of the PDF)</ref> And that both the present world and the hereafter are portrayed as hierarchical, with earthly dualities (e.g., day/night, male/female) foreshadowing ultimate salvation or damnation - and that this way of thinking (worldly structures anticipate the stratified reality of the afterlife) parallels other traditions, such as Ephrem’s view of paradise as prefigured in sacred history (e.g., on Noah’s ark).<ref name=":02" />
These hymns can be read: [https://ia803106.us.archive.org/4/items/syrarch334903/St.%20Ephrem%20the%20Syrian%20-%20Hymns%20on%20Paradise%20%28Sebastian%20Brock%29.pdf ''SAINT EPHREM HYMNS ON PARADISE''] Introduction and translation by Sebastian Brock. St Vladmimir's Seminary Press, Crestwoof, New York, 1990. E.g. Hymn 2 on pp. 84-89 (p.82-87/239 of the PDF)</ref> And that both the present world and the hereafter are portrayed as hierarchical, with earthly dualities (e.g., day/night, male/female) foreshadowing ultimate salvation or damnation - and that this way of thinking (worldly structures anticipate the stratified reality of the afterlife) parallels other traditions, such as Ephrem’s view of paradise as prefigured in sacred history (e.g., on Noah’s ark).<ref name=":02" />


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